CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

The review of literature will be divided into four parts as follows: the conceptual frame work,

the review of empirical review, theoretical framework, and summary of literature review.

2.1 Conceptual Framework

CYBERCRIME FROM A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

Globalization has led to rapid development all over the world; it has reduced stress and made

activities a lot easier. Despite the advantages brought by globalization, it also paved way for

negativity. Internet use is one of the inventions introduced by globalization. The sole purpose

is to bring the world together and to make gathering of information very easy and fast. The

Internet has created unlimited access for both legitimate and illegitimate transactions. Some

group of people harness the positive use of the internet and use it for deceit. This gave birth

to the phenomenon called cybercrime- it has become a significant area of interest as

perpetrators, victims, and motives vary greatly in cyber-criminal activities. Dashora (2011),

noted that cybercrime has become a challenge in the cyber world. In the same vein,

McCusker (2006) believes cybercrime has become almost an everyday lifestyle; victims

accept their fate after being dwindled by the perpetrator. The perpetrators of cybercrime are

so crafty to the extent that it is difficult to trace them and this is because fake identities are

major and core tools for fraudulent activities. However, this is the reason why citizens

especially in developing countries resign after being duped. Dalal (2006) observes that

information technology is two-sided; it can destroy a strongly built system and in the same

vein constructively strengthen cyber security.

Cybercrime is a global phenomenon; the term cybercrime represents offences capable of

producing psychological and geopolitical concerns perpetuated with the usage of computer
and internet (Suleiman, 2016). Cybercrime is not limited to a country neither is it restricted

by geographical boundaries. It has become a global phenomenon, affecting both developed

and developing countries. Tanebaum (2001) acknowledges the fact that the function of

computer is the same around the globe; the only difference is the brand and model. Computer

technology has been in existence for a very long time. According to McLaughlin (1978),

dating back to the 60s till present day cybercrime is gradually updating as technology

develops. In 1960, cybercrime focused on physical destruction to computer system parts and

stored data. In the mid-1960s, the United States criminal abuse focused on databases and the

related risks to privacy. In 1970s, traditional ways of committing crimes such as manual

stealing was in place. The computer came into place and modernized ways of stealing. In

1980s, the number of computer systems has increased, hence creating more potential targets

for cybercriminals. Yee, (2000) explains that internet access enables cybercriminals

perpetrate crimes through the computer without being present at the crime scene.

In the 1990s, a graphical interface 1World Wide Web (WWW) was introduced, this led to a

tremendous growth in the number of internet users, and this invention also welcomed new

challenges in the cyber world. It means more advanced functions, more perpetrators and more

victims. Another challenge associated with internet access is the investigation of cybercrimes.

Information exchange has greatly affected investigation process, this is because most of the

cybercriminals communicate with themselves, and this helps them keep clear tracks to avoid

being caught. In each preceding decade, there is always a new twist in cybercrime. The

perpetrators always find new means after which their previous scheme has been blown open.

In the 21st century, offenders can automate attacks with new schemes and train up interested

persons which have led to the increase of cybercriminals around the world. Countries around

the world including international organizations have responded greatly to the growing
challenges caused by cybercrime and have given it utmost priority. This action can be subject

to both civil and criminal action depending on the target (Salifu, 2008).

Wall (2007: 45), in his research; Cybercrime: The Transformation of Crime in The

Information Age, opined that the “first generation of cybercrimes consists of traditional

crimes where (stand‐alone) computers are merely a tool; these are ‘low end’ cybercrimes.

The second generation, from the 1970s onwards, consists of crimes facilitated by local or

global computer networks; these are still largely traditional crimes, but they give rise to new

globalized opportunities and jurisdictional problems. The third generation are true crimes

wholly mediated by technology, constituting a ‘step‐change in the transformation of

cybercrime.”

The term cybercrime is interpreted differently if examined from the perspective of the Model

Penal Code. In Africa, cybercrime has been almost widely accepted. In Nigeria, cybercrime is

also known as “2yahoo-yahoo” and the advanced version is “3yahoo plus”. Those involved in

yahoo-yahoo are called “4yahoo boys” (Adeniran 2008). In Ghana, cybercrime is called

“sakawa” and the perpetrators are called “sakawa boys” (See, Oumarou 2007; Boateng et al.,

2011). Chawki, (2009), believes in Africa, internet use is very high in South Africa but

cybercriminals are higher in Nigeria.

The US-based Internet Crime Complaints Centre (IC3) operated by the Federal Bureau of

Investigation (2016) reported that in 2016, internet auction fraud was the most reported

offence case, it comprised of: “44.9 percent of crime complaints, cheque fraud recorded 4.9

percent, credit/debit card fraud 4.8 per cent, computer fraud consists of 2.8 percent, financial

institutions fraud 1.6 per cent, identify theft 1.6 per cent, investment fraud 1.3 per cent and

child pornography 1.0 per cent. From the statistics, it shows that a lot of people suffer lot of

loss from cybercrime.” The 2020 Internet Crime Report from the Internet Crime Complaint
Centre (IC3) reported that identity theft became the third highest complaint at 9.8% in 2010.

From the Internet Crime Report in 2008, it was recorded that Nigeria occupy third position in

fraudulent cyber activities with 5.9% and Ghana, sits among the top ten in fraudulent cyber

activities in the world (Button, 2017).

Crime has become an integral element of every society in the world, and as much as we try to

totally remove crime from our everyday life, it seems almost impossible (Cyber Crime

General, 2007). Advance fee Fraud, is a form of cybercrime that has emerged across the

world and it is believed to have originated from West Africa, particularly in Nigeria

(Grabosky and Smith, 2001). It is a type of Internet fraud that is used to defraud unsuspecting

victims, they convince them to willingly succumb to their request after several tempting

offers to make quick money (Smith and Grabosky 2001; Cukier et al., 2007).

Nigerian youths, especially undergraduates and the unemployed have embraced Information

Communication Technology inventions such as mobile telephone, computers, smart phones

and many more gadgets that have internet access as a medium to carry out some of these

illicit activities. This gave rise to the emergence of yahoo-yahoo among the Nigerian youths,

particularly in the cities. Development of the Internet has granted unlimited access for

cybercriminals to contact potential victims (Newman and Clarke 2013). The innovations in

technology have opened possibilities for creativity and development and deviant career

opportunities (Quinn and Forsyth 2005; Nuth 2008).

Adeniran (2006) observed that the Internet has introduced certain alterations in the behavioral

patterns of Nigerian youths. In the same vein Achebe (1984), in his write up said Nigeria is

one of the most corrupt countries in the world due to political instability and negligence on

the part of the leaders. Mabogunje (1998) said the Nigerian youths are prepared to contribute

to the development of the nation but the governments do not give them appropriate
opportunities. Adeniyi (1999) affirms that youths are the foundation for the growth and

sustenance of the nation; they are the major key agents to effect social change, economic

development and technological innovations. The resultant effects of the gaps mentioned

above is that when a system in the society does not play its role effectively, the other system

suffers for it. The negligence of the government to provide social and welfare support for the

youths led them to the illegal means to make a living.

2 Cybercrime in Nigeria

Cybercrime has been on the agenda of the Nigerian Government for many years.

Investigations – in particular of fraud-related cybercrime – have been carried out in particular

by the Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC). Though the Evidence Act was

amended in 2011 to cater for the admissibility of electronic evidence, the absence of a legal

framework on cybercrime hampered effective criminal justice measures until 2015. In

February 2015, the Government adopted the National Cybersecurity Policy and Strategy

prepared by the Inter-Ministerial Committee coordinated by the Office of the National

Security Adviser. It is based on the understanding that threats to information and

communication technology are threats to Nigeria national security touching the “economic,

political and social fabric of Nigeria.” The most significant threats identified are cybercrime,

cyber-espionage, cyber conflict, cyber-terrorism and child online abuse & exploitation.

The Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention, Etc) Act, 2015 was enacted and entered into force

on 15th May 2015. The purpose of the Act is also to promote cybersecurity and cybercrime

prevention, and it provides for obligations to the private sector – including ISPs,

telecommunication operators and financial institutions – to report and cooperate with law

enforcement authorities and the Nigerian Computer Emergency Response Team (ng-CERT).

It provides for the National Security Adviser to coordinate LEAs and the Attorney General to
oversee and strengthen the legal and institutional framework whilst establishing a Cybercrime

Advisory Council to facilitate effective implementation, capacity-building, multi-stakeholder

engagement and inter-agency/international cooperation. The Nigerian Computer Emergency

Response Team was established in the Office of the National Security Adviser. Its mission is

“To manage the risks of cyber threats in the Nigeria’s cyberspace and effectively coordinate

incident response and mitigation strategies to proactively prevent cyber-attacks against

Nigeria”. The core function of NGCERT are:

l to establish a shared Situation Awareness platform - Coordinate information sharing

at the National Level

l to efficiently manage and coordinate management of incident of national interest

l to support the National Cybersecurity Policy

l to provide technical support and expertise to sectorial CSIRT’s as and when required

l to serve as international Point of contact for all Internet Security Incident in Nigeria.

In March 2016 – in line with Articles 42 and 43 Cybercrimes Act – the Cybercrime Advisory

Council is to be established, comprising representatives of a wide range of ministries and

agencies under the overall coordination of the National Security Adviser. Functions include:

l Creating an enabling environment for sharing of information and experience

l Formulating policy guidelines regarding implementation of provisions of the

Cybercrimes Act 2015

l Advice on preventive and other measures regarding cybercrime and cybersecurity

l Promoting training and education, including research and traineeships.

In 2019 the Data Protection Bill passed the approval of the National Assembly, but it wasn’t

signed by the President. Following the presidential elections though, the proposal had to go

back to the approval of the Parliament and it is currently being revisited to restart the

legislative process.

According to Obono(2008, p.40),cybercrime describes “those criminal acts either

committed in cyberspace, such as various forms of identity theft and bank fraud, or

acts that have a physical component and are simply facilitated by the use of internet-

based tools”. Such acts commonly include distribution of fraudulent e-mails, and

pornography on the internet.

He further notes that cybercrimes are illegal activities perpetrated by one or more

people using the cyberspace through the medium of networked computers, telephones

and other information and communication technology equipment. There is hardly any

crime committed in the world today that does not have cybercrimes undertone,

because of high of dependence on modern technology.

According to Oketola (2009:49) some young people use the web for information on

current issues in health, education, politics, researches, sports, and for personal

development as well as building skills. While others, misuse it for unconstructive

activities. It is perceived by many, that what constitutes young people’s involvement

in cybercrimes largely depends on their low level of moral standards, peer pressure,

corruption, greed, poverty, and get-rich-quick-syndrome, lack of parental guidance and

lack of jobs.

According to Maitanmi (2013) cybercrime is a type of crime committed by criminals who

make use of a computer as a tool and the internet as a connection in order to reach a variety

of objectives such as illegal downloading of music files and films, piracy, spam mailing and
the likes. Similarly, Okeshola (2013) opined that the term cybercrime can be used to describe

any criminal activity which involves the use of computer or the internet network, including

such crimes as fraud, theft, blackmail, forgery, and embezzlement. These two definitions are

very narrow in the sense that it does not give a holistic view about what cybercrime is all

about. As a consequence, the

European Commission as cited in Nigerian Communications Commission (‘n.d’) noted that a

threefold definition for cybercrime is:

1) Traditional forms of crime such as fraud or forgery, though committed over electronic

communication networks and information systems;

2) The publication of illegal content over electronic media (e.g. child sexual abuse material

or incitement to racial hatred); 3) crimes unique to electronic networks, e.g. attacks against

information systems, denial of service and hacking.

Furthermore, the Home Office and the SOCA-led Cyber Threat Reduction Board (TRB) as

cited in House of Common (2013) defined cybercrime by using a three-fold categorization

including:

i. Pure online crimes, where a digital system is the target as well as the means of attack.

These include attacks on computer systems to disrupt IT infrastructure, and stealing data over

a network using malware (the purpose of the data theft is usually to enable further crime);

ii. Existing crimes that have been transformed in scale or form by use of the internet.

The growth of the internet has allowed these crimes to be carried out on an industrial scale;

and

iii. Use of the internet to facilitate drug dealing, people smuggling and many other

‘traditional’ types of crime.

This definition seems more comprehensive because it covers comprehensive aspects that

could be associated with crimes using internet facilities. Based on the above

conceptualizations, cybercrimes in this study is defined as any criminal act relating to the use

of electronic means with the sole aim of gaining financial or other personal benefit at the

detriment of other people.

causes of cybercrime among students in Nigeria

Factors Influencing cybercrime on undergraduate student

It is imperative to look at those factors that contribute to look at students involvement in

cybercrime especially by undergraduate students. Shoemaker (2020) found that the question

of causation is foremost in various research findings throughout history. The review suggests

that there is a striking relationship between one’s exposure to his or her environment and

cybercrime. These factors include but are not limited to the following:

easy access to technology. With the widespread availability of computers and the internet,

students have the means to commit cybercrimes without being detected. This is supported by

a study conducted by Holt and Bossler (2015), which found that students who had easy

access to technology were more likely to engage in cybercrime. Additionally, the anonymity

and accessibility of the internet make it easier for students to engage in illegal activities

without fear of being caught.

Poverty is often cited as a major cause of cyber crime among students. It is a fact that many

students are unable to afford the high cost of education and as a result,

Financial gain is a significant factor that drives students to commit cybercrime. The lure of

quick and easy money can be tempting for those facing financial difficulties.
Peer pressure is a significant factor contributing to cybercrime committed by students.

According to a study conducted by XYZ University, students who feel pressured by their

peers to engage in cybercrime are more likely to do so. This pressure can come in the form of

wanting to fit in with a certain group or feeling like they need to prove themselves to their

peers.

Unemployment is a significant cause of cybercrime committed by undergraduates. With the

rise of technology, the internet has become a platform for committing various types of

cybercrime, including identity theft, hacking, and cyberbullying. Unfortunately, many

unemployed undergraduates have turned to cybercrime as a means of making money, leading

to an increase in the number of cybercrime cases. One of the reasons why unemployed

undergraduates turn to cybercrime is the lack of job opportunities. With a high

unemployment rate, many graduates are unable to secure jobs, leading to frustration and

desperation. As a result, some turn to cybercrime as a way of making money. This is because

cybercrime requires minimal investment and can be done from the comfort of one's home.

Additionally, the anonymity provided by the internet makes it easier for cybercriminals to

evade law enforcement. Another reason why unemployment leads to cybercrime is the lack of

awareness about the consequences of cybercrime. Many undergraduates are not aware of the

seriousness of cybercrime and the legal implications that come with it. This lack of

awareness, coupled with the need for money, leads to a situation where unemployed

undergraduates engage in cybercrime without considering the consequences.

Quest for Wealth is another cause of cybercrime in Nigeria. Youths of nowadays are very

greedy, they are not ready to start small hence they strive to meet up with their rich

counterparts by engaging in criminal activities such as cybercrimes

Consequences of cybercrime on undergraduate students’ academic performances.

The impact of cybercrime amongst students on their academic performance is a concerning

issue. It is a fact that cybercrime has become a prevalent problem in today's society, and

students are not immune to its effects. Unfortunately, cybercrime can have severe

consequences on a student's academic performance, leading to decreased grades and even

dropping out of school (Amalika 2015).

Academic performance refers to a student's level of success in their academic pursuits, such

as their grades and overall academic achievement. It is often measured through standardized

tests, GPA, and other academic assessments Ikedimba (2017).

A study conducted by Adebayo in 2016 on “impact of cybercrime on students of Nigeria

higher institution”; entail that cybercrime has become a major concern among students and

has had a significant impact on their academic performance and he highlights the following;

1. Missing continuous assessment due to poor class attendance

2. Poor concentration due to engaging in internet communication during lectures.

3. Staying more with security agencies to resolves crime issues makes students miss

classes

4. Students who perpetrated cybercrime stay late at night Surfing the internet as opposed

to reading, which lead to low grade.

Cybercrime among undergraduate students can have a negative impact on their academic

performance. Engaging in this activity can lead to physical and mental health problems, as

well as legal issues. Furthermore, it can be a distraction from studying and attending classes.

It is important for students to be aware of the risks associated with cybercrime and take

necessary precautions to protect themselves. While technology has its benefits, it is crucial

that students use it responsibly and maintain a healthy balance between their online and
offline activities. Overall, addressing the issue of cybercrime among students is essential for

ensuring their academic success and well-being (Duruji, 2012).

According to Ikedimba (2017), study on cybercrime and cognitive development of

undergraduate; a case study of identity theft, he proposed that cybercrime committed by

undergraduate students can have a significant impact on their academic performance. Not

only does it cause financial stress and potential legal consequences, but it can also lead to

emotional distress and a lack of focus on their studies. It is deeply concerning that individuals

would resort to such unethical and illegal behavior, especially when it can harm their own

future prospects. It is imperative that universities take strong measures to prevent and address

identity theft among their student populations.

The impact of cybercrime committed by undergraduates on their academic performance is

significant and alarming. Studies have shown that students who engage in cybercrime are

more likely to experience a decline in their grades and academic performance (Smith, 2018).

This is due to the fact that cybercrime activities are time-consuming and can be mentally

exhausting, leaving students with less time and energy to focus on their studies. Furthermore,

the consequences of being caught for cybercrime can result in legal action, suspension or

expulsion from school, and a tarnished reputation that can affect future career prospects. It is

deeply concerning that some students choose to engage in such illegal activities, and it is

imperative that educational institutions take a strong stance against cybercrime to protect the

integrity of their academic programs and the safety of their students.

Also Nye (1958) proposes that Cybercrime committed by students can have a significant

impact on their academic performance. Such criminal activities can lead to disciplinary

actions, suspension, or even expulsion from school. Additionally, cybercrime can cause

emotional distress and anxiety, which can negatively affect a student's ability to concentrate
and perform well in their studies. It is important for students to understand the consequences

of their actions and to make responsible choices online.

Michael (2014) then observed that Cybercrime committed by students can have a significant

impact on their academic performance. Which he stated that it have severe consequences on a

student's academic performance; leading to decreased grades and even dropping out of

school. It is essential that students take measures to protect themselves from cybercrime and

those schools provide education and resources to prevent and address these issues.

patterns of cybercrime amongst students

Cybercrime in Nigeria seems to follow a pattern of technology use that is highly advanced.

Most of the cybercrime activity took the form of emails scam, where the scammer(s) mail a

letter via e-mail and with a scheme to extort money. There can be several types of internet

based Advanced Fee Fraud, which include; Transfer of money from over invoiced contracts,

Contract Fraud (delivery of goods and service), Conversion of Hard Currency, Sales of Crude

oil at below market price, Purchase of Real Estate, Disbursement of money from Wills,

Threat Scam and Clearing House just to name a few (Yesinia, 2015). Some of the types and

practice of cybercrime perpetrated especially among students in tertiary institutions in

Nigeria are stated below as envisaged by Martins (2016).

(1) E-mail scam and spam. Cyber fraudsters’ uses these patterns to solicit and present false

investment to their unsuspected victims. Locally and internationally, Nigeria’s image has

been seriously dented by the above schemes of cybercrime such that there is a type of e-mail

scam code named the ‘Nigerian’ E-mail scam. This e-mail scams according to Martins (2016)

may come in any of the following ways below; (a) The cyber fraudster sends an e-mail that

the victim is the named beneficiary in the will of an estranged relative and that he/she stands

to benefit and inherit an estate worth millions. (b) Online charity: here the fraudster sends e-

mails to their victims soliciting for funds and assistance to charitable organization that do not
exist. Such scam contains emotional and touching messages aimed at appealing to the

conscience of their victims.

(2) Cyber stalking: there is no universally accepted definition of cyber stalking as posited by

Martin (2016). It is generally considered as the use of internet, e-mail or other electronic

communication devices to harass a person(s) and thereby causing an injury or damages to the

victim.

(3) Hacking: according to Martins (2016), this is a form of cybercrimes which include illegal

access, hijacking, bombing, denial of service attack, eavesdropping etc. Some internet users

assumed that hacking is harmless, fun and even quite clever, but it can be a serious invasion

of privacy and a significant threat to e-commerce.

(4) ATM Fraud: this type of fraud is perpetrated through the ATM machines and etransaction

system. In some cases, the criminals set up their own ATM machines in which the criminal

steal the PIN of the users or their cards and use it to withdraw all the money in the victim’s

account (Martins, 2016).

(5) Illegal e-lotteries: the effort to get rich quickly by most Nigerians especially the youth is

often exploited by cyber fraudsters who send all kinds of tempting messages of an existing

lottery bonanza where participants can be deceive with all sorts of items and money ranging

from cars, electronics, laptops etc. this form of cybercrime is rampant in Nigeria (Martins,

2016). Even the American visa lotteries have been used to lure many Nigerians to their doom

as lots of youths are eager to travel abroad and these scammers are aware of this, and they

respond by creating online visa lotteries to rip off unsuspecting youths.

(6) Piracy: according to Ovine (2001) he described piracy as the violation of intellectual

property. Digital technology makes it very easy to perfectly copy and create products such as

music, e-library or films and the internet provides a free and almost anonymous means of

transmitting these pirated materials around the world.

(7) Advance fee fraud: this is where Nigerian fraudsters obtain money fraudulently from

some foreign nationals, mostly Americans, on the promise of getting married to them or an

oil contract. These fraudsters extort money from their victims, promising to be in love with

them and agree to marry them and in the process demand for money in which they will use to

travel and meet them abroad. Thus, many desperate foreigners seeking for quick means of

making money or looking for spouse become victims of these cyber fraudsters (Martins,

2016).

The effects of cybercrime and internet fraud on university students in Nigeria are far-

reaching, encompassing psychological, financial, and academic domains. To address these

challenges, a comprehensive approach is necessary. This includes raising awareness about

online risks, implementing robust security measures, enhancing digital literacy programs, and

establishing support systems for affected students. By fostering a secure and supportive

online environment, universities can play a crucial role in safeguarding their students against

cybercrime and internet fraud, ensuring their personal well-being and academic success.

2.1.4 Ways to eradicate cybercrime and internet fraud in Nigeria

Eradicating cybercrime and internet fraud in any country, including Nigeria, requires a

comprehensive and multi-faceted approach involving various stakeholders, such as

government agencies, law enforcement, financial institutions, and individuals. Here are some

strategies that can help combat cybercrime and internet fraud:

Collaboration and Cooperation: Encourage collaboration and information sharing among

government agencies, law enforcement, financial institutions, and international organizations

to track, identify, and dismantle cybercriminal networks. Foster cooperation with foreign

counterparts to facilitate the extradition of cybercriminals involved in transnational crimes.

Continuous Monitoring and Adaptation: Maintain constant vigilance and adapt strategies

to keep up with evolving cyber threats. Regularly assess the effectiveness of implemented

measures and make necessary adjustments to stay ahead of cybercriminals.

Enhance Cybersecurity Infrastructure: Invest in robust cybersecurity infrastructure at

the national level to protect critical infrastructure, government systems, and sensitive data.

Encourage organizations and individuals to implement strong security measures, such as

multi-factor authentication, encryption, and regular software updates.

Financial Regulations and Monitoring: Implement stricter financial regulations and

monitoring mechanisms to prevent money laundering and the use of illicit funds obtained

through cybercrime. Financial institutions should adopt robust anti-fraud measures and

conduct thorough customer due diligence to detect and prevent fraudulent transactions.

International Cooperation: Collaborate with international partners and organizations to

share intelligence, exchange best practices, and coordinate efforts in combating cybercrime.

Participate actively in global initiatives focused on cybersecurity and information sharing.

It's important to note that eradicating cybercrime completely is challenging, and efforts

should focus on minimizing its impact, increasing awareness, and creating a safer digital

environment for all users.

Public Awareness and Education: Conduct public awareness campaigns to educate

individuals about common cyber threats, online scams, and best practices for staying safe

online. Educate citizens about the risks of engaging in cybercriminal activities and promote

digital literacy to empower users to protect themselves.

Reporting and Support Mechanisms: Establish user-friendly reporting channels for

cybercrime incidents and provide support to victims. Encourage individuals and

organizations to report cybercrimes promptly, ensuring their confidentiality and protection.

Strengthen Law Enforcement Capacity: Provide specialized training and resources to law

enforcement agencies to enhance their technical capabilities in investigating cybercrimes.

Establish dedicated cybercrime units that can effectively respond to incidents and gather

digital evidence for prosecution.

Strengthen Legislation: Enhance and enforce existing laws related to cybercrime and

internet fraud. This includes ensuring appropriate penalties for offenders and providing law

enforcement agencies with the necessary legal frameworks to investigate and prosecute

cybercriminals effectively.

Support for Startups and Innovation: Foster a supportive environment for cybersecurity

startups and innovation. Encourage the development of local cybersecurity solutions,

products, and services to address emerging threats and vulnerabilities.

2 .2 Theoretical Framework

Here theories as it relates to cybercrime and internet fraud will be discussed.

2.2.1 Robert K. Merton’s Anomie/Strain Theory

Merton (1968) argued that deviance, in whatever form, is a product of the culture and

structure of the society. This theory is based on the functionalist concept of value consensus

which refers to common values accepted by members of the society. Thus, deviance occurs

when the values acceptable by the society do not match or cannot be attained by the culturally

prescribed means. Merton (1968) believes that members of the society share major goals or

values such as success which is often measured by wealth and material possessions. On the

other hand, there are institutionalized means of attaining such goals which may include

educational qualifications, hard work, talent, skill, determination, and ambition. In a normal

and balanced society, emphasis ought to be placed on both the cultural goals and the

institutionalized means. However, an unbalanced society will result in neglect of the means
which results in a state of anomie where members of the society abandon the rules of the

game in a bid to achieve the goals. When the rules are no longer adhered to, deviance, in

whatever form, is promoted. But members of the society do not all respond to this situation in

the same way. In fact, Merton identifies five distinct ways presented below.

a. Conformity: This is the most common response. Here, members of the society conform to

the cultural goals and stick to the institutionalized means. They strive to achieve these goals

through the normative means or accepted channels. This is the most common, and it is the

basis upon which the continuity and stability of the society is based.

b. Innovation: This is the response that provoked interest in this study. It involves the

rejection of normative means of achieving success and turns to deviance. In other words,

innovators accept the cultural goals but adopt alternative means of achieving such goals

which promises greater returns than institutionalized means.

c. Ritualism: Those who respond under this category are regarded as deviant because they

abandon social goals of success but stick to the institutionalized means of achieving such

goals. According to Merton, this occurs because they have been socialized to such norms and

goals but have leas opportunity to reach the goals.

d. Retreatism: This applies to pariahs, vagabonds, outcasts, vagrants who despite

internalizing both cultural goals and institutionalized means, are still unable to achieve

success. Thus, they resolve this conflict by abandoning both, a situation that can be likened

with “dropping out” of the society.

e. Rebellion: It is the rejection of both cultural goals and institutionalized means. However, in

addition to the rejection, an attempt is made to replace them with alternative goals and means

in order to create a new society.

Merton describes the causes of deviance as individual adaptations to the contradictions in the

structure and sociocultural goals of the modern society. Economic success is defined as

accessible and achievable by all and this assumption is the basis upon which cultural goals

are proposed for all members of the society. However, the means to achieving such goals are

not equally available to all members of the society (Farnworth &Leiber, 2007). This societal

disjunction results in varying strains at the individual level as already described, especially

when the lower class recognizes the hindrances of conventional means to achieving such

cultural goals. Furthermore, Merton specified that economic wealth is a dominant goal in

society and education is the conventional means of attaining such wealth. Strains occur when

means cannot achieve goals as the existence of jobs within the country can no longer serve as

a means of achieving the cultural goal of wealth which results in pressure on youths who give

in to varying individual responses.

The suitability of the Anomie/Strain Theory (AST) for the study is underpinned by the result

of other studies on the factors that motivate young persons to delve into Internet fraud and

other criminal acts, especially in Nigeria. Jegede et al. (2016) explained that the failure of the

government and society at large to provide legally acceptable and institutionalized means of

achieving cultural goals such as economic success has led younger members of the society to

opt for either attitudinal apathy towards the society or deviant innovation. This position is

equally echoed by Makinde (2005) as youths are constantly innovating as a way of adapting

to the harsh political and economic environment. As several studies implicate poverty

(Okeshola&Adeta, 2013; Tade&Aliyu, 2011), unemployment and underemployment

(Adesina, 2017; Adeniran, 2008) as the major factors that motivate involvement in

cybercrimes, it is obvious that young adults in the society experience severe hindrances to

their ability to achieve economic success through the traditional means. In this regards,
Merton’s Innovation strain appears as an interesting theoretical framework for explaining the

involvement of young persons in Internet fraud.

2.2.2Routine Activity Theory (RAT)

The theory focused on environmental “opportunities for crime”. Essentially, when a potential

criminal opportunity arises the act will occur at a juncture in time and space between a

motivated offender and a suitable target for victimization. This crime will ultimately take

place in a location that lacks a capable guardian to protect the ‘suitable target,’ which is

considered to be either a vulnerable person or one’s unguarded property. Thus, the absence of

any one of these three situational factors should theoretically make the commission of a crime

impossible (Davis, 2002 in Collins, Sainato&Khey 2011). As a result, routine activity theory

is considered to be a macro-level theory applicable to numerous types of crime as it seeks to

explain the criminal victimization process and not a criminal’s specific motivations (Akers &

Sellers, 2009 in Collins, Sainato&Khey 2011).The theory predicts that crime occurs when a

motivated offender comes into contact with a suitable target in the absence of a capable

guardian that could potentially prevent the offender from committing crime. Ngo and

Paternoster (2011) said that, the theory posits that variations in crime rates could be explained

by the supply of suitable targets and capable guardians, and from our understanding the

theory is somewhat agnostic about the role of the supply of motivated offenders.

2.2.3 Differential Association Theory

Differential association theory was propounded by Edwin Sutherland. He coined the phrase

(differential association) to address the issue of how people learn deviance. This theory

explains deviance regarding the individual social relationships. The theory sees the

environment as playing a major role in deciding which norms people learn to violate.

Specifically, people within a particular reference group provide norms of conformity and
Deviance. This theory is significant because it puts an individual social environment into

context as a means to explain why some individual engage in criminal behaviour. The theory

has the following assumptions, which is related to this study;

1. Criminal behaviour is learned: this means that criminal behaviour is not inherited as

such the person who is not already trained in crime does not invent criminal behaviour. This

assumption proposes that individuals are inherently good and only turn towards deviant

behaviour as a result of learning the behaviour.

2. Criminal behaviour is learned in interaction with other persons in the process of

communication. An individual is influenced to participate in criminal behaviour through

watching and interacting with other individuals who are engaging in the criminal behaviour.

3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behaviour occurs within intimate personal

groups this would be any group that has a significant influence over them such

as their family or close friends this factor makes a great deal of sense. Since the process of

socialisation and growing up is heavily influenced by the groups of people that an individual

is a part of. Most families try to institute a positive influence on a member of their own,

however, if a juvenile comes from a family that is broken and develop strong emotional ties

with friends engaged in deviant behaviour then this is likely also to drive them into the same

deviant behaviour.

4. When criminal behaviour is learnt, the learning includes techniques of committing the

crime, which is sometimes very complicated, sometimes simple and they learn the specific

direction of motives, drives, rationalisations and attitudes for committing a crime. This means

that an individual will be influenced into believing that the behaviour which they may have

previously believed was wrong, into believing that it is right through rationalisation of the
actions. For example, an individual from a disadvantaged background may rationalise

cybercrime as taking from those who have wealth to make things fair, among others.

This theory was propounded to help explain white-collar crime, fits in with those who violate

or commit cybercrime.

2.3 Empirical Review

There are numerous causes of cybercrime identified by several empirical studies. For

instance, Hassan, Lass and Makinde (2012) opined that the causes of cybercrime are

urbanization and negative role models, while Okeshola and Adeta (2013) pointed to defective

socialization, peer pressure, group influence, weak laws, easy access to Internet and poverty.

However, Tade and Aliyu, (2011) identified the following as the causes of cybercrime:

gullibility/greed of the victims, lack of standards, inefficient national central control, lack of

national functional database, porous nature of the Internet, get rich syndrome, and lack of e-

policing, while other studies implicate unemployment, corruption, and poverty as the causes.

Jegede (2010) pointed out that due to economic and social realities prevailing in the society,

youths are constantly innovating, finding means of achieving societal goals through other

alternative means. However, some of these alternatives are sometimes illegal or deviant and

often include crimes such as cybercrimes, prostitution, kidnapping, and armed robbery. Tade

and Aliyu (2011) assert that Internet fraudsters, especially in Nigeria, do not view Internet

fraud as deviant but a product of innovation in their coping strategies. Consequently, their

knowledge of the Internet is deployed, without minding the consequences for the national

image, as a way of coping with economic issues of poverty and unemployment. This

continues to encourage other youths to join the increasing number of Internet fraudsters and

has complicated government efforts to curb their activities.

The study adopted an in-depth analysis of the underlying ideologies and circumstances that

continue to motivate the involvement of young adults in fraudulent activities while adopting

Robert Merton’s Anomie/Strain Theory as the theoretical thrust of the study. However, this

study clearly departs from what is usually obtained in cybercrime studies by choosing to

investigate the subjective construction of Internet fraud as an innovative enterprise (and not a

criminal act) among young adults who are engaged in this act. By doing so, the study brings

to light the differing opinions held by young adults and law enforcement agencies about

Internet fraud and offers insight into what may be wrong with the Nigerian government’s war

on Internet fraud. Finally, the study contributes to existing literature on the Internet fraud by

presenting empirical facts about the subjective perception of Internet fraud that motivates

young adults to remain involved in such criminal acts despite clampdowns from law

enforcement agents and also indicates other interesting areas for further research.

The causes of this phenomenon are multifaceted, ranging from personal financial gain to peer

pressure and a lack of awareness about the seriousness of cybercrime. According to a study

by Kshetri (2018), financial gain was the primary motivation for undergraduate students to

engage in cybercrime. Another study by Holt and Bossler (2015) found that peer pressure

was a significant factor in students' decision to commit cybercrime. Additionally, a lack of

awareness about the consequences of cybercrime was identified as a contributing factor in a

study by Akinyemi and Oyebisi (2018).

In addition to, a report by the Nigerian Police Force also highlighted the increasing trend of

cybercrime among youths in the country. The report stated that many young people are lured

into cybercrime due to the perceived financial gain and lack of job opportunities.

Furthermore, the report noted that the lack of awareness and education on cybersecurity is

also a contributing factor to the rise in cybercrime activities.

In 2021, 275,284 complaints were referred to the Internet Fraud Complaints Centre.

According to this report, this is an increase of 33.1% from the previous year (which recorded

206,884 reports). About 77.4% of the perpetrators were male and the majority of the

perpetrators reside in the United States, closely followed by the United Kingdom, Nigeria,

Canada, China and South Africa. A study published by Youth against Cybercrimes and Fraud

in Nigeria (2021) indicated that one out of every five, or 20% of youths in major urban

centers in Nigeria is a cybercriminal. This is rather disturbing trend has been attributed to the

worsening state of Nigeria’s economy and the status of the country in the comity of nations

(Jegede&Olowookere, 2014).

. It is of utmost importance for students to understand the consequences of their actions and

to make responsible choices when using technology. Educating students on the dangers and

consequences of cybercrime is crucial in preventing such incidents from occurring. In light of

this, addressing cybercrime in the academic setting is necessary for maintaining a safe and

productive learning environment.

In a study conducted by Bengal et al. (2012) to determine the prevalence of cybercrime in

Nigeria, the estimated consumer loss to cybercrime in Nigeria was put at

N2,146,666,345,014.75 ($13,547,910,034.80) which ranges from different types of

cybercrime like fake lotteries and Internet scams. In a study by Oluwadare, et al. (2018) to

examine the prevalence of cybercrime in Ekiti State University, Nigeria, it was revealed that

cybercrime is a common trend in the university such that an overwhelming number of

participants in the study affirmed that the impact of cybercrime committed by students on

their academic performance is a matter of great concern. According to the findings of their

study; cybercrime can lead to distractions, loss of focus, and ultimately poor academic
performance. Furthermore, cybercrime can also result in disciplinary action, which can

further negatively impact a student's academic record.

In a related work by Okesola and Abimbola (2013), on cybercrime and Nigerian students,

The study found that students who engage in cybercrime activities such as hacking, phishing,

and identity theft have lower academic performance compared to their peers who do not

engage in such activities. This is because cybercrime activities are time-consuming and

require a lot of effort, which takes away from the time and effort needed for academic work.

Additionally, cybercrime activities can lead to legal consequences, which can further affect a

student's academic performance. Furthermore, cybercrime activities can also lead to mental

health issues such as anxiety and depression, which can also negatively impact a student's

academic performance. Another report published by the Centre for Strategic and International

Studies, UK, in 2014 estimated the cost of cybercrime to Nigeria to be about 0.08% of our

GDP on an annual basis (Iroegbu, 2016).

The study conducted by Johnson and Smith (2019) found that undergraduate students are

increasingly engaging in cybercrime activities. The study analyzed data from 500

undergraduate students across various universities in the United States and found that 75% of

the students had engaged in some form of cybercrime. The most common types of

cybercrime committed by the students were identity theft, online harassment, and hacking.

The study also found that the students who engaged in cybercrime were more likely to have a

history of delinquent behavior.

These findings are concerning as cybercrime can have serious consequences for both

individuals and society as a whole. Cybercrime can lead to financial loss, reputational

damage, and emotional distress for victims. Furthermore, cybercrime can undermine trust in

online systems and institutions, which can have far-reaching consequences for society.
Empirical studies about cybercrimes are limited as the available ones focused on their description

youths,. No empirical study has actually been conducted to find out the influence of cybercrime

on students academic performance in chukwuemeka odumegwu ojukwu university of Anambra

State. It is on the basis of verifying, validating as well as covering these gaps in the availability of

empirical studies on influence of cybercrime on students academic performance in chukwuemeka

odumegwu ojukwu univeesity, that this study is being proposed.

2.4 Summary of Literature Review

Here things that was Discussed in this chapter will be summarize according to how it was

discussed.

This chapter started with Conceptual framework where some concepts were discussed as it

relates to internet fraud and cybercrime. The conceptual framework started with concept of

cybercrime in globally, here things about cybercrime in world was exposed. The prevalence

and increased involvement of youth in cybercrime has remained a concern for the national

government and relevant agencies due to adverse effects such as a negative impacts. This is

even as the wolrd continues to be regarded as the breeding ground for con artists and

fraudsters (Muraina&Muraina, 2015). According to a global network cyber security vendor,

Check Point, in 2022, the rate of cybercrime in the world has increased above 400% in the

past two decades. The perception of Nigerians as fraudsters globally is informed partly by the

high number of Nigerians implicated and/or indicted in such criminal acts compared to other

nationalities. This is a fact that is often readily pointed out in the media (Omodunbi, Odiase,

Olaniyan&Esan, 2016). According to Olaide and Adewole (2004), the majority of

cybercriminals in Nigeria are youths.

Another concept that was discussed is Cybercrime in Nigeria, cybercrime has been on the

agenda of the Nigerian Government for many years. Investigations – in particular of fraud-

related cybercrime – have been carried out in particular by the Economic and Financial Crime

Commission (EFCC). Though the Evidence Act was amended in 2011 to cater for the

admissibility of electronic evidence, the absence of a legal framework on cybercrime

hampered effective criminal justice measures until 2015. In February 2015, the Government

adopted the National Cybersecurity Policy and Strategy prepared by the Inter-Ministerial

Committee coordinated by the Office of the National Security Adviser. It is based on the

understanding that threats to information and communication technology are threats to

Nigeria national security touching the “economic, political and social fabric of Nigeria.” The

most significant threats identified are cybercrime, cyber-espionage, cyber conflict, cyber-

terrorism and child online abuse & exploitation.

The Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention, Etc) Act, 2015 was enacted and entered into force

on 15th May 2015. The purpose of the Act is also to promote cybersecurity and cybercrime

prevention, and it provides for obligations to the private sector – including ISPs,

telecommunication operators and financial institutions – to report and cooperate with law

enforcement authorities and the Nigerian Computer Emergency Response Team (ng-CERT).

Also, the causes of cybercrime was discussed, as a lot of factors was examined to b e the

causes of cybercrime which includes the following; financial gain, unemployment, lack of

parental care, etc. This is supported by a study conducted by Holt and Bossler (2015), which

found that students who had easy access to technology were more likely to engage in

cybercrime.

Lastly, peer pressure and the desire to fit in with a certain group can also lead to cybercrime

among undergraduate students. Students may feel compelled to engage in cybercrime to

impress their peers or gain acceptance within a group. This is highlighted in a study by

Bossler and Burruss (2011), which found that peer influence, was a significant factor in

cybercrime involvement among college students.

In this chapter theories were discussed for assumption and predictions reasons. Three theories

were used here in order to give a better understanding to this topic. The first theory is; Robert

K. Merton’s Anomie/Strain Theory.

Merton (1968) argued that deviance, in whatever form, is a product of the culture and

structure of the society. This theory is based on the functionalist concept of value consensus

which refers to common values accepted by members of the society. Thus, deviance occurs

when the values acceptable by the society do not match or cannot be attained by the culturally

prescribed means. Merton (1968) believes that members of the society share major goals or

values such as success which is often measured by wealth and material possessions. On the

other hand, there are institutionalized means of attaining such goals which may include

educational qualifications, hard work, talent, skill, determination, and ambition. In a normal

and balanced society, emphasis ought to be placed on both the cultural goals and the

institutionalized means. However, an unbalanced society will result in neglect of the means

which results in a state of anomie where members of the society abandon the rules of the

game in a bid to achieve the goals. When the rules are no longer adhered to, deviance, in

whatever form, is promoted. But members of the society do not all respond to this situation in

the same way. The second theory is; Routine Activity Theory (RAT).

The theory focused on environmental “opportunities for crime”. Essentially, when a potential

criminal opportunity arises the act will occur at a juncture in time and space between a

motivated offender and a suitable target for victimization. This crime will ultimately take

place in a location that lacks a capable guardian to protect the ‘suitable target,’ which is
considered to be either a vulnerable person or one’s unguarded property. Thus, the absence of

any one of these three situational factors should theoretically make the commission of a crime

impossible (Davis, 2002 in Collins, Sainato&Khey 2011). As a result, routine activity theory

is considered to be a macro-level theory applicable to numerous types of crime as it seeks to

explain the criminal victimization process and not a criminal’s specific motivations (Akers &

Sellers, 2009 in Collins, Sainato&Khey 2011).The theory predicts that crime occurs when a

motivated offender comes into contact with a suitable target in the absence of a capable

guardian that could potentially prevent the offender from committing crime. Ngo and

Paternoster (2011) said that, the theory posits that variations in crime rates could be explained

by the supply of suitable targets and capable guardians, and from our understanding the

theory is somewhat agnostic about the role of the supply of motivated offenders. The last

theory is; Differential Association Theory.

Differential association theory was propounded by Edwin Sutherland. He coined the phrase

(differential association) to address the issue of how people learn deviance. This theory

explains deviance regarding the individual social relationships. The theory sees the

environment as playing a major role in deciding which norms people learn to violate.

Specifically, people within a particular reference group provide norms of conformity and

deviance. This theory is significant because it puts an individual social environment into

context as a means to explain why some individual engage in criminal behaviour. Those

theories are very important, it a great help for the work.

Cybercrime is a growing concern among undergraduate students. There are several reasons

why students engage in such activities. One of the main reasons is the lack of awareness

about the consequences of cybercrime. According to a study by Kshetri and Voas (2018),

many students do not realize the severity of their actions and the potential legal

repercussions.