Unit 6: Cognitive Process

 Attention: Definition, Types, Determinants, Duration,

Degree And Alteration In Attention.
 Perception: Meaning Of Perception, Principles, And
Factor Affecting Perception.
 Intelligence: Meaning Of Intelligence, Effect Of
Heredity And Environment In Intelligence,
Classification, Introduction To Measurements Of
Intelligence Tests- Mental Deficiencies.
 Learning: Definition Of Learning, Types Of Learning,
Factors Influencing Learning, Learning Process, Habit
Formation.
 Memory: Meaning And Nature Of Memory, Factors
Influencing Memory, Methods To Improve Memory,
Forgetting.
 Thinking: Types, Level, Reasoning And Problem Solving.
 Aptitude: Concept, Types, Individual Differences And
Variability.
 Psychometric Assessment Of Cognitive Process-
Introduction.
 Alteration In Cognitive Process.
Attention: Definition, Types, Determinants, Duration,
Degree And Alteration In Attention:
Definition of Attention: Attention Is Selective Act Of Consciousness -- Rex And
Knight. Attention Is Process Which Focuses The Mind On Stimuli Of Conscious
– William James.

Types Of Attention: Attention is the first process for beginning the other
cognitive process. The types of attention depend upon the need and
circumstances of an individual.

1. Sustained Attention: It is the ability to focus on one specific task for long
time without being distracted. For example, listening a lecture, reading a
book, playing a video.
2. Selective Attention: It is the ability to focus on only one aspect of the
environment while ignoring other aspects. For example, in a loud party
focusing on one person’s voice.
3. Alternating Attention: It is the ability to focus back and forth between
tasks that require different cognitive demands. For example, when
reading a recipe for making dessert and the performing task to prepare
that recipe.
4. Divided Attention: It is the ability to process or to focus on two or more
different tasks simultaneously. It is also known as multitasking. For
example, checking email while listening in a meeting, talking with friends
while making dinner.

Determinants of Attention: There are various factors that can influence

attention. Broadly these factors are classified into two types named, External
(Objective) Factors and Internal (Subjective) Factors.

1. External Objects or Objective Factors: These factors are present outside

the individual which influence attention of an individual. These are:
 Nature of Stimulus: All type of stimuli are not able to focus
attention. For example, picture attracts more as compare to
words. In pictures, human being attracts more attention than
others.
 Definite/ Systematic Form: The focusing of attention is also
determined by the form the object possesses. If an object or goal
has a definite form, focusing of attention is more effective and
 intense, whereas in case of an object or purpose with an
indeterminate form, focusing of attention is hindered.
 Intensity and Size of Stimulus: The stimulus of more intensity will
attracts more attention as compare to low intensity. For example,
loud sound and strong smell.
 Contrast, Change and Variety: Change and variety will attract
more attention. For Example, we do not notice ticking of watch,
until unless it stops.
 Movement of the Stimulus: The moving stimulus catches
attention more quickly than other stimulus.
 Location: The most effective location is just in front of the eyes, in
the center of the page.
 Isolation: A person sitting alone in a corner of the park draws
more attention as person is seen separately in the background.
 Novelty: Any object that is new or different from others makes
powerful appeal for one’s attention. For Example, a new fashion in
dress will attracts attention of all.
 Duration: Stimulus having more duration attracts individual’s
attention but sometimes the smallest flash of light receives more
attention.
 Repetition: When any object is repeatedly observed or lesson is
repeatedly learnt or revised, it attracts attention towards itself.
 Intensity: Powerful and intense stimuli attract attention more
powerfully than do weak stimuli. Any bright and strong light or a
bright color attracts our attention more effectively than does a
soft light or a light color.

2. Internal (Subjective) Factors: These factors are residing within the

individual and have great impact on attention. These are:
 Interest: Interest is mother of attention. People used to attend
those objects in which he/she has interest. For example, the
individual who has interest in psychology will be more attentive in
psychology’s lecture.
 Motives: Basic needs and motives determine attention to a great
extent. Thirst, hunger, curiosity, fear are some important motives
that influence attention. For example, the individual who is lonely
in darkness will pay more attention to even low intensity stimulus.

 Mood and Attitudes: Attitudes and moods have great influence

on attention. For example, an individual who have interest in
 science and technology will be more attracted toward the news of
new inventions.
 Aptitude: The focusing of attention also depends upon the
aptitude of an individual in certain spheres. If a child has greater
aptitude in Science than other fields, his attention will focus more
readily on Science.
 Curiosity: Every individual has a curiosity to become familiar with
any new object or piece of knowledge. To satisfy that curiosity,
he/she focuses his/her attention upon that new object.
 Organic State: It plays an important role in the selection of stimuli
one attends to. For example, if one is tired, rest will be more
effective. A hungry person will be more attracted by an eatable
than by any other object.
 Preparatory Set (Mental Expectancy): It is person’s readiness to
respond to one kind of sensory input. For example, a person who
is expecting an important call may hear a telephone ringing but
another person may not.
 Aim/ Goal: Every object connected with a goal desired by an
individual attracts his attention. During examinations, student fix
their attention upon the questions asked by the teacher, because
those questions are at the moment, a means to their goal of
succeeding in examination.
 Habit: Habit is that condition of attention which develops specially
from the bodily mechanism and its activity. Habit helps to focus
attention upon particular activity.
 Disposition or Temperament: People of different temperaments
attend to different things. Old and retired people have a
temperament of their own. Their cynical attitude may hardly allow
them to give attention on recreational activities.
 Social Suggestion: In general, people attend to what is pointed
out to them probably because they enjoy more satisfaction and
avoid discomfort.
 Past Experience: Past experiences are the foundations of
attention. When one lesson has been learnt in the class, the next
lesson should be based upon the knowledge imparted by the first
lesson. If this principle is neglected, the individual’s attention does
not focus itself upon the new lesson being taught.

 Meaning: The individual’s attention focuses more conveniently

and quickly upon objects and pieces of knowledge whose meaning
 or purpose is readily perceived by him. Children who understand
scientific subjects easily have no difficulty in focusing their
attention on them, as they proceed to relatively more complex
chapters and lessons, because they have understood the meaning
of the preceding lesions.

Duration And Degree of Attention: Duration and degree of attention is based

on five factors which are listed below:
 Span of Attention: The maximum amount of material or items
that can be attended in one period of attention or one glance is
called the span of attention. It varies from individual to individual.
For example, if one is able to note 5 digits or 5 letters in a single
act of attention, his span of attention is five.
 Fluctuation of Attention (Shifting of Attention): It refers to
shifting from one aspect to another aspect of the same stimulus.
Fluctuation is frequent, periodical and natural.
 Distraction of Attention: If something disturbs us when we are at
work, it is called distraction. It refers to shifting of attention from
one object to another object which is not the object of
concentration. Distraction results in low quality and quantity of
work.
 Concentration of Attention: this is higher type of attention, which
involves more details. Concentration is restricted attention. Focus
of concentration is limited and clear. Motivation is stronger in
concentration. It develops thinking power.
 Division of Attention: it refers to attending two tasks
simultaneously while maintaining the efficiency. So, if any one
does so, it is due to oscillation of attention between the two tasks.
For example, listening to lecture and writing simultaneously.

Perception: Meaning Of Perception, Principles, And Factor

Affecting Perception:
Meaning of Perception: Ideally any sensation which has meaning in itself is a
perception. Perception is the process that gives coherence and unity to
sensory inputs. It is a synthesis or fusion of the elements of sensation.

Definition of Perception: Perception is the process of obtaining knowledge of

external objects and events by means of senses -- Stanger. Perception as the
process of interpretation of experience of sensation—Ryburn.
Perception is the first event in the chain which leads to stimulus to action –
Boring And Field.

Principles of Perception (Gestalt’s law of organization): Gestalt school studied

the organization of stimuli in perception. They found that perception takes
place in organization. This nature of perception is known as LAW of Pragnanz.
The word Pragnanz is derived from German term that means ‘good figure’. It is
central law of Gestalt psychology.

 Proximity: Stimuli that are close to each other at a certain place and
time get organized in a unit in perception.
 Similarity: This law states that those stimuli which are similar to each
other get organized as a unit in perception. These stimuli can be based
on any dimension like, color, brightness and quality.
 Closure: It is nature of human perception that it tends to perceive things
in a complete form. Any incomplete in form is filled to perceive a
complete form.
 Symmetry: It states that elements that are symmetrical to each other
tend to be perceived as a unified group. Similar to the law of similarity,
this rule suggests that objects that are symmetrical with each other will
be more likely to be grouped together than objects not symmetrical with
each other.
 Inclusion: According to this any figure or form is not perceived in parts
but that parts are organized in perception best possible whole form. For
example, two inverted triangles are perceived as a star shape.
 Common Fate: it is applicable for moving stimuli. If some stimuli are
moving in one direction are perceived as unit in perception. For
example, trees titled in one direction because of speed of blowing wind
are perceived as one in perception.
 Figure And Background: whole environment around us can be divided
into many figures but all the figures cannot be perceived at the same
time in perception. When attention is focused one figure, then rest of
the environment becomes background. When focus changed to other
figure then figure earlier in focus will go into background.
 Continuity: The law of good continuation states that when connected
points result in smoothly curving lines, the lines tend to be viewed in a
way that follows the smoothest pathway.
 Past Experience: A familiar pattern stands out more easily as an
organized unit than miscellaneous. Past experience is the strongest
factors of perception.
Factors Affecting Perception 1,2,3:
Intelligence: Meaning Of Intelligence, Effect Of Heredity
And Environment In Intelligence, Classification, Introduction
To Measurements Of Intelligence Tests- Mental Deficiencies
Meaning of Intelligence: intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply
knowledge. Success in school, college and profession, social adjustment,
possession of general information etc. is all associated with the concept of
‘Intelligence’. The word intelligence is derived from the Latin verb ‘intellegere’
which means understanding. In simple words, intelligence is the ability to
adapt to and to learn from life’s everyday experiences.

Definition of Intelligence: Intelligence is one’s capacity to deal effectively with

situations. – Thorndike. Intelligence is the ability to adapt to one’s
surroundings. – Jean Piaget.
Effect Of Heredity And Environment In Intelligence:
Heredity: Heredity refers to genetically transmitted characteristics from one
generation to next. Individual inherit genetic code from parents. The genotype
expresses itself in observable appearance and behaviour, which is phenotype.
The phenotype includes height, weight, eye color and psychological
characteristics such as intelligence, personality and creativity.

Researchers have found that parents with high IQs tend to have children with
high IQs, and parents with low IQs have children with relatively low IQs.
Correlation between IQs of brothers, sisters, children and their parents, and
their distant relatives indicate that intelligence has a strong heredity
component.

Environmental Factors: Environment consists of a wide range of stimulations

that have influence on intelligence. As child lives and grows in his environment,
it provides him the necessary input and experimental base for intellectual
development. Enrichment or deficiency of the environment would obviously
produce differences in his abilities.

Classification of Intelligence: EL Thorndike classified intelligence in the

following ways:

 Abstract Intelligence: It is the ability to understand and deal with verbal

and mathematical symbols. It consists of ability to solve problems
presented in the form of symbols, words, numbers, formulae, diagrams,
etc.
 Concrete Intelligence: Ability to understand and deal with things, as in
skilled trades and scientific appliances.
 Social Intelligence: It is the ability to understand and deal with peoples.

Introduction To Measurements Of Intelligence Tests- Mental

Deficiencies: Intelligence is the capacity of an individual to think
rationally, to act purposefully and to deal effectively with the
environment. Important concepts related to the measurement of
intelligence are as follow:
  Basal Level: A level below which the examinee would almost certainly
answer all questions correctly.
 Ceiling Level: A level above which the examinee would almost certainly
fail all remaining questions.
 Chronological Age: The age from birth to the time of testing.
 Mental Age: The child’s score on the test can be expressed as mental
level corresponding to the age of normal children whose performance
he/she equalled.

Types of Intelligence Test: Basically it can be divided into three main types
which is (1) Verbal Test, (2) Non Verbal Test and (3) Performance Test.

(1) Verbal Test: These tests are requires the use of language. The
instructions are given verbally and the individuals are required to use
language. Therefore, verbal tests are only applicable to literate person. It
is also called as paper-pencil test as the examinee has to write on a piece
of paper while answering the test items. Example of Verbal tests are:
Stanford Binet Test for Intelligence, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
(WAIS), Wechsler Intelligence Scale For Children (WISC), Wechsler
Preschool & Primary Scale Of Intelligence (WPPSI).

(2) Non Verbal Test: In non verbal test, the content and response do not
require the use of language. Non verbal test are those that emphasize
material like pictures, figures, etc. such test use the language in
instruction but test items don’t use language. Example of Non Verbal
Test is Bhatia’s Performance Test of Intelligence was developed by CM
Bhatia in 1955. This test consists of 5 subtests: Block Design Test,
Alexander Pass Along Test, Pattern Drawing Test, Immediate Memory
Test, Picture Construction Test. It is applicable to use for age 11 years
and above. It should not be used on mentally retarded persons.

(3) Performance Test: performance test are those that require the
examinee to perform a task rather than answer some questions. Such
test prohibits the use of language in items. Occasionally, oral language is
used to give instructions, or the instructions may also be given through
gestures and pantomime. Different kinds of performance test are
available like assemble a puzzle, place pictures in a correct sequence;
point out to a missing part of a picture, etc.
Mental Deficiencies (Mental Retardation)4,5,6,7,8:
Learning: Definition Of Learning, Types Of Learning, Factors
Influencing Learning, Learning Process, Habit Formation:
Definition Of Learning: Learning is a process of developing new methods or
techniques to deal with the one’s problems – Boaz. Learning is the
modification of behaviour through experiences – Gates, 1985.

Types Of Learning: Learning can be categorized on the basis of domain/

specific area of learning and on the basis of method used for learning.

On The Basis Of Domain/ Specific Area Of Learning:

1. Verbal Learning: It helps to acquire verbal behaviour resulting in
speaking language and use of communication devices. Signs, pictures,
symbols, words, figures, sounds, voices, etc. are used by the individual.
2. Motor Learning: It includes learning motor skills such as walking,
dancing, typing, swimming, etc. acquiring various skills through such
learning helps in speed and accuracy to perform the task with great ease
and satisfaction.
3. Affecting Learning: It deals with emotional learning such as learning of
habits, interest, attitudes, appreciation, etc. acceptance and rejection
are involved in emotions. The end products of this learning, i.e.
attitudes, values and ideals determine the character of one’s motive
power.
4. Cognitive Learning: in learning ideas, the learner acquires knowledge
information through which he forms concepts, sees relationships and
 arrives at generalization. It includes learning of concepts, principles,
problem solving etc.
5. Serial Learning: When the learner is presented with type of learning that
exhibits some sequential or serial order. For example, children are
expected to master lists of materials such as alphabets, multiplication
tables, and names of presidents in order or serial.
6. Skill Learning: this learning happens with the help of refined pattern of
skills/ movements based upon the perceived demand of the situation.
The student nurse can learn the manner in which the movements are
carried out, either by: listening to directions and explanations, reading a
description, seeing a demonstration, paying attention.

On The Basis Of Method Used For Learning: It can be divided in to four parts
namely, Trial and error theory of learning, Theory of conditioned reflexes,
Social theory of learning, Cognitive Theory of learning (See page no. 59, Fig. 4
theories of learning).

Factors Influencing Learning:

Learning Process: Learning takes place if an individual behaves and responds
in a way which is taken from other as a result of experiences.

 Goals: Desired outcome set by an individual.

 Stimulus: The response is produced by the type of stimuli.
 Perception: The person learns things by visual, auditory or kinaesthetic
learning.
 Response: May be negative, positive or neutral response. Consequences
practice/ skills should be able to produce change in behaviour.
 Integration: Association of new behaviours with previously learned
behaviour is related to transfer of learning.

Habit Formation9:
Memory: Meaning And Nature Of Memory, Factors
Influencing Memory, Methods To Improve Memory,
Forgetting:
Meaning Of Memory: Humans have been pre occupied to store and process
information for a very long time. The memory of each person defines him/her.
Loosing memory is like losing past and future and living in a continual present.
Learning is very important in our day to day life, without it we cannot move
forward to perform task. Whatever we have learnt, it must remain in our mind,
stored up somehow, to be used when the need arises. Memory is the process
of remembering objects of past experiences.

Definition Of Memory: Memory consist of learning, retaining and

remembering what has previously been learned – Woodworth.

Nature of Memory: Memory is part of mental act of retaining and reviving of

the past learning and experience. It involves three mental functions, i.e.
learning, retaining and remembering.
 It is special ability of mind to conserve or store what has been previously
experienced or acquired through learning.
 Memorizing is a complex process.
 The process of memory begins with learning and ends with its revival
and reproduction. Therefore, memory is said to involve four stages
learning or experiencing something, its registration followed by
retention and finally is recall.

Factors Influencing Memory: Following are the areas which can influence
memory namely, Ability to learn, Good health, Age of the learner, Maturity,
Will to remember, Intelligence, Interest, Over learning, Speed of learning,
Meaningfulness of the material, Sleep or rest.
Methods to Improve Memory: There are several methods by which an
individual can improve his retention power and an ability to recall past
experiences whenever needed. Some of these are as follows:
 Focus attention on material.
 Follow the principle of association.
 Avoid cramming.
 Use correlation or relate new information to things you already know.
 Pay extra attention to difficult material.
 Make time for meditation.
 Get enough sleep.
 Take rest in between to remove fatigue and monotony.
 Exercise daily and include physical activity in daily routine.
 Avoid to use alcohol.
 Stay mentally active.
 Manage chronic conditions such as hypertension, diabetes,
hypothyroidism, obesity etc early.
 Eat a healthy and well balanced diet.
 Stay organized.
 Be socialize.
 Maintain body weight in normal ranges.
 Manage stress.
 Enjoy nature.
 Utilize mnemonic devices.
 Drink adequate water.
  Eat food items in less amount like: fried foods, salt, sugar, processed
foods.
 Eat food items in adequate amount like: whole grains, nuts, olive oil,
fatty fish(if you are vegetarian), green leafy vegetable, legumes, chicken
or turkey ( if you are non vegetarian)

Forgetting: Forgetting means fail to remember. It has both positive and

negative values in life. Somehow it is a great blessing to mankind. Life would
have been very tragic and miserable if memory for all painful events would
have been preserved in our mind.

Definition of Forgetting: Forgetting is failing to retain or to be able to recall

what has been acquired – N.L.Munn. Forgetting is defined as the permanent or
temporary loss of the ability to recall or recognize something learned earlier –
Munn, 1967.

Causes of Forgetting: Several causes which plays a key role in forgetting is

namely, Poor health status, theory of decay, nature of learning material,
theory of interference, theory of repression or motivated forgetting, emotions,
change of stimulus condition, other factors like lack of motivations, lack of
interest, fatigue, forced learning etc.

Thinking: Types, Level, Reasoning And Problem Solving:

Thinking: Thinking is a cognitive behaviour in which a person makes use of
internal representations such as symbols, signs etc, of things and events for the
solution of some specific problem.

Definition Of Thinking: Thinking is an implicit problem solving behaviour –

Mohsin. Thinking is mental exploration for finding out the solutions of a
problem – Woodworth.

Types of Thinking 10: Thinking can be classified into following ways.

 Perceptual Or Concrete Thinking:

 Conceptual Or Abstract Thinking:
 Reflective Thinking:
 Creative Thinking:
Levels Of Thinking: Bloom’s taxonomy classifies thinking according to six
cognitive levels of complexity: knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Level 1 Knowledge: It involves recall of facts and information in the forms in

which they are learned.

Level 2 Comprehension: it represents the lowest form of understanding. The

student knows what is being communicated without relating it to other
material or seeing it in its fullest meaning. It demonstrates understanding of
facts, and ideas by organizing, comparing, translating interpreting, giving
descriptions and stating main ideas.

Level 3 Application: It involves the use of abstractions in concrete situations. It

is solving problems by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and
rules in a different way.

Level 4 Analysis: It is examining and breaking information into parts by

identifying motives or causes making inference and finding evidence to
support generalizations.

Level 5 Synthesis: It is compiling information together in a different way by

combining elements in a new pattern or proposing alternative solutions.

Level 6 Evaluation: It is presenting and defending opinions by making

judgements about information, validity of ideas or quality of work based on a
set of criteria.

Reasoning (Logical Thinking): It is cognitive process of looking for reasons for

beliefs, conclusions, actions or feelings. Reasoning is the highest form of
thinking to find out causes and effects. An individual tries to solve a problem
by incorporating two or more aspects of his past experience. It can be
classified in three ways namely, Deductive reasoning, Inductive reasoning,
Abductive reasoning.

Deductive Reasoning: It is a process of developing specific predictions from

general principles.
Inductive Reasoning: It is the process of developing generalization from
specific observation.

Abductive Reasoning: It is a cognitive process often involves both inductive

and deductive arguments.

Problem Solving: It is a tool, skill and process. It is a tool because it can help
you to solve an immediate problem or to achieve a goal. It is a skill because
once you have learnt it you can use it repeatedly, e.g., the ability to ride a
bicycle. It is also a process because it involves taking a number of strategies.
There are basically three methods to solve problem which is discussed below:

1. Trial and Error: Continue trying different solutions until problem is

solved. For example, restarting phone, turning off wifi in order to
determine why your phone is malfunctioning.
2. Algorithm: Step by step problem solving formula. For example,
instruction manual for installing new software on your computer.
3. Heuristic: General problem solving framework. Working backwards;
breaking tasks into steps are the examples of it.

Aptitude: Concept, Types, Individual Differences And

Variability: Aptitude Meaning: The word aptitude is derived from the word
‘Aptos’ which means “fitted for”. Word such as talent, capacity or potentiality
is also used very often synonymously with the aptitude. In simple words, we
can say that aptitude is natural special capacity or talent to do certain kind of
things easily, quickly and effectively. However it may be an acquired ability.

Definition Of Aptitude: aptitude is a condition, a quality or set of qualities

which is indicative of the probable extent to which an individual may be able to
acquire, under suitable training, some knowledge, understanding, or skill –
Traxler.

Concept Of Aptitude: the concept of aptitude is very fast. It means that

aptitude embraces any characteristics contributing to learning such as
intelligence, achievement, interest, skills etc. It is an innate inborn ability
present in a person to do certain kind of activity, which may be physical or
mental.

Aptitude is the result of interaction of both hereditary and environmental

factors. An individual possesses certain inborn talents, abilities or
potentialities. After it, various environmental factors help or hinder the
expression of these talents or abilities. For example, if a person has aptitude in
playing cricket then he would be successful in cricket training.

Types of Aptitude: Some common types of aptitude are as follows:

 Logical Aptitude: This enables a person to analyse his tasks and helps
him in obtaining logical solutions to problems. Thus it helps in arriving at
fact based conclusions.
 Spatial Aptitude: It is closely tied to artistic abilities. It permits the
person to understand the spatial connection between objects. It helps
the problem solver/thinker in creating or imagining 3D model
effortlessly.
 Manual Aptitude: This type of aptitude indicates motor skills needed for
doing semi skilled jobs.
 Mechanical Aptitude: It helps the person in understanding and solving
problems involving mechanical relationships and arrangements. In other
words we can say that it helps a person in understanding how various
parts of a machine functions in combination.
 Linguistic Aptitude: It helps a person in learning languages easily and
effectively.
 Physical Aptitude: It indicates natural physical capabilities such as
speed, strength etc.
 Science, Technology, Engineering, Math Aptitude(STEM): The person
with this aptitude have ability to understand mathematics, biology,
physics, chemistry and other science subjects well.

Individual Differences and Variability: Dissimilarity is the principle of nature.

No two persons are alike, even identical twins. The entire person differs from
each other. They differ in their physical strength, intelligence, aptitude,
interest, personality area etc. The differences found between two people that
separate them from one another and make every person as a unique person in
one self are known as individual differences.

Definition: Individual differences are found in all psychological characteristics,

physical mental abilities, knowledge, habit, personality and character traits –
R.S. Woodworth & D.G. Marquis.
 Areas Of Individual Differences:
 Difference in physical structure: height, size and shape of body, skin
color etc.
 Differences in motor capabilities: speed of doing activity, stamina, rate
of muscular movement.
 Differences in mental activities: memory, reasoning, intelligence,
thinking, problem solving.
 Differences in social beliefs.
 Differences in cultural beliefs.
 Emotional differences: positive, negative, mature, immature emotions.
 Educational differences: learning ability, skill, and knowledge level.
 Differences in interest.
 Differences in aptitude.
 Differences in moral development.
 Differences in achievements.

Psychometric Assessment Of Cognitive Process Introduction11,12:

Alteration In Cognitive Process13,14:
References:
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