Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 1424–1432

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

The role of water-energy nexus in optimising water supply systems – MARK

Review of techniques and approaches
⁎
Negar Vakilifard , Martin Anda, Parisa A. Bahri, Goen Ho
School of Engineering and Information Technology, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, Perth, WA 6150, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Considering water-energy nexus in optimising water supply systems not only ensures the sustainability of the
Water-energy nexus water supply for increasing water demand but also diminishes water-related energy and environmental
Water supply system concerns. This paper presents a review highlighting knowledge gaps in optimisation models related to the water-
Renewable energy source energy nexus in water supply systems or “water supply side of the nexus”. Studies reported in the literature are
Hybrid energy source
categorised and systematically analysed in terms of different energy sources, centralised/ decentralised
Optimisation
approaches and system parameters uncertainties. Several major gaps are identified. These include the lack of
optimisation models capturing spatial aspects as well as environmental impacts of the nexus problems. The
shortage of models considering uncertainties associated with water demand and renewable energy supply is
another knowledge gap in this area. However, the main gap is the absence of models for optimising long-term
planning of water supply system considering renewable energy within an urban context. Accordingly, based on
this review, we have suggested pointers for future studies in the water supply side of the nexus.

1. Introduction The significant role of quantitative analysis to understand the

water-energy nexus in water supply systems and to reveal short and
Considering water-energy nexus in planning, design and operation of a long-term implications of investment decisions and conservation
water supply system not only ensures the sustainability of the system but policies in both sectors has been generally accepted. Nair et al. [7]
also conserves energy and minimises related greenhouse gas (GHG) reviewed the interactions of water-energy-GHG in urban water
emissions. Currently, the water industry is responsible for 2–3% of the supply systems focusing on applied environmental impact assess-
global energy consumption [1]. In some developed countries such as the ment tools and energy intensity analysis. Kenway et al. [8] system-
U.K., the contribution of the water supply system to nation's electricity atically analysed studies mainly regarding energy intensity in water
consumption is around 3%, accounting for about 1% of all GHG emission resource management and life cycle assessments (LCA) and cate-
per annum [2,3]. In the U.S., on the other hand, the water supply system gorised them based on the research objectives, dimensions and
constitutes 13% of total energy usage and 5% of all national GHG emissions study scales. In another review paper, Gude [9] provided a detailed
annually [4]. view of the energy footprint in water supply infrastructures and
Although compared to other sectors, the contribution of the water wastewater facilities. However, to the best of our knowledge, none
industry to energy consumption and related GHG emissions is relatively of the previous reviews looked into optimisation modelling of water
low; it is increasing and ignoring it can escalate energy usage and supply systems in the context of water-energy nexus taking into
accelerate climate change which consequently affects the sustainability account the types of the energy sources, centralised/decentralised
of available water resources. In addition, by 2050, the world's population system approaches and system parameters uncertainty.
will be around 9.7 billion people and more than 25% will live in regions This paper presents a comprehensive review of the optimisation
exposed to extreme water shortages [5,6]. Therefore, it is foreseeable models on the water-energy nexus in water supply systems or
that deployment of energy intensive drought-proof technologies such as “water supply side of the nexus”. The review includes those models
desalination in water supply systems will become inevitable leading to which consider the energy aspect of different components of water
higher water-related energy intensity and environmental impacts in the supply systems, located in various points of the supply chain from a
future [7]. source to an end-use, to meet water demand for diverse purposes.

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (N. Vakilifard), [email protected] (M. Anda), [email protected] (P. A. Bahri),
[email protected] (G. Ho).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.125
Received 13 June 2016; Received in revised form 4 February 2017; Accepted 19 May 2017
Available online 03 July 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Vakilifard et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 1424–1432

We look into the existing optimisation techniques and approaches 3. Optimisation techniques and approaches applied to the
applied to planning, design and operation problems of the water water supply side of the nexus
supply side of the nexus from three aspects of (1) energy sources
and system configuration, (2) centralised/decentralised system Optimal design, control and planning of water supply systems
approaches and (3) system parameters uncertainty. The objective considering the water-energy nexus, not only conserves the existing
is to identify the gaps in the state of knowledge of this field and resources but also prevents unnecessary investment, operational and
accordingly, to shed light on primary future directions of research management costs. Hence, optimisation problems in the water supply
in this area. side of the nexus have received considerable attention; however, there
The remainder of the paper is as follows: Section 2 briefly surveys are still major gaps in this field.
the existing optimisation techniques in water and energy systems and Based on the reviewed papers, it is evident that optimisation
highlights potential techniques that can be applied to the problems on problems in this side of the nexus have been mainly investigated from
the water supply side of the nexus. Section 3 provides a narrative either water or energy perspectives and there are very few studies
review of the application of these optimisation techniques in this side of which have simultaneously optimised the system for both aspects [21–
the nexus. Sections 4 and 5 indicate how the concepts of centralised/ 23]. This is consistent with the conclusion drawn by Kenway et al. [8]
decentralised systems and uncertainty have been addressed in the through the review of city-scale water-energy nexus studies. They
existing optimisation models, respectively. Section 6 suggests direc- pointed out there is a lack of studies in water sector considering the
tions for future studies and lastly, the conclusion is presented in interaction of the water and energy simultaneously.
Section 7. On the other hand, the optimisation models explicitly considering
the energy factor in water supply systems, have mostly addressed
design or operation aspects, and there is a gap of knowledge regarding
the long-term planning of these systems. This also involves the absence
of studies capturing the spatial aspect of the nexus problem where
2. Optimisation techniques applied to water and energy optimisation can be applied to improve spatial coherence of land-use
systems – a brief overview functions resulting in cost and energy saving. In addition, from the
problem formulation point of view, these studies have considered the
Optimisation is one of the decision supporting tools applied to find overall cost, energy consumption of water system or supplier's revenue
the best feasible solution of the problem of interest [10]. Generally, in as the objective functions. Despite the importance of environmental
optimisation techniques, the objective function is minimised or max- aspects, they have been less taken into account in the optimisation
imised through values of the variables subjected to the constraints [11]. structure and have been mainly addressed using LCA tools [7]. The
Detailed reviews of the optimisation techniques applied to water optimisation models of the water supply side of the nexus are discussed
and energy problems are available for each sector. In [12–14], the in detail in the following sections and are summarised in Table 1.
authors gave a typology of the optimisation models used in energy
systems. Specifically, the optimisation methods of renewable and 3.1. Water supply systems driven by fossil fuel energy sources
sustainable energy supply problems were reviewed [15,16]. In the
water sector, on the other hand, some authors presented a review of Generally, in optimisation models of water supply systems powered
applied optimisation techniques in urban water supply and water by fossil fuels, energy considerations are implicitly expressed as part of
resource management [17–19]. the operational cost or as a constraint for energy saving and/or
In the context of the water-energy nexus, the optimisation techni- alleviation of the system GHG emissions [70–74]. However, it has
ques applied in each of these sectors separately can be potentially been addressed as a fundamental factor in the optimisation of the water
considered for nexus problems. However, the formulation of the supply utilities which consume a high amount of energy.
optimisation problems depends on the characteristics of the system, It is commonly accepted that water distribution system (WDS)
the objective function and the environment of the operation. pumps are the high energy-intensive components of water supply
The optimisation techniques applied to the systems in the water systems [75]. In fact, 70–80% of the energy consumed in a surface
supply side of the nexus can be categorised broadly into mathematical water-based supply system is dedicated to pumping for distribution of
and heuristic techniques. the treated water [76]. On the other hand, the application of an
advanced technology, such as desalination, increases the energy
• Mathematical techniques express the optimisation problems as a demand of the water supply system. According to Pacific Institute
mathematical formula and in most cases guarantee to reach an report, compared to other options of water supply such as importing
optimal solution. The common mathematical optimisation techni- water and recycled or brackish water treatment, seawater desalination
ques consist of linear programming (LP), mixed integer linear requires considerably more energy, tantamount to 3.2–4.8 kW h/m3
programming (MILP), nonlinear programming (NLP), mixed inte- [77]. This has led to a growing interest in optimisation of the WDS
ger nonlinear programming (MINLP) and dynamic programming operation and design of the desalination units in comparison with
(DP) [18]. other components of the water supply system operating with fossil fuel
• Heuristic techniques are searching techniques which do not neces- energy sources.
sarily find an exact optimum solution or even determine how close it From the operation point of view, Zheng and Huang [24] deter-
is to the optimum answer; however, they can solve highly compli- mined an optimum scheduling of water pumps using an improved DP
cated problems in a reasonable computation time and still find algorithm. The model minimised the energy cost of the system
acceptable solutions [20]. The main heuristic techniques include operation considering the time-of-use (TOU) electricity pricing struc-
simulated annealing (SA), tabu search (TS), particle swarm optimi- ture to meet water demand of a village in China. Giacomello et al. [25]
sation (PSO) and genetic algorithm (GA) [18]. employed a hybrid optimisation technique including LP and a greedy
algorithm to obtain a near optimal real-life pump scheduling of a
These techniques are applied either individually, in combination pumping system in a WDS. Both energy consumption and penalty
with each other or in integration with simulation techniques/tools. In factor were considered as the objective functions. In [26], the authors
this paper, two optimisation techniques of the latter are referred to as optimally scheduled the operation of a pumping system in a near real-
hybrid techniques. time to minimise energy cost. Considering water demand at each time
period as a stochastic process, they used parallel programming

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Table 1
Summary of the optimisation models used in the water supply side of the nexus.

Type of energy Optimisation Objective function Model constraintsa Description of the system Ref.
source technique modelled
Water perspective Energy perspective Others

Fossil fuels • Mathematical • energy cost • Mass balance • Energy balance • Environmentalimpact constraints • Water distribution system [21–42]
• Heuristic • energy consumption • Water resource balance • Pump energy consumption • Desalination supply system
cost/revenue of the co- storage tank production unit energy and energy co-
b
• Hybrid • total
generation plant
• Water
constraints
• Water
consumption
• Water
generation plant
• Environmental impact • Pipeline network • Conventional generation unit
constraints constraints
c
• Water production unit • Distribution network
constraints constraints
• Irrigation constraint • Ramping constraint
• Ramping constraint • Economic constraint
• Economic constraint
Renewable energy • Mathematical • Total cost of the plant • Mass balance • Energy balance • Environmentalimpact constraint • Off-grid desalination plant [43–52]
• Heuristic • Energy cost • Water resource balance • Renewable energy units • Cropwaterdemand constraint • Off-grid water pumping
• Hybrid • Energy consumption • Water storage tank constraints system
production constraints storage system

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• Energy production unit
• Battery
constraints
• Deficiency of power supply • Water
constraints constraint
• Fuel
• Economic constraint • Economic constraint
Hybrid energy • Mathematical • Energy consumption • Mass balance • Energy balance • Environmentalimpact constraint • Off-grid or grid connected [53–69]
• Heuristic • Total cost of the plant • Water storage tank • Renewable energy units desalination plant
• Hybrid • Energy cost constraints constraints • Off-grid Water pumping
• Environmental impact Pumped water flow rate
• constraint • Battery storage system system
• total annual profit of the plant constraints
• Water production unit • Availability of renewable
constraints energy sources
• Economic constraint • Conventional generation unit
constraints
• Grid stabilisation constraint
• Demand side management
constraint
• Economic constraint
a
Depends on the characteristics of the system, different combinations of the mentioned constraints have been applied in optimisation models in this side of the nexus.
b
Examples of water and energy co-generation plants are hydroelectric and thermal desalination plants.
c
Water production unit refers to either one or several component(s) of a desalination plant.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 1424–1432
N. Vakilifard et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 1424–1432

technique to solve the stochastic mixed integer programming (MIP) using the integration of an optimisation tool, EPLANT model, and
problem. The model was applied to drinking water supply in Granada, population-based genetic heritage evolution by stochastic transmission
Spain. Similarly, López-Ibáñez et al. [27] determined an optimal pump (GHEST) algorithm. Based on the proposed energy efficiency indicator
scheduling by minimising the energy cost using a stochastic meta- (EEI) defined in terms of the “unavoidable minimum energy” of WDS,
heuristic algorithm, ant colony optimisation (ACO). They applied the optimum pipe diameter was determined. In [38], authors developed a
model for Richmond WDS and compared the results with those multi-objective two-stage stochastic integer optimisation model to
obtained using conventional and hybrid GAs. cost-effectively design a reclaimed WDS. Considering construction
Cherchi et al. [28] considered two optimisation scenarios for energy and energy costs, the model determined the optimal pipe and pump
cost and consumption of a drinking WDS in California. The system was sizes. Herstein et al. [39] optimised the design of a WDS using a multi-
composed of two water utilities, including several pumps and tanks. objective non-dominated sorting GA (NSGA-II). The model minimised
Using the combination of LP, NLP and advanced heuristic techniques, capital costs, annual pumping energy use and environmental impact
the optimum operational scheduling of the pumps was determined for considering an economic input-output lifecycle assessment (EIO-LCA).
each scenario. In the cost optimisation scenario, TOU electricity pricing The model was evaluated for the Anytown network.
structure and in the energy optimisation scenario, the GHG emission The optimal design of water and energy co-generation plants has
effects were taken into account. Stokes et al. [29] addressed both also been the focus of several studies. Shakib et al. [40] developed an
energy cost and GHG emissions of a WDS pumping operation using optimisation model to design a water and energy co-generation plant
non-dominated sorting GA technique. In another study, Bene et al. [30] consisting of a gas turbine, a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG)
developed an optimisation model for a short-term pump scheduling and a multi-effect evaporation thermal vapor compression desalination
employing neural search technique with GAs by minimising total (METVC) plant. They used a GA to solve a thermodynamic-based
energy cost. They compared their model with the optimal solution multi-objective problem. The model maximised total exergetic effi-
achieved by using a conventional GA approach for a hypothetical WDS ciency (for both water and energy) while minimising total production
to present the abilities of their approach. cost. In another study, Rubio et al. [33], applied a MINLP to optimally
At the point of end use, Wanjiru and Xia [31] addressed the determine the best configuration of a polygeneration system supplying
optimum operation of a rooftop rain water reservoir. They proposed a water and energy demand in a hotel located on the Spanish
MINLP model to optimally schedule the irrigation of urban household Mediterranean coast. The system was the integration of a combined
gardens, considering a rooftop reservoir for harvesting rainwater and cooling, heat and power unit (CCHP) fed mainly by natural gas with
TOU electricity tariffs. The potable utility water was considered as a reverse osmosis (RO) or low temperature multi-effect distillation (LT-
backup in case, the level of stored water decreased as a result of MED) unit. The model maximised the net present value (NPV)
irrigation. The model optimised the use of the potable water as well as considering the effects of the hotel location, type of the desalination
energy required for water pump through minimising the cost. plant, the operation mode, and the legal framework.
The optimal operation of desalination plants powered by fossil fuel At the utility scale, such as desalination, the optimisation of the
sources has been addressed recently. For instance, Jiang et al. [32] operation has been conducted to mitigate associated energy usage. For
developed an optimisation model to dynamically operate a large-scale instance, Yechiel and Shevah [41] optimised the operation of a large
desalination system plant consisting of multiple seawater reverse SWRO desalination plant using LP model. The model minimised the
osmosis (SWRO) desalination plants and storage tanks. The NLP energy cost of the plant considering time and peak load demand (time
problem was solved to minimise the energy cost and it was applied load tariff). The model was applied to Palmachim desalination plant in
to two hypothetical cases. Alternatively, more focus has been on the Tel-Aviv, Israel. Li [42] developed a constrained NLP model for the
optimisation of water and energy co-generation plant. These systems operation of a brackish water reverse osmosis (BWRO) to reduce its
are multi-utility plants in which different water and energy production specific energy consumption (SEC).
components are integrated to supply both water and energy demands.
Due to the higher efficiency and reliability of the supply and distribu- 3.2. Water supply systems driven by renewable energy sources
tion networks, these systems are becoming attractive options [33].
El-Nashar and Khan [34] developed a MILP model to allocate the There is an evolving paradigm shift from the application of fossil
load to various generation units in a co-generation system to meet fuel to renewable energy sources for the operation of water supply
water and energy demands. Under static condition, it was assumed that systems. In the literature, the most common configuration is the
the fluctuations of electrical load are very slow and the production of integration of an individual water supply component with one or
water in multi-stage flash (MSF) distillers is constant. The model several renewable energy systems equipped with storage systems,
minimised the fuel energy consumption of the co-generation complex operated as a stand-alone or off-grid system. Since water scarcity is
using a bottom-up approach. In [21,35], the authors presented a NLP more likely to occur in the regions with abundant solar energy [78], the
model to address the optimal operation of a system consisting of main focus has been on the optimal design and control of the
multiple individual and co-generation water and power plants and their integrated desalination plants and solar energy. In these system
networks to meet water and power demand. The general optimisation configurations, solar energy has met water-related energy demand
formulation provided required flexibility to the model so that different either only or in combination with other sustainable energy sources.
technologies for each of the three types of plants could be considered. Most of the studies on this subject have targeted the detailed
The model determined an optimum scheduling for water and energy technological or operational aspects of such water supply system using
production in each plant through minimising the cost of the total either simulation tools/techniques [79–82] or their integration with
system. In [22] the same authors extended the model to address the experimental data [83–85]; others utilised the optimisation techni-
real-time optimal flows in power and water networks considering extra ques.
constraints regarding safety requirements and water and power loss in Kyriakarakos et al. [43] combined parameters of TRNSYS simula-
the network lines. The effect of ramping power generation and tion software with PSO to optimally design a renewable energy-based
electrical and water storage on the production level and operational polygeneration system. The system consisted of photovoltaics (PVs), a
costs was the focus of their latest study [23]. wind turbine, a battery bank, a fuel cell, an electrolyser, a metal hydride
From the design aspect, Arai et al. [36] presented and compared tank and a RO desalination unit. The model was developed to meet
two LP and MILP optimisation models to determine the route and the electricity, transport fuel (hydrogen) and water needs while minimising
water flow rate in a WDS to satisfy water demand while minimising the the total cost of the system as well as penalty costs associated with
energy usage. Bolognesi et al. [37] simulated and optimised a WDS battery, hydrogen and water. The model applied to a small island in the

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Aegean Sea. Similarly, Clarke et al. [44] compared PSO method and and electrical network to use for a mechanical vapor compression
HOMER software to optimally size an integration of RO, hydrogen and (MVC) plant. A quadratic NLP model minimised the energy supplied
solar energy sub-systems equipped with battery storage system. Using from electrical network and simultaneously maximised the water
experimental and simulation data, a multi-objective problem was production to meet freshwater demand. Palma-Behnke et al. [54]
solved to minimise net present cost (NPC) and life-time CO2 emissions presented a MIP model for energy management of a smart microgrid
while meeting water and energy demands. composed of PV panels, a wind turbine, a diesel generator, a battery
In [45,46], authors employed GA techniques to determine the cost- bank and a simple water supply system. The model optimised the
effective configuration and size of a RO desalination process coupled operational schedule of the different energy sources as well as the water
with renewable energy sources and battery storage system to meet pump to meet electricity and water demands. It also minimised the use
water demand. Similarly, in [47,48], authors developed an optimisa- of diesel generator and operational costs of the microgrid.
tion model based on the GA technique to find the best configuration of In [55–57], the authors applied the PSO method to cost-effectively
a system consisting of PV panels, wind turbines, batteries and a RO design and schedule an off-grid hybrid energy and water supply system
plant, among different commercially available system devices. The equipped with different storage options including a pack of batteries, a
model minimised the total cost of the water production for the life cycle water reservoir and a hot thermal storage. In another study, Vieira and
of the plant. It was applied to a small community in South Tunisia. El- Ramos [58] addressed the optimal performance of a pump station in a
Morsi et al. [49] also applied the GA technique to optimally design a water supply system and the economic benefit of using wind energy for
solar-powered humidification-dehumidification (HDH) desalination the water pumping. A LP model optimally scheduled the pump
system such that the cost per m3 of the fresh water is minimised. operation to meet water demand with minimum energy cost. In
They assumed that if desired temperature could not be provided even [59,60], the authors established a management model for the integra-
by hot storage buffer due to the absence of solar energy supply, the tion of wind power, smart grid and water supply considering water
desalination system would shut down and once again operate at its full storage instead of energy storage. A LP model was developed to
capacity when the required temperature was met. In [78,86], the optimally schedule the production and storage of the desalinated water
authors briefly reviewed the optimisation techniques used in integrated from RO, MSF and multi effect distillation-vapor compression (MED-
solar-driven and wind-driven desalination units, respectively. VC) plants such that the operational and management costs of the
Stand-alone water pumping systems powered by wind or solar water production and storage as well as power plant electricity
energy are another example of applying renewable energy sources in generation are minimised. Similarly, Perković et al. [61] formulated a
water supply systems. These systems are typically designed to supply LP problem using a high-level interpreted language, GNU Octave, to
water for domestic and irrigation purposes. However, of different minimise energy cost for operation of a RO plant and a hybrid energy
systems of renewable energies, most of the optimisation models have system consisting of renewable energy sources (solar and wind),a
been developed to dimension PV panels to power water pumping conventional power plant and a pumped brine storage as energy
systems. One reason is owing to the high investment cost of these storage.
systems which makes it necessary to be accurately designed [87]. On the other hand, in [62,63], the authors addressed the design
Glasnovic and Margeta [50,51] adopted a hybrid optimisation aspect of the integrated system. They applied a techno-based algorithm
model to optimally size a PV irrigation water pumping system without and an iterative optimisation technique to achieve the cost-effective
storage system such that the compatibility of the demand and avail- size of a storage-equipped hybrid energy system integrated with a RO
ability of electric power was met. The integration of DP technique and unit. Salcedo et al. [64] presented a mathematical model for the
simulation was employed to minimise the maximum nominal electric optimal configuration and operation of a RO plant coupled with a
power of PV generator considering local climate, boreholes, soil, crops solar Rankine cycle unit applying a gas fired heater as a backup system
and method of irrigation. The model was tested for Osijek and Split, to overcome the intermittent nature of the renewable energy. The
located in Croatia. Olcan [52] presented a techno-economic optimisa- MINLP model minimised total cost of the system as well as related
tion model for a stand-alone PV water pumping system for irrigation environmental impacts defined by LCA principles. In the next study,
purposes in remote areas. The system equipped with water storage tank the same authors applied dimensionality reduction technique in multi-
instead of battery storage system to deal with the renewable energy objective optimisation model for identification of the environmental
intermittency. Both cost and reliability aspects of the system have been impacts based on the impact assessment method, Eco-indicator 99.
addressed using a multi-objective optimisation technique. The model The model consisted of 12 objective functions including unitary
minimised both life cycle costs as well as the possibility of power supply production cost as well as 11 environmental indicators representative
deficiency to optimally determine the capacity of the system. The model of the ecosystem quality, human health and resource damage cate-
was applied to a citrus trees yard in Antalya, Turkey. Lately, Gopal et al. gories [65]. Similarly, Rubio-Maya et al. [66] applied a MINLP model
[87] explained different renewable energy systems coupled with water to optimally select and size a polygeneration system supplying elec-
pumping systems and briefly reviewed some of the existing optimisa- tricity, heat, cold and fresh water demands. They considered natural
tion models used for designing solar PV water pumping systems. gas, solar energy and gasified biomass as energy sources and two
technologies of RO and MED for fresh water production unit. The
3.3. Water supply systems driven by hybrid energy sources model optimised three criteria of economic, energy saving and GHG
emissions. In another study, Bilton and Kelley [67] also proposed the
The application of hybrid energy sources for water supply system is best configuration and size of an integrated RO desalination unit and a
becoming a promising research area. This is not only due to concerns hybrid energy system with battery storage. They employed a GA
over the unsustainability of fossil fuel energy sources and GHG coupled with both simulation and cost models to determine design
emissions, but also because of the reliability delivered by hybrid energy variables with minimum lifecycle cost.
sources to integrated energy and water supply systems. Generally, Finally, several studies have focused on the application of optimisa-
hybrid energy systems consist of both fossil fuel and renewable -based tion techniques to modify or design desalination processes and
energy systems with storage facilities, operated in either grid-con- operational conditions considering low-grade heat and energy recovery
nected or off-grid modes. as a base-line source of energy. For instance, Christ et al. [68]
The operational aspect of water supply systems powered by hybrid developed a thermodynamic-based optimisation model to modify the
energy sources have received much attention and mostly addressed process of MED such that it can be compatible with sensible heat
from energy point of view. Zejli et al. [53] optimally scheduled the flows sources. They employed a generalised reduced gradient (GRG) method
of the energy from renewable sources (solar and wind) storage system for solving a NLP model to maximise the production of the fresh water.

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Likewise, Almansoori and Saif [69] employed a MINLP model to two-stage stochastic integer optimisation model for the energy-effective
determine the optimal osmosis process as well as the operational design of a reclaimed water network with respect to the uncertainty
conditions of a multi-utility plant consisting of a RO and pressure associated with reclaimed water demand. In integration with renewable
retarded osmosis (PRO) systems. The applicability of the model was energy systems, Kyriakarakos et al. [43] integrated TRNSYS simulation
examined using several hypothetical case studies. with PSO to optimally design a renewable-based polygeneration
system. Using monte carlo simulation (MCS) technique, they consid-
4. Centralised/decentralised system approaches in ered the uncertainties regarding the prices of fuel and electrochemical
optimisation models of the water supply side of the nexus components as well as interest rate. Recently, Al-Nory and Brodsky
[60] have also addressed the uncertainties regarding renewable energy
Historically, water and energy systems have been implemented and supply as well as water and electricity demands in optimising inte-
managed to service communities as centralised systems. However, as a grated water supply and hybrid energy systems. They applied a LP
result of limited resources, population growth and environmental model considering Gaussian random variable to optimally schedule the
concerns, there is an emerging paradigm shift from centralised to production and storage of the desalinated water integrated with a grid-
decentralised and distributed system approaches. In both water and connected renewable energy system.
energy sectors, the concept of the decentralised vs. centralised system Generally, the main problem of modelling uncertainty is the
is derived from the idea of exploiting existing local resources and necessity of limiting a set of probable scenarios to avoid the computa-
alleviation of utility-related environmental impacts [12,88]. These two tional difficulties. The process of creating a representative set of
system approaches are mainly differentiated based on the diverse scenarios especially in cases where the degree of uncertainty is high
aspects of the scale (size), applied technologies, components of the may adversely affect the reliability of the solutions [95]. However, there
system and distance from the source [89,90]. Accordingly, centralised are very few studies in the water supply side of the nexus addressing
systems are employed more for larger scales such as cities, while this issue. For instance, Goryashko and Nemirovski [95] employed
decentralised systems are generally practiced in semi-urban, rural and robust counterpart approach to minimise the energy cost of the daily
remote areas where there is no access to centralised systems [88,89,91]. operation of a WDS while taking into account uncertainty regarding
However, these latter systems can also supply the demand either water demand.
independently or as a satellite of a centralised system within an urban Accordingly, there is still a major gap exists in modelling the
environment [88,89,92]. uncertainty such that it not only avoids highly complex numerical
Apart from studies covering water supply systems powered by fossil process, but also is the most representative of variations in the real
fuel energy sources, which have mainly addressed WDS as part of a world.
centralised system, it seems virtually all optimisation models have been
developed for remote areas, small communities and villages 6. Future directions
[43,45,54,67] and only a few studies have been conducted in the scale
of a household or cluster of households [31,53]. This implies that there Employing renewable energies as part of a hybrid energy system for
is a knowledge gap in the optimisation of the integrated decentralised water supply systems has become a promising research area. This is
water and energy systems independently or as an integral part of a mainly due to increasing concerns regarding the growing water-related
centralised system for different levels of scale in an urban context energy demand, the unsustainability of the fossil fuel energy sources
(satellite systems). This is consistent with Retamal et al. [93] who and related environmental impacts.
emphasised the importance of city-based studies for energy intensity While most of the studies in this respect have been conducted at the
analysis of water supply systems. scale of small communities in remote areas, there is a growing need to
Furthermore, as mentioned in Section 3, optimisation problems of look into feasibility and implication of applying such systems at
water supply side of the nexus including decentralised systems have different levels of scale within cities. Water supply to metropolitan
been addressed from either water or energy point of view, while there is areas is becoming more challenging as a result of rapid urbanisation
a variation in both terminology and definition of different levels of growth worldwide [96]. At present, cities accommodate more than 50%
decentralisation, even within each of these two sectors [12,89]. The of the global population which is predicted to increase to 67% by
lack of unified language, jointly used for the decentralised system 2050 [97]. This creates a situation where cities are responsible for the
approach in water and energy sectors may result in a degree of majority of resource consumption and GHG emissions [98]. In fact, not
confusion when it comes to describing system models and spatial only are the issue of limited water resources and increasing demand the
analysis of the problems in water supply side of the nexus. It also primary concerns of urban water suppliers, but also providing the
highlights the fact that only through the determination of key aspects of energy required for water supply systems and related environmental
the integrated decentralised water and energy system, is it possible to impacts.
reach a clear definition for different spatial scales and related water and Although the necessity of using renewable energies for urban water
energy system components. supply system has been recognised, fossil fuels by far are still the most
predominant energy source in the water-related energy mix. This is mainly
5. The role of uncertainty in optimisation models of the due to the lack of knowledge to predict implications of applying renewable
water supply side of the nexus energy in the urban water supply as well as high level of complexity at both
technical and planning levels to implement such systems. Therefore, future
Quantifying uncertainties in optimisation problems results in more research needs to focus on developing interpretable models for associated
reliable models which can assist in evaluating short and long-term techno-economic feasibility evaluation and then for optimising an urban
implications of uncontrolled factors on system performance. In water water supply system compatible with such hybrid energy system. In this
supply systems, uncertainties are mainly caused by population growth regard, site-specific renewable energy characteristics within the urban
projections, types of dwelling people live in, pattern of water use, water environment play an important role.
efficiency of households or businesses, price and climate change [94]. We anticipate that the future research will focus on cities located in
However, for systems fuelled by renewable energies, the intermittent arid and semi-arid areas; where energy-intensive drought-proof tech-
nature of these sources adds to the degree of uncertainty. nologies, such as recycling systems and desalination, need to be applied
Compared to deterministic models [21,35,44,60], there are far less to offset water shortages. However, these metropolitan areas enjoy
studies in the water supply side of the nexus considering uncertainties profuse solar energy which potentially can highly contribute to the
in optimisation models. Zhang et al. [38] developed a multi-objective water-related energy mix.

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Currently, solar energy in urban areas is mostly captured through Finally, based on the identified knowledge gaps, we expect that
grid-connected rooftop PVs in residential buildings to meet household future studies will be more focused on optimising urban water supply
energy demand, often with self-sufficiency and low-carbon develop- systems driven by hybrid energy sources including grid-connected
ment as an objective. However, high penetration of PVs to existing rooftop PVs and grid electricity.
electrical grids is constrained due to several technical and management
issues they may cause in the power distribution network1 [99–101]. Acknowledgements
These issues are mainly associated with the intermittent nature of the
solar irradiance and the mismatch between the time of the energy Ms. Negar Vakilifard would like to thank Murdoch University for
production and the load demand leading to supply surplus PV output the award of Murdoch International Postgraduate Scholarships
back to the electrical grid. (MIPS).
A potential solution to the above problem can be urban water
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