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Study Material Term 2 Xi Physics 2021-22
Study Material Term 2 Xi Physics 2021-22
STUDY MATERIAL
TERM-2
CLASS XI
PHYSICS (042)
Session 2021-22
Physics (042) / XI / TERM-2 /2021-22
INSPIRATION
Shri(Dr) Jaydeep Das
Deputy Commissioner
KVS RO Ahmedabad
MENTOR
Shri Avijit Panda
Principal
Kendriya Vidyalaya,Sabarmati
Physics (042) / XI / TERM-2 /2021-22
PHYSICS
Class-XI
INDEX
S.No Particulars
1 SYLLABUS (TERM-2)
6 Chapter-12 : Thermodynamics
7 Chapter-13 : Kinetic Theory
8 Chapter-14 : Oscillations
9 Chapter-15 : Waves
SYLLABUS
TERM-2
Session 2021-22
PHYSICS, CLASS-XI
UNIT Chapters Marks
Unit VII Properties of Bulk Matter
CHAPTER 9 - Mechanical Properties of Solids
CHAPTER 10 - Mechanical Properties of Fluids
CHAPTER 11 - Thermal Properties of Matter
Unit VIII Thermodynamics 23
CHAPTER 12 - Thermodynamics
Unit IX Behaviour of Perfect Gases & Kinetic Theory
of Gases
CHAPTER 13 - Kinetic Theory of Gases
CHAPTER 15 - Wave
Total 35
Physics (042) / XI / TERM-2 /2021-22
3. SECTION C 1 (5 MCQ) 5 5
Case Study Based (in MCQ
Form)
Total 12 …………………. 35
CHAPTER -9
Mechanical Properties of Solids
GIST OF CHAPTER
• Deforming force:- A force acting on a body which produces change in its shape of
body instead of its state of rest or uniform motion of the body.
• Elasticity:-The property of matter by virtue which it regains its original shape and
size, when the deforming forces are removed is called elasticity.
• Plasticity:- The inability of a body to return to its original shape and size, when the
deforming forces are removed is called plasticity.
• Hooke’s law:- when a wire is loaded within elastic limit, the extension produced in
wire is directly proportional to the load applied.
OR
Within elastic limit stress α strain
Stress = Constant
Strain
• Stress :- Restoring force set up per unit area when deforming force acts on the body
Stress = Restoring force
Area
S.I Unit of stress = N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)
Dimensional formula = M L-1T-2
Types of stress:- Normal stress and tangential stress
Normal stress
a. Tensile stress (When there is an increase in dimension of the body along the direction of
normal stress
Strain:- The ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension is called strain
It has no unit
Longitudinal strain=Change in Length/ Original Length
Types of strain:-
1. QUESTION: The load versus elongation graph for four wires of same material is
shown. The line represents the thickest wire?
𝐹𝐿
ANSWER: Y= STRESS/STRAIN ⇒ Y=𝐴Δ𝐿
𝐹 𝐴
As, Y is constant for all wires so , 𝛼
Δ𝐿 𝐿
𝐹
for given same length 𝛼 A ( area of cross section of wire)
Δ𝐿
2. QUESTION: The stress versus strain graphs for wires of two materials A and B are as
shown in the figure. If YA and YB are the Young ‘s modulii of the materials, then
what is the relation between their young modulus.
Δ𝑉 Δ𝐿
ANSWER: V= L3 or, =3x = 3X1/100=0.03
𝑉 𝐿
Δ𝑉
= 0.03
𝑉
4. QUESTION: Steel and copper wires of same length and area of cross-section are
stretched by the same weight one after the other. Young’s modulus of steel and
copper are 2X1011 N/m2 and 1.2x1011 N/m . What is the ratio of increase in their
length?
1
ANSWER: Δ𝐿 𝛼 𝑌
Δ𝑉 0.01
ANSWER: B= P/ = 100/ = 10 6 atm = 1011 N/m2 = 1012 dyne/cm2
𝑉 100
6. QUESTION: For the given graph, which region obeyed Hooke's law ?
ANSWER: Since OE is a straight line so, stress vs strain 𝛼 Hooke's law is obeyed in
the region OE of the graph.
7. QUESTION: The diagram below shows the change in the length X of a thin uniform
wire caused by the application of stress F at two different temperatures T1 and T2
Which is the higher temperature?
ANSWER: When same stress is applied at two different temperatures, the increase
in length is more at higher temperature. Thus T1 > T2
9. QUESTION: Two identical solid balls, one of ivory and the other of wet-clay, are
dropped from the same height on the floor. Which one will rise to a greater height
after striking the floor and why?
ANSWER: Ans. Since, ivory ball is more elastic than wet-clay ball, therefore, ivory
ball tries to regain its original shape quickly. Hence, more energy and momentum is
transferred to the ivory ball in comparison to the wet clay ball and therefore, ivory
ball will rise higher after striking the floor.
ANSWER: Since volume elasticity is the reciprocal of compressibility and since air is
more compressible than water hence water is more elastic than air.
As we know, compressibility,
Δ𝑉/𝑉
K = 1/B = 𝑃
2) Plastic Body → A body which does not regain its original configuration at all on
the removal of deforming force, howsoever the deforming force may be is called
3) Elasticity → The property of the body to regain its original configuration, when
ANSWER: 1) Since young’s Modulus is given by the slope of stress – strain graph,
since slope of A is more than that of B, hence it has greater young’s Modulus.
greater for A.
4. QUESTION: A wire stretches by a certain amount under a load. If the load and radius
both are increased to four times, find the stretch caused in wire.
𝐹𝐿 𝐹 𝐴𝐿 𝐹𝑉
ANSWER: ⇒ Y=𝐴Δ𝐿 = 𝐴2 Δ𝐿 = 𝐴2 Δ𝐿
So F 𝛼 A2
Thus F’ 𝛼 (3A)2
So F’ = 9F
𝛥𝑉
So, 4x10-5 = 100 𝑋 100 or ΔV = 0.4 cm3
8. QUESTION: (a) Write the unit of Bulk modulus. Is it a vector or a scaler quantity?
ANSWER: (a) The SI unit of Bulk modulus is Nm-2 or Pascal(Pa). It is a scaler quantity.
𝛥𝑉 𝛥𝑙 2
(b) As V = 𝑙 3 So =3 = 3 (100) = 0.06
𝑉 𝑙
ANSWER:
10. QUESTION: Two wires of diameters 0.25 cm, one made of steel and the other made
of brass are loaded as shown in figure. The unloaded length of steel wire is 1.5 m
and that of brass Wire is 1.0 m. Compute the elongations of the steel and the
brass wires.
ANSWER:
11. QUESTION: Draw stress-strain curve for steel rod under load and explain each term.
ANSWER:
The point B in the curve is known as yield point (also known as elastic limit) and
deformation. The point D on the graph is the ultimate tensile strength (σu) of the
material. Beyond this point, additional strain is produced even by a reduced applied
force and fracture occurs at point E. If the ultimate strength and fracture points D
and E are close, the material is said to be brittle. If they are far apart, the
13. QUESTION: State Hook’s Law of elasticity. What are different types modulus of
elasticity? Explain.
ANSWER: Hook’s law: For small deformations the stress and strain are proportional
to each other. This is known as Hooke’s law.
stress = k × strain,
Modulus of elasticity: The proportional region within the elastic limit of the stress-
strain curve The ratio of stress and strain, is called modulus of elasticity.
𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑠
= modulus of elasticity.
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Young’s Modulus:
Y= σ/ε
Y = (F/A)/(∆L/L) = (F × L) /(A × ∆L)
Bulk modulus: Within elastic limit, the ratio of hydraulic
B = – p/(∆V/V)
The bulk moduli for solids are much larger than for liquids, which are again much
14. QUESTION: (1) Following are the graphs of elastic materials. Which one corresponds
to that of brittle material?
(4) The ratio stress/strain remains constant for small Deformation. What happens to
this ratio, if deformations are made very large.
(3) This is because the hollow shaft is stronger than a solid shaft made from the
same and equal amount of material.
(4) If the deforming force exceeds the elastic limit, the strain increases more
ANSWER: For a perfectly rigid body strain produced is zero for the given force
applied, so Y = stress/strain = ∞
ANSWER: Yield point is the point, beyond which the wire starts showing large
increase in strain even a small change in the stress.
3. QUESTION: For an equal stretching force F, how the young's modulus (Ys) for steel
and rubber (Yr) are related with each other?
ANSWER: The ratio of stress to strain is always constant. If stress is increased, strain
will also increase so that their ratio remains constant.
ANSWER: Compressibility
8. QUESTION: If the density of the material increases, how the value of Young`s
modulus changes?
ANSWER: Increases.
10. QUESTION: What is the impact on Young Modulus of Elasticity with rise in
temperature?
ANSWER: Decreases
11. QUESTION: Which of the two forces – deforming or restoring is responsible for
elastic behavior of substance?
12. QUESTION: What is the Bulk modulus for a perfect rigid body?
13. QUESTION: What are the factors which affects the elasticity of a substance?
(any two)
14 QUESTION: The value of tan (90° – 𝜃) in the graph gives, which physical quantity?
ANSWER: The materials for which strain produced is much larger than the stress
applied, with in the limit of elasticity are called elastomers, e.g., rubber, the elastic
tissue of aorta.
CHAPTER - 10
GIST OF LESSION:
➢ Thrust -The total force exerted by the liquid at rest, on any surface in contact
with it is called the thrust of the liquid on that surface .
➢ Pressure P = Thrust / Area = F / A . Its Sl unit is N/m² or Pascal (Pa),
Pressure exerted by a liquid column P = pgh
where, h-height of liquid column, g-acceleration due to gravity. p-density of
liquid.
➢ Pascal's law it states that if an external pressure is applied to an enclosed
liquid, it is transmitted undiminished equally to all other points of the liquid and
to the walls of container.
➢ Atmospheric pressure The pressure exerted by the atmosphere is called
atmospheric pressure.
At sea-level, we have atmospheric pressure = 1.013x105 Nm-2
➢ Absolute Pressure and gauge pressure The total or actual pressure p at a
point is called absolute pressure. Gauge pressure is the difference between
the actual pressure (absolute pressure) at a point and the atmospheric
pressure. Thus,
Pg = P - Pa or P = P a + Pg
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure.
➢ Buoyancy It states that when a body is partially or fully dipped into a fluid, the
fluid exerts an upward force on the body called as buoyant force and this
phenomenon is called buoyancy.
➢ Archimedes principle It states that when a body is partially or fully dipped in
a fluid at rest, the fluid exerts an upward force of buoyancy equal to the weight
of the displaced fluid.
➢ Surface tension (S) Surface tension is the property of a liquid due to which
its free surface behaves like stretched elastic membrane and tends to have
least possible surface area.
SI unit of surface tension is Nm-1 or Jm-2 .
➢ Capillarity The phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid in the capillary tube is
called capillarity.
𝟐𝑺 𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜽
Height of rise of liquid in capillary is given by h = ,
𝝆𝑹𝒈
A hydraulic lift is a device for moving objects using force created by pressure on
a liquid inside a cylinder that moves a piston upward. Incompressible oil is
pumped into the cylinder, which forces the piston upward. When a valve opens
to release the oil, the piston lowers by gravitational force.
The principle for hydraulic lifts is based on Pascal‘s law for generating force or
motion, which states that pressure change on an incompressible liquid in a
confined space is passed equally throughout the liquid in all directions.
The concept of Pascal‘s law and its application to hydraulics can be seen in the
example below, where a small amount of force is applied to an incompressible
liquid on the left to create a large amount of force on the right.
(i). SI unit of pressure is
(A) Newton
(B) Pascal
(ii). Pressure is a
(A)Pascal ‘s law
(A) [M1L0T-1]
(B) [ML1T-1]
(C) [M0L1T-2]
(D) [M1L-1T-2]
(v). Radius of one arm of hydraulic lift is four times of radius of another arm.
What force should be applied on narrow arm to lift 100 kg?
(A) 26.5 N
(B) 62.5 N
(C) 6.25 N
(D) 8.3 N
CASE 2. Ball moving with spin
A ball which is spinning drags air along with it. If the surface is rough more air
will be dragged. Fig shows the streamlines of air for a ball which is moving and
spinning at the same time. The ball is moving forward and relative to it the air is
moving backwards. Therefore, the velocity of air above the ball relative to it is
larger and below it is smaller. The stream lines thus get crowded above and
rarified below.
(B)Angular momentum
(C) Mass
(D) Energy
(ii). An aeroplane gets its upward lift due to a phenomenon described by the
(A) Archemedes’ principle
(A) 10 m/s
(B) 5 m/s
(C) 20 m/s
(D) 15 m/s
When a body falls through a fluid it drags the layer of the fluid in contact with
it. A relative motion between the different layers of the fluid is set and as a
result the body experiences a retarding force. Falling of a raindrop and swinging
of a pendulum bob are some common examples of such motion. It is seen that
the viscous force is proportional to the velocity of the object and is opposite to
the direction of motion. The other quantities on which the force F depends are
viscosity η of the fluid and radius a of the sphere. Sir George G. Stokes (1819-
1903), an English scientist enunciated clearly the viscous drag force F as
F = π6ηav
(i). For a ball falling in a liquid with constant velocity, ratio of resistance force
due to the liquid to that due to gravity is
(A) 1:2
2𝑎2 𝜌𝑔
(B) 9𝜂 2
2𝑎2 (𝜌−𝜎)𝑔
(C) 9𝜂
(ii). A spherical of mass m and radius r is falling in the column of a viscous liquid.
Terminal velocity attained by falling object is proportional to
(A)r2
(B) r
(C) r-2
(D) r-1
Surface tension is a force per unit length (or surface energy per unit area) acting
in the plane of the interface between the plane of the liquid and any other
substance; it also is the extra energy that the molecules at the interface have as
compared to molecules in the interior. At any point on the interface besides the
boundary, we can draw a line and imagine equal and opposite surface tension
forces S per unit length of the line acting perpendicular to the line, in the plane
of the interface. The line is in equilibrium. To be more specific, imagine a line of
atoms or molecules at the surface. The atoms to the left pull the line towards
them; those to the right pull it towards them! This line of atoms is in
equilibrium under tension. If the line really marks the end of the interface, as in
fig there is only the force S per unit length acting inwards.
(i). What is the work done in blowing a soap bubble of radius r and surface
tension S?
(A) 8 π S r2
(B) 4 π S r2
(C)8 π S r
(D) 4 π S r
(ii). If a mercury drop is divided into 8 equal parts, its total energy
(A)dyne/cm
(B) N/m2
(C) N/m
(D) Nm
(A) Gravity
(B) Viscosity
CASE 5 Viscosity
Viscosity is, essentially, fluid friction. Like friction between moving solids,
viscosity transforms kinetic energy of (macroscopic) motion into heat energy.
Heat is energy of random motion at the molecular level, so to have any
understanding of how this energy transfer takes place, it is essential to have
some picture, however crude, of solids and/or liquids sliding past each other as
seen on the molecular scale.
(i).The tangential force or viscous force on any layer of the liquid is directly
proportional to the velocity gradient. Then the direction of velocity gradient is
(A) Nm/s
(B) Nm2/s
(C) N/m2s-1
(D) Nms2
(iii). Viscous force exerted by the liquid flowing between two plates in a
streamline flow depends upon
(v). While studying about fluid mechanics, the equations and postulates stand
for the fluid which are
ANS (i) ANS (ii) ANS (iii) ANS (iv) ANS (v)
CASE 1 B A A D B
CASE 2 D B B A D
CASE 3 D A C A A
CASE 4 A B C D A
CASE 5 D C D A C
TWO MARK QUESTIONS:
1. QUESTION: State the angle of contact and on what values do the angle of contact
depends?
ANSWER: Angle of contact between a liquid and a solid is defined as the angle
enclosed between the tangents to the liquid surface and the solid surface inside the
liquid, both the tangents being drawn at the point of contact of liquid with the
solid. It depends upon:-
1) Upon nature of liquid and solid in contact
2) The Medium which exists above the free surface of liquid.
3. QUESTION: What is stoke’s law and what are the factors on which viscous drag
depends?
ANSWER: The force acting between the liquid and falling body interface is
proportional to velocity and radius of the spherical object and viscosity of fluid.
Factors on which viscous drag depends are :-
F = 6πηrv
Where, F is the drag force or frictional force at the interface.
η is viscosity of a liquid.
r is radius of the spherical body.
V is velocity of object.
4. QUESTION: Two soap bubbles of different diameter are in contact with a certain
portion common to both the bubbles. What will be the shape of the common
boundary as seen from inside the smaller bubble? Support your answer with a neat
diagram and justify your answer.
ANSWER:
When seen from inside the smaller bubble the common surface will appear
concave as :- the pressure (excess) = 2T/R , Will be greater for concave surface & as
R is small for the smaller bubble, the pressure will be greater.
5. QUESTION: Write any two differences between streamline and turbulent flow.
ANSWER: (Instruction :- in exam you can write any two of the following)
Streamline flow :-
(i) The path of every particle is same
(ii) The velocity of particle is constant in magnitude and direction at a point.
(iii) The flow remains streamline below critical velocity.
(iv) No circular currents or eddies are developed
Turbulent flow :-
(i)The path of every particle is different
(ii) The velocity of particle at each point is not constant
(iii) The flow becomes turbulent after critical velocity.
(iv) Random circular currents called vertices are developed
6. QUESTION: Why are the droplets of mercury when brought in contact pulled
together to form a bigger drop? Also, a state with reasons whether the
temperature of this bigger drop will be the same or more or less than the
temperature of the smaller drop.
ANSWER: It is due to large cohesive force acting between the molecule as of
mercury that the droplets of mercury when brought in contact pulled together to
form a bigger drop in order to make potential energy minimum. The temperature
of this bigger drop increases since the total surface area decreases.
7. QUESTION: A drop of oil placed on the surface of water spreads out. But a drop of
water placed on oil contracts to a spherical shape. Explain both the phenomenon.
ANSWER: A drop of oil placed on the surface of water spreads because the force of
adhesion between water molecules and oil molecules dominates the cohesive
force-of oil molecules. So oil drop on water spreads.
On the other hand, the cohesive force of water molecules dominates the adhesive
force between water and oil molecules. So drop of water on oil contracts to a
spherical shape.
8. QUESTION: Show that liquid at rest exerts force perpendicular to the surface of the
container at every point.
ANSWER: Let a given quality of liquid exert force F in a direction θ with the
horizontal. Resolving, we get Fcos θ along horizontal surface of liquid and Fsin θ
along the vertical.
Consider the cross sectional area of the first piston is A1 and the cross sectional
area of the second piston is A2. The piston directly exerts a force F1 to the fluid. The
pressure P = F1/A1
Now P = F1/A1 is transferred throughout the fluid to the second piston of area A 2
and creates a upward force F2 ,
So, F2 = P×A2
F2 = F1(A2/A1) , by putting the value of P
Due to this F2 (large generated force by factor of A2/A1) , the piston is capable of
supporting a large weighted object.
10. QUESTION: Mention two similarities and two dissimilarities between frictional force
and viscous force.
ANSWER: Similarity:-
(i)Both came in to play whenever there is relative motion.
(ii)Both opposes relative motion.
Dissimilarity:-
(i)Viscous force depends on the velocity gradient and area of contact and frictional
force independent of area of contact and relative velocity.
(ii)Viscosity of liquid decrease with increase in temperature, Where as friction
independent of temperature.
Let P1 and P2 be liquid pressure at top and bottom of container respectively and
pressure is same at all points inside container else liquid will not be in equilibrium.
F1+W=F2 so F2-F1= W
P2A-P1A= Ahg
P2-P1=hg
So P-Pa = hg
P= Pa + hg
So the pressure at any point inside the fluid depends on the depth h.
P2-P1= hg =0
So P2 = P1
That is pressure at all points inside the liquid is same in the absence of gravity. This
is Pascal's law and in presence of gravity Pascal's law is modified as P2-P1 = hdg
2. QUESTION: Show that the pressure exerted by a liquid column is proportional to its
height.
ANSWER:
Consider a vessel of height ‘h’ and cross-sectional area ‘A’ filled with a liquid of
density ‘’.
The weight of the liquid column exerts a downward thrust on the bottom of the
vessel and the liquid exerts pressure.
W= mass of liquid x g
= volume x density x g
= Ah x x g = Ahg
P = Thrust/ area
P =W/A
P = Ahg / A
P = hg
Hence proved.
Explanation. The liquid presses normally on the surface of the container. In the case
of vessel (a), the reaction R is inclined in the downward direction as shown in Fig.
The vertical component V increases the downward thrust of the liquid. In the case
of vessel (b) the pressure is normal to the walls. The pressure acts horizontally on
the walls. The reaction R of the walls is also horizontal. In case of vessel (c), the
reaction R of the wall is inclined upwards. The vertical component V reduces the
downward thrust of liquid.
4. QUESTION: If a big drop of radius R is formed by 1000 small droplets of water, then
find the radius of small drop?
ANSWER: Let r = Radius of small drop ,R = Radius of Big drop
Now, Let P = Density of water
Mass of 1000 small droplets = 1000 × volume × Density
= 1000 x 4/3πr3 x P
Mass of big drop = 4/3πR3xP
Now Mass of 1000small drops = Mass of big drop
1000x4/3πr3xP = 4/3πR3xP
1000 r3 = R3
r = R/10
Hence the radius of small drop is (1/10) times the radius of big drop.
5. QUESTION: A U-tube contains water and methylated spirit separated by mercury.
The mercury columns in the two arms are in level with 10.0 cm of water in one arm
and 12.5 cm of spirit in the other. What is the specific gravity of spirit?
ANSWER: The given system of water , mercury and methylated spirit is shown as
follows :-
Where,
When the area of cross-section in the middle of the venturimeter is small, the speed
of the flow of liquid through this part is more. According to Bernoulli's principle, if
speed is more, then pressure is less.
Pressure is directly proportional to height. Hence, the level of water in pipe 2 is less.
7. QUESTION: (a) What is the largest average velocity of blood flow in an artery of
radius 2x10-3 m if the flow must remain laminar? (b) What is the corresponding flow
rate? (Take viscosity of blood to be 2.084x10-3Pa s). Reynolds' number for laminar
flow, NR = 2000
ANSWER: (a) Radius of the artery, r = 2x10-3 m
Viscosity of blood,
Density of blood,
= 0.983 m/s
R = π r2 Vavg
= 3πD2 - πD2
9. QUESTION: What is the energy stored in a soap babble of diameter 4 cm, given the
surface tension = 0.07 N/m?
ANSWER: Diameter of soap bubble = 4 cm = 4 × 10-2m
Energy Stored :-
10. QUESTION: A liquid drop of diameter 4 mm breaks into 1000 droplets of equal size.
Calculate the resultant change in the surface energy. Surface tension of the liquid is
0.07 N/m?
ANSWER: Since the diameter of drop = 4mm
Let r be the radius of each of the small droplets volume of big drop = 1000 x volume
of the small droplets
or R = 10r
Original surface area of the big drop = 4πR2 ; surface area of 1000 small drops
=1000x4πr2
= 4x (22/7) [ 4 - 0.4]10-5
= 3168x10-8 J
= 3.168x10-5 J
11. Show that there is an excess of pressure on curved surface of liquid, which is more
on concave face that on convex face of curved surface of liquid.
ANSWER: If the liquid surface is curved, the molecule O on the liquid
surface is acted upon, bythe forces (S, S) due to surface tension along
the tangents to the surface, (fig) Resolving these forces into horizontal
and vertical components, we note that the horizontal components
cancel each other whereas vertical components add up.
Thus a resultant force would be acting on the curved surface of the
liquid which acts towards its centre of curvature. It means, the
resultant force is directed inwards incase of convex surface and is
directed outward in case of concave surface.
12. QUESTION: Explain why
(a) The angle of contact of mercury with glass is obtuse, while that of water with
glass is acute.
(b) Water on a clean glass surface tends to spread out while mercury on the same
surface tends to form drops. (Put differently, water wets glass while mercury does
not.)
(a) The angle between the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact and
the surface inside the liquid is called the angle of contact (Ɵ), as shown in the given
figure.
= (2s cos Ɵ / r1pg ) - (2s cos Ɵ / r2 pg )
Sla ,Ssa and Ssl, are the respective interfacial tensions between the liquid-air, solid air,
and solid-liquid interfaces. At the line of contact, the surface forces between the
three media must be in equilibrium, i.e.,
The angle of contact θ , is obtuse if Sla , Ssa<Sla (as in the case of mercury on glass).
This angle is acute if Ssl<Sla (as in the case of water on glass) .
(b)Mercury molecules (which make an obtuse angle with glass) have a strong force
of attraction between themselves and a weak force of attraction toward solids.
Hence, they tend to form drops.
On the other hand, water molecules make acute angles with glass. They have a
weak force of attraction between themselves and a strong force of attraction
toward solids. Hence, they tend to spread out.
(c) Surface tension is the force acting per unit length at the interface between the
plane of a liquid and any other surface. This force is independent of the area of the
liquid surface. Hence, surface tension is also independent of the area of the liquid
surface.
14. QUESTION: Explain why
(a) To keep a piece of paper horizontal, you should blow over, not under, it.
(b) When we try to close a water tap with our fingers, fast jets of water gush
through the openings between our fingers.
(c) The size of the needle of a syringe controls flow rate better than the thumb
pressure exerted by a doctor while administering an injection.
ANSWER: (a) When air is blown under a paper, the velocity of air is greater under
the paper than it is above it. As per Bernoulli's principle, atmospheric pressure
reduces under the paper. This makes the paper fall. To keep a piece of paper
horizontal, one should blow over it. This increases the velocity of air above the
paper. As per Bernoulli's principle, atmospheric pressure reduces above the paper
and the paper remains horizontal.
= Constant
For a smaller opening, the velocity of flow of a fluid is greater than it is when the
opening is bigger. When we try to close a tap of water with our fingers, fast jets of
water gush through the openings between our fingers. This is because very small
openings are left for the water to flow out of the pipe. Hence, area and velocity are
inversely proportional to each other.
(c) The small opening of a syringe needle controls the velocity of the blood flowing
out. This is because of the equation of continuity. At the constriction point of the
syringe system, the flow rate suddenly increases to a high value for a constant
thumb pressure applied.
15. QUESTION: State the principle on which Hydraulic brakes work and explain its
working with suitable diagram?
ANSWER: Hydraulic Brakes: - Hydraulic brakes work on the principle of Pascal’s
law.
Therefore when we apply force on a small piston, pressure gets created which is
transmitted through the fluid to a larger piston. As a result of this larger force,
Construction:-
The figure shows the schematic diagram of a hydraulic brake system. The brake
system has a main cylinder filled with brake oil. The main cylinder is provided with a
piston P which is connected to the brake pedal through a lever assembly. The fluid
in the hydraulic brake is known as brake fluid.
The wheel cylinders consist of two pistons P1 and P2 between which fluid is filled.
wheel brake consists of a cylinder brake drum. This drum is mounted on the inner
side of wheel. The drum revolves with the wheel.Two brake shoes S1 and S2 which
When the brake pedal is pressed, piston P is pushed due to the lever assembly
operation. The pressure in the main cylinder is transmitted to P1 and P2. The
pistons P1 and P2 push the brake shoes away, which in turn press against the inner
rim of the wheel. Thus the motion of the wheel is arrested. The area of the pistons
P1 and P2 are greater than that of P. Therefore according to Pascal’s law a small
force applied to the brake pedal produces a large thrust on the wheel rim. The main
cylinder is connected to all the wheels of the automobile through pipe line for
applying equal pressure to all the wheels. The frictional force between these force
components causes the vehicle to stop.
Let A1 and A2 are the areas of the pistons P and (P1 or P2) respectively, F is the
force applied on brake lever on piston P and W is the work done (braking force) by
pistons P1 and P2 on brake shoes S1 and S2, then
In the above equation (A2/A1) is called the mechanical advantage of the Hydraulic
Brakes.
So by applying small force F on brake lever we can stop the moving vehicle.
16. QUESTION: (a) State & prove Bernoulli’s theorem.
(b) A plane is in level flight at constant speed and each of its two wings has an area
of 25m2. If the speed of the air is 180 km/h over the lower wing and 234 km/h over
the upper wing surface, determine the plane's mass. (Take air density to be 1
kg /m2).
ANSWER: (a) According to Bernoulli’s theorem, the sum of the energies possessed
by a flowing ideal liquid at a point per unit volume is constant provided that the
liquid is incompressible and non-viscous and flows in streamline.
Proof:
Let P1 > P2
a1 v1 s = a2 v2 s = m
or a1 v1 = a2 v2 = m/s = v
As a1 > a2 ∴ v2 >v1
Force of on liquid at A = p1 a1
Force on liquid at B = p2 a2
= p1 v – p2 v →(1)
If ‘m’ mass of liquid flows in one second from A to B then Increases in potential
energy per second from A to B = mgh2 – mgh1 →(2)
1 1
Increase in kinetic energy/second of liquid from A to B = 2 m(v2)2 - 2 m(v1)2 → (3)
1 1
P1 v + mgh1 + m(v1)2 = p2 v + m(v2)2 + mgh2
2 2
Dividing throughout by m →
……..→ (4)
𝑚
Now Density s= 𝑣
Hence, →4)
𝑝 1
+ gh + 2 v2 = Constant
𝑠
𝑝
= Pressure energy per unit mass
𝑠
Density of air,
Pressure of air over the lower wing = ; Pressure of air over the upper wing=
The upward force on the plane can be obtained using Bernoulli's equation as:
………(i)
= 43125N
Using Newton's force equation, we can obtain the mass (m) of the plane as:
F = mg
= 4400.51 kg 4400 kg ; Hence, the mass of the plane is about 4400 kg.
17. QUESTION: (a)what is the phenomenon of capillarity ? Derive an expression for the
rise of liquid in a capillary tube and show that the height of the liquid column
supported is inversely proportional to the radius the of the tube.
(b) What will happen if the length of a capillary tube is less than the height upto
which the liquid may rises in it? Explain briefly.
ANSWER: (a) A capillary tube is a tube with a very fine bore. The phenomenon of a
rise and fall of a liquid inside a capillary tube with respect to its surrounding (in
which liquid it is dipped) is called capillary action or capillarity.
P = 2/R
r/R = cosƟ
or R = r/ cosƟ
∴ p = 2 cosƟ/r
Due to this excess pressure p, the liquid rises in the capillary tube to height h when
the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the liquid column becomes equal the excess
pressure p. Therefore, at equilibrium we have :
p=hpg
or 2 cosƟ/r =hpg
or h = 2 cosƟ/rpg
This is the ascent formula for the rise of liquid in capillary tube. If we take into
account the volume of quid contained in the meniscus, then the above formula gets
modified as :
The ascent formula shows that the height h to which a liquid rises in the capillary
tube is :
h = 2 cosƟ/rpg
The radius r of the capillary tube and radius of curvature R of the liquid meniscus
are related by
r = RcosƟ ……………..(1)
hR = 2 /pg
or hR = a constant
so it implies hR =h’R’
where R' is the radius of curvature of the new meniscus at a height h'.
As h’< h ; so R’> R
Hence in a capillary tube of insufficient height, the liquid rises to the top and
spreads out to a new radius of curvature R' given by :
GIST OF LESSON:
1. Heat is the form of energy transferred between two (or more) systems or a system and its
surroundings by virtue of temperature difference. The SI unit of heat energy transferred is
expressed in joule (J).
In CGS system, unit of heat is calorie and kilocalorie (kcal).
1 cal = 4.186 J and 1 kcal = 1000 cal = 4186 J.
3. Thermal Expansion
The increase of size of a body due to the increase in the temperature is called thermal expansion.
Three types of expansions can take place in solids viz. linear, superficial and volume expansion.
(i) Linear Expansion: The increase in the length of a solid on heating is called linear expansion.
If the temperature of a rod of original length l is raised by a small amount Δt, its length increases
by Δl. Then the linear expansion is given by
Δl = l α Δt
where a is the coefficient of linear expansion of the given solid. The unit of α is per degree Celsius
(°C-1) in the CGS and per kelvin (K-1) in the SI system.
(ii) Superficial or Area Expansion: The increase in surface area of the solid on heating is called
superficial expansion.
If A0 is the area of a solid at 0°C and A( its area at t°C then
At = A0(l + βt)
where β is known as the coefficient of superficial expansion. Unit of β is °C-1 or K-1.
(iii) Volume Expansion: The increase in volume of the solid on heating is called volume expansion.
The relation among coefficients of linear expansion (α), superficial expansion (β) and volume
expansion (γ) is given as
• For a given solid, the three coefficients of expansion α , β, γ are not constant. Their values
depend on the temperature range.
Thermal Capacity
The thermal capacity of a body is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of the
whole of the body through a unit degree. It is measured in calorie per °C or joule per K.
If Q be the amount of heat needed to produce a change in temperature (Δt) of the substance,
then thermal capacity of the substance is given by
Dimensional formula of heat capacity is [ML2T -2K-1 ],
where m is mass of substance and Q is the heat required to change its temperature Δt.
• Molar specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 mole of the substance by 1°C.
• Latent Heat
Latent heat of a substance is the amount of heat energy required to change the state of unit mass
of the substance from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas/vapour without any change in
temperature.
• The latent heat of fusion (Lf) is the heat per unit mass required to change a substance from solid
into liquid at the same temperature and pressure. The latent heat of vaporisation (L v) is the heat
per unit mass required to change a substance from liquid to vapour state without change in
temperature and pressure.
• Heat Transfer
Heat can be transferred from one place to another by three different methods, namely,
conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction usually takes place in solids, convection in
liquids and gases, and no medium is required for radiation.
(i) Conduction: According to Maxwell, conduction is the flow of heat through an unequally heated
body from places of higher temperature to those of lower temperature. Rate of heat transfer is
given by
(iv) Wein’s Displacement Law : This law states that as the temperature of black body increases,
the maximum value of the radiant energy emitted by the black body, move towards shorter
wavelengths. Wein found that “The product of the wavelength ( λm) corresponding to maximum
intensity of radiation and the Kelvin temperature (T) of the black body should remain constant.”
λm x T= b
Where b is constant known as Wein’s constant. Its value is 2.898 x 10-3 mk.
(v) Stefan’s Law : This law states that the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black
body in unit time is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature T.
Emission coefficient or degree of blackness of a body is represented by a dimensionless quantity
ε, 0 < ε < 1. If ε = 1 then the body is perfectly black body. Hence
CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS:
CASE 1. TOPIC: THERMAL EXPENSION
You can often loosen a tight metal jar lid by holding it under a stream of hot water.
Both the metal of the lid and the glass of the jar expand as the hot water adds
energy to their atoms. (With the added energy, the atoms can move a bit farther
from one another than usual, against the spring-like inter-atomic forces that hold
every solid together.) However, because the atoms in the metal move farther apart
than those in the glass, the lid expands more than the jar and thus is loosened. Such
thermal expansion of materials with an increase in temperature must be
anticipated in many common situations. When a bridge is subject to large seasonal
changes in temperature, for example, sections of the bridge are separated by
expansion slots so that the sections have room to expand on hot days without the
bridge buckling. When a dental cavity is filled, the filling material must have the
same thermal expansion
properties as the surrounding
tooth; otherwise, consuming
cold ice cream and then hot
coffee would be very painful.
When the Concorde aircraft
(Fig.) was built, the design had
to allow for the thermal
expansion of the fuselage
during supersonic flight because of frictional heating by the passing air. When a
Concorde flew faster than the speed of sound, thermal expansion due to the
rubbing by passing air increased the aircraft’s length by about 12.5 cm. (The
temperature increased to about 128 C at the aircraft nose and about 90 C at the tail,
and cabin windows were noticeably warm to the touch.)
In determining and then using the specific heat of any substance, we need to know
the conditions under which energy is transferred as heat. For solids and liquids, we
usually assume that the sample is under constant pressure (usually atmospheric)
during the transfer. It is also conceivable that the sample is held at constant volume
while the heat is absorbed. This means that thermal expansion of the sample is
prevented by applying external pressure. When energy is absorbed as heat by a
solid or liquid, the temperature of the sample does not necessarily rise. Instead, the
sample may change from one phase, or state, to another. Matter can exist in three
common states: In the solid state, the molecules of a sample are locked into a fairly
rigid structure by their mutual attraction. In the liquid state, the molecules have
more energy and move about more. They may form brief clusters, but the sample
does not have a rigid structure and can flow or settle into a container. In the gas, or
vapor, state, the molecules have even more energy, are free of one another, and
can fill up the full volume of a container.
Earth's atmosphere is composed primarily of nitrogen and oxygen. These gases are
transparent to incoming solar radiation. They are also transparent to outgoing
infrared radiation, which means that they do not absorb or emit solar or infrared
radiation. However, there are other gases in Earth's atmosphere that do absorb
infrared radiation. These
gases are known as
greenhouse gases. Below
are the most important
greenhouse gases that
influence Earth's climate
system. When an object is
hot enough, you can see the
radiation it emits as visible
light. For example, when a
stovetop burner reaches
1,000 Kelvin (K) — 726°
Celsius (C) or 1,340° Fahrenheit (F) — it will glow red. All objects actually emit
radiation if their temperature is greater than absolute zero. Absolute zero is equal to
zero Kelvin, which is equal to -273°C or -460°F. Both the sun and Earth's surface
behave as blackbodies. An object that absorbs and emits all possible radiation at 100
percent efficiency is called a blackbody. For this reason, the following two laws
(Stefan-Boltzmann and Wien’s laws) can be used to explain the correlation between
temperature and radiation for the sun and Earth. The Stefan-Boltzmann law, a
fundamental law of physics, explains the relationship between an object's
temperature and the amount of radiation that it emits. This law (expressed
mathematically as E = σT4) states that all objects with temperatures above absolute
zero (0K or -273°C or -459°F) emit radiation at a rate proportional to the fourth
power of their absolute temperature.
Hence, the actual length of the steel rod measured by the steel tape at 45°C can be
calculated as:
Therefore, the actual length of the rod at 45.0°C is 63.0136 cm. Its length at 27.0°C is 63.0
cm.
2. QUESTION: A large steel wheel is to be fitted on to a shaft of the same material. At 27 °C,
the outer diameter of the shaft is 8.70 cm and the diameter of the central hole in the
wheel is 8.69 cm. The shaft is cooled using ‘dry ice’. At what temperature of the shaft does
the wheel slip on the shaft? Assume coefficient of linear expansion of the steel to be
constant over the required temperature range:
αsteel = 1.20 × 105 K–1
ANSWER: The given temperature, T = 27°C can be written in Kelvin as:27 +273 = 300 K
Outer diameter of the steel shaft at T, d1 = 8.70 cm
Diameter of the central hole in the wheel at T, d2 = 8.69 cm
Coefficient of linear expansion of steel, αsteel = 1.20 × 10–5 K–1
After the shaft is cooled using ‘dry ice’, its temperature becomes T1. The wheel will slip on
the shaft, if the change in diameter, ∆d = 8.69 –8.70 = –0.01 cm
Temperature T1, can be calculated from the relation:
∆d= d1asteel (T1 –T)
= 8.70 × 1.20 × 10–5 (T1 –300)
(T1 –300) = 95.78
T1= 204.21 K
= 204.21 –273.16= –68.95°C
Therefore, the wheel will slip on the shaft when the temperature of the shaft is –69°C.
3. QUESTION: A brass rod of length 50 cm and diameter 3.0 mm is joined to a steel rod of
the same length and diameter. What is the change in length of the combined rod at 250
°C, if the original lengths are at 40.0 °C? Is there a ‘thermal stress’ developed at the
junction? The ends of the rod are free to expand (Co-efficient of linear expansion of brass
= 2.0 × 10–5 K–1, steel = 1.2 × 10–5 K–1).
ANSWER: Initial temperature, T1 = 40°C ,Final temperature, T2 = 250°C
Change in temperature, ΔT = T2 – T1 = 210°C
Length of the brass rod at T1, l1 = 50 cm
Diameter of the brass rod at T1, d1 = 3.0 mm
Length of the steel rod at T1, l2 = 50 cm
Diameter of the steel rod at T2, d2 = 3.0 mm
Coefficient of linear expansion of brass, α1 = 2.0 × 10–5K–1
Coefficient of linear expansion of steel, α2 = 1.2 × 10–5K–1
For the expansion in the brass rod, we have:
4. QUESTION: In an experiment on the specific heat of a metal, a 0.20 kg block of the metal at
150 °C is dropped in a copper calorimeter (of water equivalent 0.025 kg) containing 150
cm3 of water at 27 °C. The final temperature is 40 °C. Compute the specific heat of the
metal. If heat losses to the surroundings are not negligible, is your answer greater or
smaller than the actual value for specific heat of the metal
ANSWER: Mass of the metal, m = 0.20 kg = 200 g
Initial temperature of the metal, T1 = 150°C
Final temperature of the metal, T2 = 40°C
Calorimeter has water equivalent of mass, m’ = 0.025 kg = 25 g
Volume of water, IN = 150 cm3
Mass (M) of water at temperature T = 27°C:
150 × 1 = 150 g
Fall in the temperature of the metal:
∆T = T1 –T2 = 150 –40 = 110°C
Specific heat of water, Cw = 4.186 J/g/°K
Specific heat of the metal = C
Heat lost by the metal, ∆Q = mC∆T ... (i)
Rise in the temperature of the water and calorimeter system:
∆T′ = 40 –27 = 13°C
Heat gained by the water and calorimeter system:
∆Q′′ = m1 Cw∆T’
= (M + m′) Cw∆T’ ... (ii)
Heat lost by the metal = Heat gained by the water and colorimeter system
mC∆T = (M + m’) Cw∆T’
200 × C × 110 = (150 + 25) × 4.186 × 13
If some heat is lost to the surroundings, then the value of C will be smaller than the
actual value.
5. QUESTION: A thermacole icebox is a cheap and efficient method for storing small quantities
of cooked food in summer in particular. A cubical icebox of side 30 cm has a thickness of
5.0 cm. If 4.0 kg of ice is put in the box, estimate the amount of ice remaining after 6 h.
The outside temperature is 45 °C, and co-efficient of thermal conductivity of thermacole is
0.01 J s–1 m–1 K–1. [Heat of fusion of water =335 × 103 J kg–1]
ANSWER: Side of the given cubical ice box, s = 30 cm = 0.3 m
Thickness of the ice box, l = 5.0 cm = 0.05 m
Mass of ice kept in the ice box, m = 4 kg
Time gap, t = 6 h = 6 × 60 × 60 s
Outside temperature, T = 45°C
Coefficient of thermal conductivity of thermacole, K = 0.01 J s–1 m–1 K–1
Heat of fusion of water, L = 335 × 103 J kg–1
Let m’ be the total amount of ice that melts in 6 h.
The amount of heat lost by the food
6. QUESTION: A brass boiler has a base area of 0.15 m2 and thickness 1.0 cm. It boils water at
the rate of 6.0 kg/min when placed on a gas stove. Estimate the temperature of the
part of the flame in contact with the boiler. Thermal conductivity of brass= 109 J s –1 m–1 K–
1
; Heat of vaporisation of water = 2256 × 103 J kg–1.
ANSWER: Base area of the boiler, A = 0.15 m2
Thickness of the boiler, l = 1.0 cm = 0.01 m
Boiling rate of water, R = 6.0 kg/min
Mass, m = 6 kg
Time, t = 1 min = 60 s
Thermal conductivity of brass, K = 109 J s –1 m–1 K–1
Heat of vaporisation, L = 2256 × 103 J kg–1
The amount of heat flowing into water through the brass base of the boiler is given by
Where,
T1 = Temperature of the flame in contact with the boiler
T2 = Boiling point of water = 100°C
Heat required for boiling the water:
Q = mL ... (ii)
Equating equations (i) and (ii), we get
Therefore, the temperature of the part of the flame in contact with the boiler is 237.98°C
7. QUESTION: What is greenhouse effect for the atmosphere of the earth and what is its
importance?
ANSWER: Greenhouse effect is the phenomenon which keeps the earth’s surface warm at
night. The radiation from the sun heats up the earth. Due to its lower temperature, the
earth re-radiates it mostly in the infrared region. These infrared radiations cannot pass
through the lower atmosphere, they get reflected back by gas molecules. Low lying clouds
also reflect them back to earth. These radiations heat up the objects on the earth’s surface
and so keep the earth’s surface warm at night.
8. QUESTION: Define coefficient of thermal conductivity. Write its SI and CGS units.
ANSWER: It is defined as the quantity of heat energy that flows in unit time between the
opposite faces of a cube of unit side, the faces being kept at one degree difference of
temperature. Its CGS unit is cals-1cm-1 0C-1 and SI unit is Js-1m-1k-1 or Wm-1k-1.
9. QUESTION: Explain the three modes of transfer of heat from one object to other.
ANSWER: The three modes of transfer of heat are as follows-:
a) Conduction-: It is a process in which heat is transmitted from one part of a body to
another at a lower temperature through molecular collisions , without any actual flow of
matter. Solids are heated by the process of conduction
b) Convection-: It is the process by which heat flows from the region of higher
temperature by the actual movement of the material particles. Fluids (liquids and gases )
are heated by the process of convection in which buoyancy and gravity play an important
role.
c) Radiation-: It is the process by which heat is transmitted from one place to another
without heating the transmitting medium. The heat from the sun reaches the earth by the
process of radiation.
10. QUESTION: Define the term latent heat capacity and its various types .
ANSWER: Latent heat -: The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of a
substance at constant temperature and pressure. It is given as
Q=mL
Where m is the mass of the substance undergoes a change from one state to another and
L is the latent heat of the substance. Its SI unit is J/Kg
Latent heat is broadly defined in two different ways-:
a) Latent heat of fusion -: The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of
a substance from solid to liquid at its melting point . It is denoted as Lf
b) Latent heat of vaporization-: The amount of heat required to change the state of unit
mass of a substance from liquid to vapour at its boiling point. It is denoted by L v.
11. QUESTION: What is meant by coefficient of linear expansion , superficial expansion and
cubical expansion ? Derive the relation between them.
ANSWER: a) Coefficient of linear expansion(α) -: For solid rod ,it is defined as the increase
in length per unit original length per degree rise in its temperature. The unit of α is 0C-1 or K-
1
We know that,
L =L0(1+αΔT) α= coefficient of linear expansion
A= A0(1+βΔT) β= coefficient of aerial expansion
So, now
V= V0 + γV0ΔT
V= V0 (1+γΔT)
L³= L0³(1+3αΔT)
{Neglecting 3α²ΔT² and α³ΔT³ because they are very smaller than 1}
L³= L0³(1+3αΔT)
V= L0³(1+3αΔT)
V0 (1+γΔT) = V0(1+3αΔT)
1+γΔT = 1+3αΔT
γΔT = 3αΔT
γ=3α
And β=2α
A= A0 (1+βΔT)
L²= L0²(1+αΔT)²
A= L0²(1+2αΔT+α²ΔT²)
A= A0 (1+2αΔT)
A0(1+βΔT) = A0(1+2αΔT)
β=2α
α:β:γ=1:2:3
12. QUESTION: What are convection currents? What role do they play in relation to trade winds
and monsoons ?
ANSWER: Convection currents are those currents which are created when fluids are heated
from below. When heated the hot portion of fluid at bottom expands and become less
dense. Because of buoyancy, this lighter portion rises up. The denser colder fluid takes its
place by moving downwards which set up a current known as convection current in the
fluid.
Role of convection current
a) In the formation of trade winds.- Natural convection plays an important role in the
formation of trade winds. The surface of the earth and hence the air above it near the
equator gets strongly heated by the sun. The heated air expands and rises upwards. The
colder air from polar region rushes in towards the equator. This produces northward wind
in northern hemisphere and southward in southern hemisphere. Due to rotation of the
earth about its axis from west to east, the air close to the equator has an eastward speed of
1600kmh-1, while it is zero close to the poles. As a result, the actual direction of the wind in
the northern hemisphere is north east and in the southern hemisphere , south west. These
winds are called trade winds.
b) Monsoons- Water has much more specific heat than soil or rock. In summer, the land
mass of the Indian subcontinent gets much hotter than the Indian ocean. This sets up
convection current with hot air from land rising and moving towards the Indian ocean, while
the moisture laden air from the ocean moves towards the land. When obstructed by
mountains , the moist air rushes upwards to great height and gets cooled. The moisture
condenses and causes wide-spread rains in India. In winter, the landmass is cooler than the
ocean. Winds blow from the land to ocean. These winds take up moisture as they pass the
Bay of Bengal and cause rainfall in Tamilnadu and Srilanka.
13. QUESTION: State and explain
a) Stefan’s Boltzmann law
b) Wein’s displacement law
ANSWER: Stefan’s Boltzmann law-It states that the total heat energy emitted by a perfect
black body per second per unit area is directly proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature of its surface. Thus
E α T4 or E=σT4
If H is the rate of radiant energy emitted by a black body of surface area A, then Stefan-
Boltzmann law takes the form
H=EA=σT4A
Here σ is a universal constant called Stefan-Boltzmann constant. The above relation is
known as Stefan-Boltzmann law
In SI units σ=5.67x10-8Js-1m-2k-4 or 5.67x10-8Wm-2k-4
In CGS unit σ=5.67x10-5ergs-1cm-2k-4
If a black body is in enclosure at temperature T0,then the rate at which the black body
absorbs radiation from the enclosure is σT04. Therefore the net loss of energy by the black
body per unit time per unit area is
E=σ(T4- T04)
If the body is not a perfect black body and has emissivity ϵ, then the above relation get
modified as follows:
E= ϵσT4
E= ϵσ(T4- T04)
Wein’s displacement law-It states that the wavelength (λm) corresponding to which the
energy emitted by a black body is maximum is inversely proportional to its absolute
temperature (T). Mathematically,
λm α 1/T or λmT=b
Where b is Wien’s constant . Its value is 2.9x10-3mK.
Wien’s law can be used to estimate the surface temperatures of the moon, sun and other
stars. Light from the moon shows a maximum intensity at λm=14μm.By applying Wien’s law ,
the temperature of the surface of the moon turns out to be 200K.Similarly solar radiation
shows a maximum at λm=4753A0.This corresponds to a surface temperature of 6060K.
Thermo dynamical system:- An assembly of large numbers of particles having same temperature,
pressure etc is called thermo dynamical system.
Thermodynamic variables :- The variables which determine the thermodynamic behavior of a system
are called thermodynamic variables
Zeroth law of Thermodynamics :- IT states that if two system A and B are in thermal equilibrium with a
third system C , then the two system A and B are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Cyclic process:- Process where the system returns to its original state.
Equation of state : A relation between pressure, volume and temperature for a system is called its
equation of state .
Indicator diagram (P-V diagram) :- The graphical representation of the state of a system with the help
of two thermodynamical variables is called indicator diagram of the system.
Internal energy of a gas :- It is the sum of kinetic energy and the intermolecular potential energy of the
molecules of the gas. Internal energy is a function of temperature.
First law of Thermodynamics :- It states that if an amount of heat dQ I added to a system , a part of
heat is used in increasing its internal energy while the remaining part of heat may be used up as the
external work done dW by the system.
Mathematically dQ=dU+dW
dQ=dU+ PdV.
Work done during expansion / compression of gas:- When the volume of gas changes from V1 to V2 ,
(1) Isothermal process : A thermodynamic process that takes place at constant temperature is
called an isothermal process.
Adiabatic process : A thermodynamic process that takes place in such a manner that no heat enters or
leaves the system is called adiabatic process
Equation of state for adiabatic process
=constant
Wadia =
Reversible process :- It is a process in which the system can be retraced to its original state by
reversing the condiditions.
Irreversible process:- It is a process in which the system cannot be retraced to its original state by
reversing the conditions.
Clausius statement of second law – It is impossible for a self – acting machine unaided by any external
agency to transfer heat from a body to another body at higher temperature.
Heat Engine – a heat engine is a device for converting heat energy continuously into a mechanical
work.
Component of heat engine- (i) source of heat (ii) Sink (iii) Working substance
Efficiency of heat Engine :-It is defined as the ratio of the external work obtained to the amount of
heat energy absorbed from the heat source.
Mathematically
ȵ= = =1-
Carnot’s heat Engine :- it is an ideal heat Engine which is based on carnot’s reversible cycle.
ȵ= 1- = 1-
Co-efficient of performance : It is the ratio of heat absorbed from cold body to the work done by the
refrigerator.
Mathematically β= = =
CHAPTER 12
THERMODYNAMICS
Two moles of helium gas are taken over the cycle ABCDA as shown in the P → T
diagram as below.
(i). Assuming the gas to be ideal, the work done on the gas in taking from A to B
is
(A) 200 R
(B) 300 R
(C) 400 R
(D) 500 R
(ii). The work done on the gas in taking it from D to A is
(A) – 414 R (B) + 414 R
(C) – 690 R (D) + 690 R
(iii). The net work done on the gas in the cycle ABCDA is
(A) zero
(B) 276 R
(C) 1076 R
(D) 1904 R
(iv). During an adiabatic process, the pressure of gas is found to be proportional
to the cube of its temperature. The ratio of Cp/CV is
(A) 4/3
(B) 2
(C) 5/3
(D) 3/2
(v). A gas is suddenly compressed to ¼ of its original volume. What will be the
rise in temperature if the original temperature being 27˚C, 𝛾 = 1.5
(A) 100 K
(B) 200 K
(C) 300 K
(D) 400 K
2) When a gas expands, d w is taken as positive but when a gas compresses, work
done is taken as negative.
d S ≥ O d S = change in entropy
During the expansion of gas, the thermodynamic probability of gas is larger and
hence its entropy is also very large. Since form second law, entropy cannot decrease
∴ following the second law, gas molecules move from one partition to another.
So,
Divide 2) by 1)
Explanation: The three systems are shown in the figure. Let T1, T2, T3 be the
temperatures of A, B, and C respectively.
Systems A and C, B and C will exchange heat and after a certain time, they will attain
thermal equilibrium separately.
i.e. T1 = T3 ….(1)
and T2 = T3 …. (2)
2. QUESTION: Two different adiabatic paths for the same gas intersect two isothermals
T1 VA Y-1 = T2 VDY-1
Also, points B and C lie on the same adiabatic,
P2 = P1
= 0.76 ×
P2 = 0.76 × (2)1.4
P2 = 2m of Hg column
P2 = hsg
P2 = 2× (13.6x103)× 9.8
h = height of Hg column
s = Density of air
4. QUESTION: Calculate the work done by the gas in going from the P-V graph of the
thermodynamic behavior of a gas from point A to point B to point C?
= -
=-
P A B = 500 Pa
= 5×105 N|m2
Q=U+W
Where,
U = Internal energy
∴U = Q–W
= 100 –75
= 25 J/s
= 25 W
Therefore, the internal energy of the given electric heater increases at a rate of 25
W.
6. QUESTION: Temperature of a system containing 1 mole ideal gas increases by on
amount ΔT = 30 K as a result of heating at constant pressure. If gas obtains an
amount of heat Q= 3.2 KJ. then calculate
(a) work done by the gas
(b) change in its internal energy
(c) value of γ= Cp / Cv
ANSWER: (a) Work done when system undergoes isobaric process is
W = PdV
from ideal gas equation
PV = μRT
here μ = 1
=> PdV = RμT
or W = RΔT
, = 8.314 x 80
= .665 KJ
(b) from first law of thermodynamics
ΔU = Q- W = Q- RΔT
given that Q= 3.2 KJ
ΔU = 3.2 KJ - .665 KJ
= 2.536 KJ
(C) Again the know that
ΔU = μCvΔT
= RΔT / γ-1
γ-1 = RΔT / ΔU
or γ= (RΔT / ΔU) +1
= (.665 KJ x 8.314/ 2.535KJ) +1
= 1.26
7. QUESTION: At 00C and normal atmospheric pressure, the volume of 1g of water
increases from 1cm3 to 1.091 cm3 on free zing. What will be the change in its
internal energy? Normal atmospheric pressure is 1.013x105 N|m2 and the latent
heat of melting of ice is 80 cal/g?
ANSWER: Since, heat is given out by 1 g of water in freezing is
m = Mass of water = 1 g
During freezing, the water expands against atmospheric pressure. Hence, external
work done (W) by water is :- W = P × ∆ V
So, W =
W = 0.0092 J
W=
Since the work has been done by ice, it will be taken positive.
So, ∆∪ = Q – W
= -80.0022 cal
8. QUESTION: Consider the cyclic process A B C A on a sample 2 mol of an ideal gas as
shown. The temperature of the gas at A and B are300 K and 500K respected. Total
of 1200 J of heat is withdrawn from the sample. Find the work done by the gas in
part BC?
ANSWER: The change in internal energy during the cyclic process is zero. Therefore,
heat supplied to the gas is equal to work done by it,
(- ve because the cyclic process is traced anticlockwise the net work done by the
system is negative)
N = No. of volume
Since in this process, the volume increases, the work done by the gas is positive.
WBC = - 4520 J
9. QUESTION: The following figure shows a process A B C A per formed on an ideal gas,
find the net heat given to the system during the process?
ANSWER: Since the process is cyclic, the change in internal energy is zero.
Therefore, the heat given to the system is equal to work done by it. The net work
done by the gas in the process ABCA is:-
= nR (T1 – T2)
10. QUESTION: The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J/kg K. What is the
change In the internal energy of 5 kg of water when it is heated from 20°G
to 80°C?
ANSWER: Here, C = 4200 J/kg K
m = 5 kg
T1 = 20°C + 273 = 293 K
T2 = 80 + 273 = 353 K
ΔT = T2 – T1
= 353 – 293 = 60 K
ΔU = ?
ANSWER: Consider one gram mole of ideal gas initially with pressure, volume and
temperature as P, V, T, Let the gas expand to a volume V2, when pressure reduces to
P2 and at the same temperature T
F=PxA
dw=P×A×dx
dw=P×dv
W=
P=
W=
W = RT
W = R T Loge
W=RT
W = R T Loge
W = 2.3026 R T Log 10
As P1 V1 = P2 V2
So W = 2.3026 R T Log 10
12. QUESTION: Calculate the work done during the adiabatic process. What happens to
the temperature during the process when a) W > 0 b) W < 0 ?
ANSWER: It implies how much work is done during adiabatic change of an ideal gas.
Initially ideal gas is at Pressure P1, Volume V1 and Temperature T1 (P1,V1,T1)
Final state of an ideal gas Pressure P2,Volume V2 and Temperature T2 (P2,V2,T2)
P V γ = const
γ =Cp/Cv
If an ideal gas undergoes a change in its state adiabatically from (P1, V1) to (P2, V2)
P1V1 γ = P2V2 γ
The work done in an adiabatic change of an ideal gas from the
state (P1, V1, T1) to the state (P2, V2, T2).
W =∫ P V dV = P ∫V dV (Integrating between the limits V2 and V1)
For Adiabatic Process
GIST OF LESSON:
Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of Gases
1. Every gas consists of extremely small particles known as molecules. The molecules of a given
gas are all identical but are different from those of another gas.
2. The molecules of a gas are identical spherical, rigid and perfectly elastic point masses.
3. Their molecular size is negligible in comparison to intermolecular distance (10 -9 m).
4. The speed of gas molecules lies between zero and infinity (very high speed).
5. The distance covered by the molecules between two successive collisions is known as free path
and mean of all free path is known as mean free path.
6. The number of collisions per unit volume in a gas remains constant.
7. No attractive or repulsive force acts between gas molecules.
8. Gravitational to extremely attraction among the molecules is ineffective due small masses and
very high speed of molecules.
Gas laws:
Assuming permanent gases to be ideal, through experiments, it was established that gases
irrespective of their nature obey the following laws.
1. Boyle’s Law
At constant temperature the volume (V) of given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its
pressure (p), i.e.,
V ∝ 1/P ⇒ PV = constant
Vt = V0 (1 + t/273.15)
where V0 is the volume of gas at 0°C.
3. Gay Lussac’s or Regnault’s Law
At constant volume the pressure p of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature T, i.e. ,
p ∝ T ⇒ V/T = constant
(i) Avogadro’s number The number of molecules present in 1g mole of a gas is defined as
Avogadro’s number.
𝑃𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑁T
Degree of Freedom
The degree of freedom for a dynamic system is the number of directions in which it can move
freely or the number of coordinates required to describe completely the position and
configuration of the system.
It is denoted by for N.
Law of Equipartition
The law of equipartition states that when an atom is kept under constant thermal condition, the
sum total of the molecule gets splitted up all throughout consistently where the amount of
degree of freedom is free from opposition.
For a gas under thermal equilibrium condition at a temperature T, the average Energy is given
by:
Mean Free Path
The average distance travelled by a molecule between two successive collisions is called mean
free path (γ).
γ = kT / √2 π σ2p
where σ = diameter of the molecule, p = pressure of the gas,
T = temperature and k = Boltzmann’s constant.
λ ∝ T and λ ∝ 1/p
CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS:
CASE 1. TOPIC: KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
The molecules of a gas move in all directions with various speeds. The speeds of the
molecules of a gas increase with rise in temperature. During its random motion a
fast molecule often strikes against the walls of the container of the gas. The collisions
are assumed to be perfectly elastic i.e. the molecule bounces back with the same
speed with which it strikes the wall. Since the number of molecules is very large,
billions of molecules strike against the walls of the container every second. These
molecules exert a sizeable force on the wall. The force exerted per unit area is the
pressure exerted by the gas on the walls.
(i) According to kinetic theory of gases what is dimensional formula for pressure
(A) ML—1T-1
(B) ML-1T-2
(C) MLT2
(D) ML2T2
(ii) vrms=√3KT/m , it follows that the constant k should be expressed in units of
(A) newton per metre per Kelvin
(B) newton per Kelvin
(C) joule per Kelvin
(D) joule per kilogram per kelvin
(iii) Choose the only correct statement from the following
(A) The pressure of a gas is equal to the total kinetic energy of its molecules per
unit volume of the gas.
(B) The product of pressure and volume of a gas is always constant.
(C) the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a gas is proportional to its
absolute temperature.
(D) the root mean square speed of a molecule is proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas.
(iv)If the temperature of a gas is increased from 270C to 9270C,the root mean
square speed of its molecules
(A) becomes half
(B) is doubled
(C) becomes four times
(D)remains unchanged
(v) The root mean square speed of oxygen gas molecule at T=320K is very nearly
equal to
(A) 300ms-1
(B) 500ms-1
(C)700ms-1
(D)900ms-1
CASE 2. TOPIC: MEAN FREE PATH
We know that molecules made up of one or more atoms constitute matter. In solids
which are tightly packed, molecules are spaced about a few A0 apart. In liquids the
separation between molecules is also about the same but the molecules are not
rigidly fixed and can move around. This enables a liquid to flow. In gases the
intermolecular distances are I tens of A0 and so molecules can travel without
colliding is called its mean free path. Detailed analysis shows that mean free path of
a gas is given by 1/√2 nπd2 where n –molecular number density and d-diameter of
gas molecule. Average time between two collisions of a molecule is called its
relaxation time
(i) Why does a liquid can flow
(A) intermolecular separation is small
(B) molecules are not rigidly fixed
(C) both A and B
(D) none
(ii) 1 A0 = -----m
(A) 10-8
(B) 10-9
(C) 10-10
(D) 10-11
(iii) Order of magnitude of mean free path of a gas = ---times of intermolecular
separation
(A) 10
(B) 100
(C) 1000
(D) 10000
(iv) Mean free path of a gas is ------------ to absolute temperature
(A) directly proportional
(B) inversely proportional
(C) proportional to square root
(D) none
(v) Mean free path of a gas molecule is ---------- pressure exerted by gas.
(A) directly proportional
(B) inversely proportional
(C) proportional to square root
(D) none
CASE 3. TOPIC :Properties of gases are easier to understand than that of solids and liquids.
This is mainly because in a gas, molecules are far from each other and their mutual
interaction are negligible except when two molecules are collide. Gas molecules
enclosed within a container are in a state of continuous random motion colliding
against each other and with the walls of the container. In an ideal gas each
molecule of a gas behaves as an independent particle and possesses momentum as
well as kinetic energy. Although molecular speeds in a gas may have all possible
values ranging from a small to a very high value but for the purpose of finding the
pressure exerted by a gas or average energy of a gas molecule we may presume
that all molecules are moving with a constant rms speed. The rms speed of the
molecules of a gas is defined as the square root of the mean of the squares of the
speeds of all the molecules in a gas sample. Mathematically
Vrms = √(v12 +v22+-------+vn2)/n
(i) Under what condition a real gas may be considered to behave as an ideal gas
(A) low pressure
(B) high temperature
(C) both
(D) none
(ii) For a given pressure and temperature rms speed of which gas is maximum
(A) hydrogen
(B) helium
(C) both
(D) none
(iii) rms speed of air under STP conditions
(A) 283m/s
(B) 383 m/s
(C) 483 m/s
(D) 583 m/s
(iv) rms speed of air will be more on
(A) dry day
(B) wet day
(C) same
(D) cannot say
(v) relation between Boltzmann constant(K) and gas constant(R)
(A) R = NK
(B) N = KR
(C) K =NR
(D) none
Average velocity,
So,
9 Why it is not possible to increase the temperature of a gas while keeping its Volume and
pressure constant.
Ans.
P and V are constant then T is also constant.
10 What is an average velocity of the molecules of an ideal gas?
Ans. Average velocity of the molecules of an ideal gas is zero, because molecules possess all sorts
of velocities in all possible directions, whose vector sum would be zero.
𝑃𝑉
Ans. 𝑇 = 𝜇𝑅 as μ and R are constant so T = P V
since PV is greater for the curve at T2 than for the curve T1 therefore T2 > T1
Three Vessels at the same pressure and temperature have same volume and contain equal
number of molecules
6 If Nine particles have speeds of 5, 8, 12, 12, 12, 14, 14, 17 and 20 m/s. find :
1) the average speed
2) the Most Probable speed
3) the r.m.s. Speed of the particles?
Ans. 1) The average speed is the sum of speeds divided by the total number of particles.
3) Three of particles have a speed of 12m|s; two have a speed of 14m|s and the remaining have
different speeds. Therefore, the most probable speed,
VmP = 12 m /s.
7 At what temperature the rms speed of oxygen atom equal to r. m.s. speed of helium gas atom at
-10°C
Atomic mass of helium = 4
Atomic mass of oxygen = 32
Ans.
Let rims speed of oxygen is (Vrms)1 and of helium is (Vrms)2 is equal at temperature T1 and
T2 respectively.
8 Three vessels of equal capacity have gases at the same temperature and pressure. The first
vessel contains neon (monatomic), the second contains chlorine (diatomic), and the third
contains uranium hexafluoride (polyatomic). Do the vessels contain equal number of respective
molecules? Is the root mean square speed of molecules the same in the three cases? If not, in
which case is the largest?
Ans. Yes. All contain the same number of the respective molecules.
No. The root mean square speed of neon is the largest.
Since the three vessels have the same capacity, they have the same volume.
Hence, each gas has the same pressure, volume, and temperature.
According to Avogadro's law, the three vessels will contain an equal number of the respective
molecules. This number is equal to Avogadro's number, N= .
The root mean square speed ( ) of a gas of mass m, and temperature T, is given by the
relation:
Therefore, the root mean square speed of the molecules in the three cases is not the same.
Among neon, chlorine, and uranium hexafluoride, the mass of neon is the smallest. Hence, neon
has the largest root mean square speed among the given gases.
9 The density of Carbon dioxide gas at 0°C and at a pressure of 1.0 × 106 newton/m2 is 1.98 kg/m3.
Find the root mean square velocity of its molecules at 0°C and 30°C. Pressure is kept constant.
Ans.
P= M = Mass of gas
or PV = V = Volume of gas
Since PV = RT (for 1mole of gas)
or
So, C
Also,
Dividing by number of molecules of gas = N
or
Since,
So,
as constant
11 Establish the relation between 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑝 and degrees of freedom (n)?
𝑐 𝑣
𝑐𝑝
Ans. Now 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑣
Where CP = specific heat at constant pressure
CV = Specific heat at constant volume.
and n = Degrees of freedom → is the total number of co-ordinates or independent quantities
required to describe completely the position and configuration of the system.
Suppose, a polyatomic gas molecule has ‘n’ degrees of freedom.
∴ Total energy associated with a gram molecule of the gas i. e.
N = Total number of molecules
R = Universal Gas Constant
R = NK
1 𝑛
K = Boltzmann Constant 𝐸 = 𝑛 × 2 𝐾𝑇 = 2 𝑅𝑇
As,
Specific heat at constant volume,
𝑐𝑝
As, 𝛾 =
𝑐𝑣
12 You are given the following group of particles, ni represents the number of molecules with speed
vi
ni 2 4 8 6 3
Vi(ms-1) 1 2 3 4 5
Compute (i) the average speed (ii) root mean square speed (iii) the most probable speed
𝑛 𝑣 +𝑛 𝑣 +𝑛 𝑣3 +𝑛4 𝑣4 +𝑛5 𝑣5
Ans. (i) the average speed is 𝜗𝐺𝑣 = 1 1 𝑛 2+𝑛2 +𝑛3 +𝑛 +𝑛
1 2 3 4 5
2×1+4×2+8×3+6×4+3×5 73
𝑣𝑎𝑣 = =
2+4+8+6+3 23
𝑣𝑎𝑣 = 3.17𝑚𝑠 −1
(iii) the most probable speed is that speed which is possessed by maximum number of particles;
so it is 3.0 m s-1
Ans.
7 Name the factors on which the degree of freedom of gas depends.
Ans. Atomicity and temperature
8 A container has equal number of molecules of hydrogen and carbon dioxide, If a fine hole is
made in the container, then which of the two gases shall leak out rapidly?
Ans. Hydrogen
9 On what factors, does the average kinetic energy of gas molecules depend?
Ans. Average kinetic energy depends only upon the absolute temperature and is directly
proportional to it.
10 In the number of molecules in a container is doubled. What will be the effect on the rms speed
of the molecules?
Ans. No effect
11 What is the average translational K.E. of an ideal gas molecule at a temperature T?
Ans. 32 kT, where k is Boltzmann Constant.
12 Two different gases have the same temperature. Can we conclude that the r.m.s? velocities of
the gas molecules are also the same? Why?
Ans. No. If temperature is same, then 32 kT is same. Also 12 mC2 is same. But m is different for
different gases. C will be different.
13 Comment on the use of water as a coolant.
Ans. Since water has a high value of specific heat so it can be used as a coolant.
14 Why temperature less than absolute zero is not possible?
Ans. According to the kinetic interpretation of temperature, absolute temperature means the
kinetic energy of molecules.
As heat is taken out, the temperature falls and hence velocity decreases. At absolute zero, the
velocity of the molecules becomes zero i.e. kinetic energy becomes zero. So no more decrease in
K.E. is possible, hence temperature cannot fall further.
15 From kinetic theory of gases, show that Moon cannot have an atmosphere (Assume k = 1.38 ×
10-23 J K-1 Temperature T=0°C=273K).
Ans: Vescape = Vrms= 1.86 km s-1
CHAPTER 14
OSCILLATIONS
GIST OF LESSON:
• Periodic Motion
Motions, processes or phenomena, which repeat themselves at regular intervals, are called
periodic.
• Oscillatory Motion
The motion of a body is said to be oscillatory motion if it moves to and fro about a fixed point
after regular intervals of time. The fixed point about which the body oscillates is called mean
position or equilibrium position.
• Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple harmonic motion is a special type of periodic oscillatory motion in which
(i) The particle oscillates on a straight line
(ii) The acceleration of the particle is always directed towards a fixed point on the line.
(iii) The magnitude of acceleration is proportional to the displacement of the particle from the
• Characteristics of SHM
The displacement x in SHM at time t is given by
x = A sin (ωt+ Ф )
where the three constants A, ω and Ф characterize the SHM, i.e., they distinguish one SHM
from another. A SHM can also be described by a cosine function as follows:
x = A cos (ωt + δ)
• The displacement of an oscillating particle at any instant is equal to the change in its position
vector during that time. The maximum value of displacement in an oscillatory motion on either
side of its mean position is called “displacement amplitude” or “simple amplitude”.
Thus, amplitude A = x max.
• The time taken by an oscillating particle to complete one full oscillation to and fro about its
mean (equilibrium) position is called the “time period” of SHM. It is given by
• Frequency
The number of oscillations in one second is called frequency. It is expressed in sec-1 or Hertz.
Frequency and time period are independent of amplitude.
• Phase
The quantity (ωt+ Ф) is called the phase of SHM at time t; it describes the state of motion at that
instant. The quantity Ф is the phase at time f = 0 and is called the phase constant or initial phase
or epoch of the SHM. The phase constant is the time-independent term in the cosine or sine
function.
• The force responsible for maintaining the S.H.M. is called restoring force.
If the displacement (x) from the equilibrium position is small, the restoring force (F) acting on the
body is given by
F = -kx
where k is a force constant.
• Energy in S.H.M.
When a body executes SHM, its energy changes between kinetic and potential, but the total
energy is always constant. At any displacement x from the equilibrium position:
• The force responsible for maintaining the S.H.M. is called restoring force.
If the displacement (x) from the equilibrium position is small, the restoring force (F) acting on
the body is given by
F = -kx
where k is a force constant.
• Energy in S.H.M.
When a body executes SHM, its energy changes between kinetic and potential, but the total
energy is always constant. At any displacement x from the equilibrium position:
• Springs in Series
If two springs, having spring constant k1 and k2, are joined in series, the spring constant of the
combination is given by
• Springs in Parallel
If two springs, having spring constants k1 and k2, are joined in parallel, the spring constant of the
combination is given by
k = k 1 + k2
• Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum is the most common example of bodies executing S.H.M. An ideal simple
pendulum consists of a heavy point mass body suspended by a weightless in extensible and
perfectly flexible string from a rigid support about which it is free to oscillate.
• The time period of simple pendulum of length ‘l’ is given by
•Free and Forced Oscillations: A system is said to execute free oscillations, if on being
displaced or disturbed from its position of equilibrium, it oscillates itself without outside
interference.
When a system is compelled to oscillate with a frequency other than its natural frequency, it is
said to execute forced oscillations.
The external force which causes forced oscillation, is of sinusoidal nature.
•RESONANT OSCILLATIONS: Resonance is the phenomenon of setting a body into oscillations with large
amplitude under the influence of some external periodic force whose frequency is NEARLY equal to the
natural frequency of the given body. Such oscillations are called the “resonant oscillations”.
• The two or more oscillations linked together in such a way that the exchange of energy takes place
between them are called coupled oscillators. The oscillations produced by coupled oscillators are known
as coupled oscillations.
CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS:
CASE 1. Motion of a Swing
You have noticed many objects have a tendency to return to their original location after
they have been moved slightly. You have probably also noticed most objects not only
return to their original position but continue too far, so that they may swing back and
forth several times before they come to rest. A playground swing is a convenient example
for a discussion of this kind of motion, because we have all ridden one, and more
importantly, pushed one.
This whole operation is periodic: each complete swing takes the same amount of time,
regardless of how far the swing moves. The amount of time it takes the swing to
complete its cycle depends on the length of the rope and nothing else. If you make a
graph of the distance the swing travels crossways with time, the result is a sine wave.
(i).Sana is sitting on the swing and then she stands on the moving swing, time taken by
the swing to complete one oscillation will
(A) increase
(B)decrease
(C)first increase then decrease
(D) remains same
(ii).The amplitude of swing executing SHM is 5cm. its acceleration at a distance 1cm
from the mean position is 4 cm/s2. The maximum speed of the particle in cm/s is:
(A) 5
(B) 10
(C) 15
(D) 20
(iii). Time period of pendulum having infinite length is
(A)infinte
(B) zero
(C) 84.6 min
(D) 24 hours
(iv). A girl is sitting on the swing whose time period of oscillation is t1 and then a child
comes and sit on her lap and now time period of oscillation is t 2. Which of the following
statement is correct?
(A) t1 =t2
(B)t1>t2
(C)t1<t2
(D)t1 =t2=0
(v). For SHM which of the following statement is incorrect?
(A) Restoring force is maximum at the extreme positions.
(B) Total energy of the particle always remains constant.
(C) Acceleration of the particle is maximum at the equilibrium position.
(D) restoring force is always directed towards a fixed point
CASE 2. Simple Harmonic oscillation
A particle is moving to and from about meant equilibrium position due to restoring
force f where f is given by
𝑓 = −𝑘𝑦, k is spring constant and y is displacement
y= A sinωt, velocity v= Aωcosωt, acceleration a= -ω2y = - ω2A sinωt
K.E.= ½ mv2 and P.E. = ½ ky2
(i). the shortest distance travelled by a particle executing SHM from mean position in 2
seconds is equal to ½ times its amplitude. Determine its time period.
(A) 24sec (B) 12sec (C) 1.2sec (D) 2.4sec
(ii). In a SHM, when displacement is half of the amplitude, what is the ratio of the
kinetic energy to the potential energy
(A) 1/3 (B) 2 (C) 1/2 (D) 3
(iii). If a spring of mass 30 kg has spring constant 15 N/m, then its time period, is
(A) 2π s
(B)√2 π s
(C)2√2 π s
(D)2√2 s
(iv). Phase difference between instantaneous velocity and acceleration of a particle
executing SHM is
(A) π/2
(B)π
(C)π/3
(D)3π/2
(v). A body is executing SHM. The potential energy, kinetic energy and total energy are
measured as a function of displacement y. Which of the following statement is true?
(A) K.E. is maximum when y=0
(B) T.E. =0, when y=0
(C) K.E. is maximum when y=maximum
(D) P.E. is maximum when y=0
CASE 3. Simple Pendulum:
Simple pendulum moves to and from about its mean position due to restoring torque
which is always directed towards the mean position and proportional to angle
subtended by the pendulum with the vertical
τ α - kθ and thus executing simple harmonic motion
Time period depends on length of pendulum and gravity not on the mass of pendulum
(i). the length of a simple pendulum is increased by 44%. What is the percentage change
in the time period of the pendulum?
(A) 10%
(B) 20%
(C) 30%
(D) 24%
(ii). Pendulum clock placed at equator as compared to pendulum clock placed at poles
will be
(A) slower
(B) faster
(C) reads same time
(D) not work at equator
(iii).For a simple pendulum the time period of one oscillation is given by
𝑙
(A)T=2𝜋√
𝑔
𝑙
(B)T=2𝜋√
2𝑔
2𝑙
(C)T=2𝜋√
𝑔
𝑔
(D)T=2𝜋√
𝑙
(iv).A second’s pendulum executes
(A) 1.5 oscillation per second
(B) 1.0 oscillation per second
(C) 2.0 oscillations per second
(D) 0.5 oscillations per second
(v). Two simple pendulums of time period 2.0 s and 2.1 s are made to vibrate
simultaneously. They are in phase initially. After how many vibrations they are in same
phase
(A) 30
(B) 25
(C) 21
(D) 35
CASE 4. Periodic and Oscillatory motion
A motion which repeats itself over and over again after a regular interval of time is
called periodic motion
A motion which repeats itself over and over again after a regular interval of time about
its mean position, such that it remains confined within two well defined limits (called
extreme positions) on the either side of the mean position is called oscillatory or
vibrational motion
Periodic functions Any function that repeats its value at regular intervals of arguments
and those which can be represented by sine or cosine curve are called harmonic
functions and those which cannot be represented by single sine or cosine functions are
called non harmonic functions
Simple Harmonic motion are represented by harmonic functions
(i). displacement of the mass attached to spring from is mean position (in meter) is
given by:
Y= 0.2sin (20πt + 2.5π) cos (20πt + 2.5π)
The motion of the loaded spring is
(A) periodic but not SHM
(B) non periodic
(C) simple harmonic motion with period 0.05 s
(D) simple harmonic motion with period 0.1 s
(ii). Which of the following functions represent periodic motion?
(A) e-ωt (B) sinωt+ cosωt (C) logωt (D)1/logωt
(iii). The function sin2ωt represents
(A) a simple harmonic motion with a time period 2π/ω
(B) a simple harmonic motion with a time period π/ω
(C) a periodic, but not simple harmonic motion with a time period 2π/ω
(D) a periodic, but not a simple harmonic motion with a time period 2π/ω
(iv). Which of the following is Simple Harmonic motion?
(A) Particle moving in a circle with uniform speed
(B) Wave moving through a string fixed at both ends
(C) Earth spinning about its axis
(D) ball bouncing between two rigid vertical walls
(v). Distance and displacement moved by particle in SHM in one time period is
(A) r, 0
(B) 4r, 2r
(C) 4r, 0
(D) 2r,2r
CASE 5. Free, forced, resonant, damped oscillations:
Free Oscillation Forced Oscillation Damped Resonant
Oscillation Oscillation
The free oscillation When a body oscillates
possesses constant by being influenced by The oscillation
Oscillation of
amplitude and an external periodic that fades with
object with
period without any force, it is called forced time is called
maximum
external force to set oscillation. Here, the damped
amplitude,
the oscillation. amplitude of oscillation, oscillation.
when the
experiences damping but
In such a system, the amplitude frequency of
remains constant due to
the amplitude, of oscillation the applied
the external energy
frequency and reduces with force equal to
supplied to the system.
energy all remain time. the natural
constant. For example, when you frequency of
Energy loss
push someone on a the object is
from the
swing, you have to keep called
system in
periodically pushing resonance.
overcoming
them so that the swing
external forces
doesn’t reduce.
like friction or
air resistance
and other
resistive
forces.
damping
ANSWER: Figure (b) and (d) represent periodic motions and the time period of each
of these is 2 seconds, (a) and (c) are non-periodic motions.
2. The piston in the cylinder head of a locomotive has a stroke (twice the amplitude)
of 1.0 m. If the piston moves with simple harmonic motion with an angular
frequency of 200 rev/min, what its maximum speed?
ANSWER:
6. A simple pendulum consisting of an inextensible length ‘l’ and mass ‘m’ is oscillating
in a stationary lift. The lift then accelerates upwards with a constant acceleration of
4.5 m/s2. Write expression for the time period of simple pendulum in two cases. Does
the time period increase, decrease or remain the same, when lift is accelerated
upwards?
𝑙
ANSWER: When the lift is stationary, T = 2π√𝑔
When the lift accelerates upwards with an acceleration of 4.5 m/s2
𝑙
T ́ = 2𝜋√𝑔+45
Therefore, the time period decreases when the lift accelerates upwards.
7. All trigonometric functions are periodic, but only sine or cosine functions are used
to define SHM. Why?
ANSWER: All trigonometric functions are periodic. The sine and cosine functions can
take value between -1 to +1 only. So they can be used to represent a bounded motion
like SHM. But the functions such as tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant can take
value between 0 and ∞ (both negative and positive). So these functions cannot be
used to represent bounded motion like SHM.
8. QUESTION:
Which of the following examples represent (nearly) simple harmonic motion and
which represent
periodic but not simple harmonic motion?
(a) the rotations of earth about its axis.
(b) motion of an oscillating mercury column in a U-tube.
(c) motion of a ball bearing inside a smooth curved bowl, when released from a
point slightly above the lowermost point.
(d) general vibrations of a polyatomic molecule about its equilibrium position.
ANSWER: (a) Since the rotation of earth is not to and fro motion about a fixed point,
thus it is periodic but not S.H.M.
(b) It is S.H.M.
(c) It is S.H.M.
(d) General vibrations of a polyatomic molecule about its equilibrium position is
periodic but non SHM. In fact, it is a result of superposition of SHMs executed by
individual vibrations of atoms of the molecule.
9. QUESTION: The Length of a simple pendulum executing SHM is increased by 2.1%.
What is the percentage increase in the time period of the pendulum of increased
length?
𝑙
ANSWER: Time Period, T = 2𝜋√𝑔 i.e. T ∝√𝑙. The percentage increase in time period
is given by
∆𝑇 1 ∆𝑙
× 100 = × 100 (for small variation)
𝑇 2 𝑙
1
= × 2.1%= 1.05%
2
THREE MARK QUESTIONS:
1. A spring balance has a scale that reads from 0 to 50 kg. The length of the scale is
20 cm. A body suspended from this balance, when displaced and released,
oscillates with a period of 0.6 s. What is the weight of the body?
ANSWER:
2. A spring having with a spring constant 1200 Nm-1 is mounted on a horizontal table
as shown in Fig. A mass of 3 kg is attached to the free end of the spring. The mass
is then pulled sideways to a distance of 2.0 cm and released. Determine (i) the
frequency of oscillations, (ii) maximum acceleration of the mass, and (iii) the
5. Time period of a particle in SHM depends on the force constant k and mass m of the
particle:T=2𝜋√𝑚/𝑘.
A simple pendulum executes SHM approximately. Why then is the time period of a
pendulum independent of the mass of the pendulum?
ANSWER: We know that:
The time period of the simple pendulum is T=2𝜋√𝑚/𝑘.
For a simple pendulum, k is expressed in terms of mass m, as: k∝m
𝑚
Where, is a constant.
𝑘
Thus, the time period T, of a simple pendulum is independent of the mass of the bob.
6. (i)The maximum velocity of a particle, executing S.H.M with amplitude of 7mm is 4.4
m/s. What is the period of oscillation?
(ii)Which of the following relationships between the acceleration ‘a’ and
the displacement ‘x’ of a particle involve simple harmonic motion?
a) a=0.7x (b) a=-200x2 (c) a = -10x (d) a=100x3
2 2A 2 22 .007
ANSWER: (i)Vmax= A A , T 0.01s
T Vmax 7 4.4
(ii) (c) represent SHM.
7. QUESTION: (i)Write displacement equation respecting the following condition
𝜋
obtained in SHM-:Amplitude = 0.01m,Frequency = 600Hz, Initial phase = 6
(ii)The amplitude of oscillations of two similar pendulums similar in all respect are
2cm & 5cm respectively. Find the ratio of their energies of oscillations.
ANSWER: (i)Y = A Sin (2π𝜈𝑡 + 𝜙𝑜 )
𝜋
= 0.01 Sin (1200𝜋𝑡 + 6 )
𝐸 𝐴 2 2
(ii) 𝐸1 = (𝐴1 )2 = (3) = 4: 25
2 2
8. The kinetic energy of a particle executing S.H.M. is 16J when it is in its mean
position. If the amplitude of oscillations is 25cm and the mass of the particle is
5.12kg. Calculate the time period of oscillations?
ANSWER: K. E. = Kinetic energy = 16J
So,
or or
Or or or, 10 -4+6 = w2
10. Show that for small oscillations the motion of a simple pendulum is simple harmonic. Derive an
expression for its time period. Does it depends on the mass of the bob ?
Consider simple pendulum — a small bob of mass m tied to an inextensible massless string
of length L. The other end of the string is fixed to a rigid support. The bob oscillates in a
plane about the vertical line through the support. Fig. (a) shows this system. Fig. (b) is a kind
of ‘free-body’ diagram of the simple pendulum showing the forces acting on the bob.
Let θ be the angle made by the string with the vertical. When the bob is at the mean position,
θ=0
There are only two forces acting on the bob; the tension T along the string and the vertical
force due to gravity (=mg). The force mg can be resolved into the component mg cosθ along
the string and mg sinθ perpendicular to it. Since the motion of the bob is along a circle of
length L and centre at the support point, the bob has a radial acceleration (ω2L) and also a
tangential acceleration; the latter arises since motion along the arc of the circle is not
uniform. The radial acceleration is provided by the net radial force T –mg cosθ, while the
tangential acceleration is provided by mg sinθ. It is more convenient to work with torque
about the support since the radial force gives zero torque. Torque τ about the support is
entirely provided by the tangential component of force
τ = –L (mg sinθ )
This is the restoring torque that tends to reduce angular displacement — hence the negative
sign. By Newton’s law of rotational motion, τ = I α
where I is the moment of inertia of the system about the support and α is the angular
acceleration. Thus, I α = –m g sin θ L
Or, α = − m g L sin θ/ I
Now if θ is small, sin θ can be approximated by θ and Eq. can then be written as,
α = − (m g L/I) θ i.e. angular acceleration α angular displacement (condition of SHM)
with α = − ω2 θ
𝑚𝑔𝐿 𝑚𝑔𝐿 2𝜋 𝐼 𝑀𝐿2
where 𝜔2 = or 𝜔 = √ time period T = = 2𝜋√𝑚𝑔𝐿 = 2𝜋√𝑚𝑔𝐿
𝐼 𝐼 𝜔
𝐿
TIME PERIOD T = 2𝜋√𝑔
11. QUESTION
(i) How does the time period of a simple pendulum changes if its length is increased?
(ii) What happens to the period if the mass is doubled?
(iii) What happens to the time period of a simple pendulum if the amplitude is doubled?
(iv) What happens to energy when amplitude is doubled?
ANSWER(i) The longer the length of string, the farther the pendulum falls; and therefore, the longer the
period, or back and forth swing of the pendulum. The greater the amplitude, or angle, the farther the
pendulum falls; and therefore, the longer the period.)
(ii) if the mass is doubled, the period increases by a factor of √2. A mass hanging from a spring is pulled
down from its equilibrium position through a distance A and then released at t = 0.
(iii) Time period is independent of the amplitude of vibration. Therefore, time period remains unchanged
on doubling the amplitude of oscillation. ... When amplitude is doubled, the maximum velocity becomes
twice. (iii) Acceleration at mean position is zero and is independent of the amplitude of vibration.
(iv) The energy transported by a wave is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude. So whatever
change occurs in the amplitude, the square of that effect impacts the energy. This means that a doubling
of the amplitude results in a quadrupling of the energy.
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS (ONE MARK QUESTIONS:
1. Which of the following relationships between the acceleration a and the
displacement x of a particle involve simple harmonic motion?
(a) a = 0.7x (b) a = – 200 x2
(c) a = – 10x (d) a = 100 x3
ANSWER:
Only (c) i.e., a = – 10x represents SHM. This is because acceleration is proportional
and opposite to displacement (x).
2. The girl sitting on a swing stands up. What will be the effect on periodic time of
swing?
ANSWER:
The periodic time T is directly proportional to the square root of effective length of
pendulum (l). When the girl starts up, the effective length of pendulum (i.e. Swing)
decreases, so the time period T also decreases.
3. The soldiers marching on a suspended bridge are advised to go out of steps. Why?
ANSWER:The soldiers marching on a suspended bridge are advised to go out of
steps because in such a case the frequency of marching steps matches with natural
frequency of the suspended bridge and hence resonance takes place, as a result
amplitude of oscillation increases enormously which may lead to the collapsing of
bridge.
4. When a particle performing uniform circular motion of radius 10 cm undergoes the
SHM, what will be its amplitude?
ANSWER: 10 cm
5. Give some practical examples of S. H. M?
ANSWER: Some practical examples of S. H. M. are :-1) Motion of piston in a gas – filled
cylinder.2) Atoms vibrating in a crystal lattice.3) Motion of helical spring.
6. Define force constant of a spring.
ANSWER:The spring constant of a spring is the change in the force it exerts, divided
by the change in deflection of the spring.
7. Is the motion of a simple pendulum strictly simple harmonic?
ANSWER:It is not strictly simple harmonic because we make the assumption that
Sinθ =θ, which is nearly valid only if θ is very small.
8. At what distance from the mean position, is the kinetic energy in simple harmonic
oscillator equal to potential energy?
ANSWER: At
9. How is the time period of the pendulum effected when pendulum is taken to hills
Or in mines?
ANSWER: As T will increase. (since ‘g’ decreases)
10. Define angular frequency. Give its S.I. unit.
ANSWER:It is the angle covered per unit time or it is the quantity obtained by
multiplying frequency by a factor of 2 .
= 2π v, S.I. unit is rads s-1
11 How Will the time period of a simple pendulum change when its length is
doubled?
ANSWER:
12 In a forced oscillation of a particle, the amplitude is maximum for a frequency (ω1)
of the force, while the energy is maximum for a frequency (ω2) of the force. What
is the relation between and ?
Ans: Both amplitude and energy of the particle can be maximum only in the case of
resonance, for resonance to occur .
13 QUESTION:
A simple harmonic motion of acceleration 'a' and displacement 'x' is represented
by . What is the time period of S.H.M?
ANSWER: ,
14 What is the condition to be satisfied by a mathematical relation between time and
displacement to describe a periodic motion?
ANSWER: A periodic motion repeats after a definite time interval T. So, y(t) = y(t + T)
= y(t + 2T) etc.
CHAPTER 15
WAVES
GIST OF LESSON :
Motion of wave
It is the kind of disturbance which travel through a medium due to repeated motion of
particles of the medium , the disturbance being handed over from one particle to
particle. Wave transport energy and information
Longitudinal wave of motion.
In these types of wave , particles of the medium vibrate to and fro about their mean
position along the direction of propagation of wave .These are also called pressure wave.
Transverse wave motion
In this case particles of the medium vibrate up and down perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of wave.
Wavelength (λ) for longitudinal wave:- It is the distance between two successive
compressions and rarefactions.
Wavelength (λ) for transverse wave:- It is the distance between two successive crests
and troughs.
Relation between wave velocity v, wavelength λ and frequency ν.
V= λ X ν
Velocities of different waves:-
In general velocity of an elastic wave is given by v=√((Elasticity of
medium)/(Density of medium)) =√(E/ρ)
In a stretched string v=√(T/m) (T is tension in the string and m is mass per unit
length of string)
*For longitudinal wave:-
In solids v=√((K+4η/3)/ρ) (K is bulk modulus of elasticity ,η is modulus of rigidity)
Solids in form of long rods v=√(Y/ρ) (Y is young’s modulus)
In liquid or gases v=√(K/ρ) (K is bulk modulus)
Newton’s formula:-According to Newton’s formula the velocity of sound is given by
v=√(P/ρ)
Laplace’s formula:- According to Laplace’s formula the velocity of sound is given by
v=√(ΥP/ρ) ,where γ is the ratio of two specific heat of gases.
Factor’s effecting speed of sound in gases:-
Effect of pressure:- Pressure has no effect on the speed of sound in gases.
Effect of density:- v=1/√ρ or v1/v2=√(ρ2/ρ1)
Effect of temperature:- v α√(T ) or v1/v2=√(T1/T2)
Temperature coefficient of velocity of sound is given by :-α=vt-v0/t
For air α=0.61ms-1c-1
Wave equation:- A plane progressive harmonic wave travelling along positive X- direction
may be represented as
Y= A sin (ωt - kx), where k=(2∏)/λ
𝑡 𝑥
Y=A sin 2∏(𝑇 - 𝜆 )
2∏
Y=A sin (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥)
𝑇
Here v is the wave velocity, λ is wavelength, A is the amplitude of the oscillating particles
of the medium and y is the displacement of the particle at position x at any instant t.
Phase of waves:- Phase is the argument of sine or cosine function representing the wave.
Thus phase is given by
Φ=(ωt - kx) or 2∏(t/T-x/λ)
Principle of superposition of waves:- When a number of waves travelling through a
medium simultaneously ,the resultant displacement at any point of the medium is equal
to the vector sum of the displacements of the individual waves. If y ⃗1,(y2) ⃗…….,(yn) ⃗ are
the displacements of n waves superimposing each other at a point ,then the resultant
displacement at that point will be
y ⃗=y ⃗1+y2 ⃗ +⋯……Yn ⃗
Reflection of wave:- When a wave is reflected from a rigid boundary or a closed end ,it is
reflected back with a phase difference of 1800 but reflection at an open boundary takes
place without any phase change.
Stationary waves:- When two identical waves of the same frequency moving in the
opposite direction superpose ,they give rise to stationary waves .In this wave form does
not move.
Consider a plane progressive harmonic wave travelling along positive X direction.
Incident wave y1= A sin (ωt - kx) ,if the waves reflected from free end ,then the
Reflected wave will be y2= A sin (ωt + kx)
The stationary waves formed by the superposition of incident and reflected waves will be
Y= y1+ y2=2Acoskxsinωt. In this case points x=0,λ/2,3λ/2….. are antinodes.(where
amplitude of oscillation is maximum) and the points x=λ/4,3λ/4,5λ/4…… will be
nodes.(where particles of medium always remain at rest)
Similarly , When incident wave reflects from rigid boundary then the reflected wave will
be
Y2= -A sin (ωt + kx) and again they will superpose with incident wave to form stationary
wave.
Modes of vibration in a string:- On a string ,transverse stationary waves are formed due
to the superposition of direct and the reflected transverse waves.
For fundamental mode:- λ1= 2L, ν1=V/λ1 =1/2L √(T/m)=ν (say)
For second mode:- λ2=L, ν2=2ν ( Second harmonic or first overtone)
For third mode:- λ3=2L/3,ν3=3ν( Third harmonic or second overtone) and so on .
Organ pipe:- It is the simplest musical instrument in which sound is produced by setting
an air column into vibrations. Longitudinal stationary waves are formed on account of
superposition of incident and reflected longitudinal waves.
Modes of vibrations of closed organ pipes:- Longitudinal stationary waves are formed in
an organ pipe closed at one end.
𝑣 1 𝛾𝑃
Fundamental mode of vibration:- λ1=4L, ν1= λ1= 4𝐿 √ 𝜌 = ν (say)
(A) equal to λ
(iii). If l1 and l2 are the first and second resonance lengths and ν is the frequency
of the tuning fork then velocity is sound waves through air column is
(A)ν(l1 – l2)
(v).In the above question, how much distance above the open end does the
pressure node form ?
(A) 1 cm
(B) 2 cm
(C) 3 cm
(D) 4 cm
CASE 2. TOPIC: Transverse and longitudinal waves are easily represented by sine waves.
Positions of maximum displacement from equilibrium are called antinodes A
and positions of zero displacement are called nodes N.
For a complete cycle of a wave of wavelength λ, the distance between any tow
consecutive nodes or antinodes is λ/2. Longitudinal stationary waves can be
produces in air columns in closed or open pipes. The closed end of such a pipe
is always a displacement node. The open end of the pipe is always a
displacement antinode.
(i). The auditory canal of the outer ear is essentially a 3.0 cm pipe closed at one
end by the ear drum. What is the fundamental frequency in air associated with
the air ?
(ii). When the pipe is open at both the ends, it resonates with a fundamental
frequency of 240 Hz. What is the fundamental frequency of the same pipe if it is
closed at one end ?
(iii). A pipe resonates at 60 Hz, 100 Hz & 140 Hz. How long is the pipe ?
(A) 1.4 m
(B) 2.8 m
(C) 4.3 m
(D) 8.5 m
(iv). A flutist plays a note with a fundamental wavelength of 170 cm. How many
compression regions reach a nearby listener per second ?
(A) 170
(B) 200
(C)500
(D) Cannot be determined without knowing the distance between flutist and
listener.
(A) L/2
(B) L
(C) 2L
(D) 4 L
CASE 3. TOPIC: A long string having a cross-sectional area 0.80 mm2 and density 12.5
g/cm3, is subjected to a tension of 64 N along the x-axis. One end of this string is
attached to a vibrator moving in transverse direction at a frequency of 20 Hz. At
t = 0, the source is at maximum displacement y = 1.0 cm.
(a) 60 m/s (b) 80 m/s (c) 100 m/s (d) 120 m/s
(ii) For what tension is the string will the velocity of wave in the string be
doubled ?
(iii) The equation for the wave travelling along the string is
(v) The velocity of the above mentioned particle at the same instant t = 0.05 sec
is :
(a) 89 cm/s (b) 0.89 cm/s (c) 8.9 cm/s (d) 0.089 cm/s
CASE 4. TOPIC : The displacement of the medium in a sound wave is given by the
equation
y1 = A cos (ax + bt) where A, a & b are positive constants. The wave is reflected
by an obstacle situated at x = 0. The intensity of the reflected wave is 0.64 times
that of the incident wave.
(iii) In the resultant wave formed after reflection, the maximum and minimum
values of the particle speed in the medium are :
(a) y = 2A sin bt sin ax + 0.2 A cos (bt – ax) (b) y = 2A cosbtcos ax + 0.2 A cos (bt
– ax)
(c) y = 2A cosbtcos ax + 0.2 A sin (bt – ax) (d) y = 2A sin bt sin ax + 0.2 A sin (bt –
ax)
(v) The positions of the antinodes of the standing waves are (r =0,1,2,3….) :
CASE 5. TOPIC : When two sound waves of slightly different frequencies travelling along
the same path in the same direction superpose each other, the intensity of
resultant sound at any point in the medium rises and falls alternately with time.
These periodic variations in the intensity of sound are beats. One rise and one
fall of intensity constitute one beat. The number of beats produced per second
is called beat frequency.
For beats to be audible, the difference in the frequency of the two sound waves
should not be exceed 10. Due to persistence of hearing, our ears are not able to
distinguish between two sounds separate if the time interval between them is
less than (1/10)th of a second. Beats can be used to determine the frequency of
a tuning fork.
(ii) A tuning fork A produces 4 beats/s with another tuning fork of frequency
320 Hz. On filing one of the prongs of A, 4 beats/s are again produced when
sounded with the same fork B. Then, the frequency of the fork A before filing is
(iii) Following two wave trains are approaching each other : y1 = a sin 200 πt, y2
= a sin 208πt. The number of beats heard per second is
(iv) Two waves of wavelength 99 cm and 100 cm both traveling with velocity
396 m/s are made to interfere. The number of beats produced by them per
second are
(v) When the wavelength of sound changes from 1 m to 1.01 m, the number of
beats heard per second are 4. The velocity of sound is :
(a) 404 m/s (b) 4.04 m/s (c) 414 m/s (d) 400 m/s
ANS (i) ANS (ii) ANS (iii) ANS (iv) ANS (v)
CASE 1 A D B B A
CASE 2 B B C B C
CASE 3 B C B C A
CASE 4 B C A A C
CASE 5 A B B C A
TWO MARK QUESTIONS:
1. QUESTION: When the wire of a sonometer is plucked what is the nature of wave
in (i)the string (ii)in air?
ANSWER: The wave produced in the string are transverse and in air are longitudinal.
2. QUESTION: What is the angle between particle velocity and wave velocity in
(I)transverse wave (II)longitudinal wave ?
3. QUESTION: What are the essential points of difference between sound and light
waves?
ANSWER: (i) Sound waves are mechanical waves which are longitudinal in nature.
Light waves are electromagnetic waves which are transverse in character.
(ii) Sound waves need a material medium for propagation, whereas light waves do
not need any medium.
4. QUESTION: What should be minimum length of an open organ pipe for producing a
note of 110 Hz? The speed of sound is 33 m/s?
V= ѵ/2L
5. QUESTION: In an open organ pipe third harmonic is 450 Hz. What is frequency of
fifth harmonic?
7. QUESTION: Where to pluck and where to touch a stretched string to excite it to its
first overtone/ second harmonic?
ANSWER: The wire should be plucked at is one-fourth length and touch its center.
ANSWER: 1.Sonometer
2. Organ pipe.
9. QUESTION: Two sound sources produce 12 beats in 4 second. By how much do their
frequencies differ?
V1-V2=3Hz
10. QUESTION: State the factor on which the speed of a wave travelling along a
stretched ideal string depends.
1. QUESTION: A hospital uses an ultrasonic scanner to locate tumors in a tissue. What is the
wavelength of sound in a tissue in which the speed sound is 1.7 km/s. the operating frequency
of the scanner is 4.2 MHz?
2. QUESTION: A bat emits ultrasonic sound of frequency of 100 kHz in air. If this sound meets a
water surface, what is the wavelength of (i) reflected sound , (ii) the transmitted sound?
Speed of sound in air = 340 m/s and is water = 1486 m/s?
ANSWER: Here v = 100 kHz = 105 Hz , va= 340 m/s , vw = 1486 m/s
3. QUESTION: A string of mass 2.50 kg is under a tension of 200 N .The length of the stretched
string is 20.0 m. If a transverse jerk is struck at one end of the string. How long does the
disturbance take to reach the other end?
Ѵ = √(T/m) = 40 m/s
1
5. QUESTION: Find the temperature at which the velocity of sound in air will be 1 2 times the
velocity at 110 C?
On solving T= 336 c.
6. QUESTION: The speed of longitudinal wave `V` in a given medium of density ρ is given by the
formula, use this formula 𝑽 = √Ὺ𝑷⁄𝝆 to explain why the speed of sound in air.
ANSWER: (I) When Pressure change density also change in the same ratio
Speed of sound in a gas is directly proportional to the square root of its absolute temperature.
Speed of sound in is inversely proportional to the square root of its density, so sound travel
faster in moist air than dry air.
7. QUESTION: Prove analytically that in the case of open pipe of length L ,the frequencies of
vibrating air column are given by v= n (ѵ/ 2L) , where n is an integer?
ANSWER: Consider a cylinder pipe of length L lying along the x axis , with its open side at x=0
and x= L. The sound wave travelling along the pipe may be represented as
The wave reflected from the right open end may be represented as
There is no phase reversal on reflection from the open end because it is a free or loose
boundary. So the sign of A in the reflected wave is same as that in the incident waves.
For all values of t, the resultant displacement is maximum or antinodes are formed at the
open ends i.e at x=0 and x= L. This condition is satisfied if
+
Cos KL= 1 or KL = nΠ where n = 1,2,3……
−
Or 2 ΠL/ ƛ = nΠ or ƛn = 2L/n
This is the smallest frequency of the stationary waves produced in the open pipe. It is called
fundamental frequency of first harmonic.
For n=3 , v3 = 3v/ 2L = 3v ( second overtone or third harmonic) and so on. The various modes
of vibrations of open pipes.
8. QUESTION: A string vibrates with a frequency of 200 Hz. Its length is doubled and its tension is
altered until it begins to vibrate with a frequency of 300 Hz. What is the ratio of new tension
to the original tension?
ANSWER: In first case 200 = 1/2L √ (T1/M) …………………1
Dividing equation 2 /1
V = 1/2L √ (T/M)
V α 1/L
(ii) Law of Tension : :- The fundamental frequency of a vibration string is proportional to the
square root of its tension provided its length and the mass per unit length.
V α√T
(iii) Law of Mass : The fundamental frequency of a vibration string is proportional to the
square root of its mass per unit length provided that the length and tension remains same.
V α 1/√ M
1 1
Comparing equation (1) & (2), 𝐴 = 10, = 1, = 0.005
𝑡 𝜆
Amplitude A = 10cm
1
Frequency 𝜈 = 𝑇 = 1𝐻𝑧
1
Wavelength 𝜆 = 0.005 = 200𝑐𝑚
11. QUESTION: (i) A steel rod 100 cm long is clamped at its middle. The fundamental frequency of
longitudinal vibrations of the rod is given to be 2.53 kHz. What is the speed of sound in steel?
(ii) A pipe 20 cm long is closed at one end. Which harmonic mode of the pipe is resonantly
exited by a 430 Hz source? Will this same source be in resonance with the pipe if both ends
are open? (Speed of sound = 340 m/s).
=5.06 km/s
Hence source of frequency 430 Hz will not be in resonance with open organ pipe.
12. QUESTION: For a travelling harmonic wave, 𝑦 = 2𝐶𝑜𝑠(10𝑡 − 0.008𝑥 + 0.35) where x & y are
in cm and t in second. What is the phase difference between oscillatory motions at two points
𝜆 3𝜆
separated by a distance of (i) 4cm (ii) 0.5m (iii) 2 (𝑖𝑣) ?
4
2𝜋𝑡 2𝜋𝑥
We know, 𝑦 = 𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠 ( − + 𝜙) … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑇 𝜆
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
From (i) & (ii), = 0.008, 𝜆 = 0,008 𝑐𝑚 = 0.80 𝑚.
𝜆
2𝜋 2𝜋
Phase difference, Δ𝜙 = ∗ 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ∗ Δ𝑥.
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜋
When Δ𝑥 = 4𝑐𝑚 , Δ𝜙 = ∗ 0.80 ∗ 4 = 3.2𝑟𝑎𝑑 .
2𝜋
2𝜋
WhenΔ𝑥 = 0.5𝑚, Δ𝜙 = 2𝜋 ∗ 0.80 ∗ 0.5 = 0.40𝑟𝑎𝑑.
𝜆 2𝜋 𝜆
When Δ𝑥 = 2 , Δ𝜙 = ∗ 2 = 𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑.
𝜆
3𝜆 2𝜋 3𝜆 3𝜋
WhenΔ𝑥 = , Δ𝜙 = ∗ = 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
4 𝜆 4 2
13. QUESTION: What are beats? Prove that the number of beats produced per second by the two
sound sources is equal to the difference between their frequencies?
ANSWER: Beats;- the phenomena of regular rise & fall in the intensity of sound ,when two
waves of nearly equal frequencies travelling along the same line in the same direction super
impose each other is called beats
Mathematical treatment;- as we know that general equation of any wave i.e. displacement
relation along y- axis is given as
Y= a sinωt-------(1).
Let us consider two wave trains of equal amplitude & slightly different frequencies v1 & v 2
,then for two wave trains, above eq. becomes
As the two waves are in the same direction, then according to the principle of superposition,
Y = Y1 + Y2
Where Z= 2acosΠ (v1 - v 2 )t represents the amplitude of the resultant wave gives by
equation(3).
Π (v1 - v 2 )t= nπ
T= t1 – t (or t2 – t or t3 – t -….&soon.)
T = 1/ 2 (v1 - v 2 ) (for n=0), t1 = 3/ 2 (v1 - v 2 ) (for n=1),…..& so on The time interval between
It shows that the intensity of sound will be (v1 - v 2 ) times maximum & (v1 - v 2 ) times
minimum in one second i.e. (v1 - v 2 ) , beats will be heard in one second . also from eq.(5 & 7)
14. QUESTION: (I) Show that in a closed end organ pipe the first three harmonics are in the ratio
1: 3 : 5 ?
(II) When two tuning forks were sounded together, 20 beats were produced in 10 seconds.
On loading one of the forks with wax, the number of beats. If the frequency of unloaded fork
is 512 Hz. Calculate the frequency of other?
ANSWER: (i) First mode of vibrations. In this simplest mode of vibrations, there is only one
node at the closed end and one antinode at the open end. If L is the length of the organ pipe,
then,
L = ƛ1 / 4 or ƛ1 = 4L
Frequency ,
V1 = ѵ/ ƛ1 = ¼ L 𝑽 = √Ὺ𝑷⁄𝝆 = ѵ (say)
(i) Second mode of vibrations. In this simplest mode of vibrations, there is only one node at
the closed end and one antinode at the open end. If L is the length of the organ pipe, then,
L = 3ƛ2 / 4 or ƛ2 = 4L/3
Frequency ,
(i) Third mode of vibrations. In this simplest mode of vibrations, there is only one node at the
closed end and one antinode at the open end. If L is the length of the organ pipe, then,
L = 5ƛ3 / 4 or ƛ3 = 4L/3
Frequency ,
Hence different frequencies produced in a closed organ pipe are in the ration 1 :3:5:7 ……. i.e.
only odd harmonics are present in a closed organ pipe.
As loading decrease the frequency , also the beat frequency increases , so unknown
frequency = 510 Hz ( lower one)
1. QUESTION: A harmonic wave in a medium has a period T and wave length ƛ. How are ƛ and T
related?
2. QUESTION: Which type of waves do not require a material medium for their propagation?
3. QUESTION: What is the phase difference between two nearest crests (or troughs) ?
4. QUESTION: What is the wavelength range of audible sound and visible light ?
ANSWER: (i) wavelength range of audible sound in air is from 16.6 X 10 -3 to 16.6 m.
ANSWER: The increase of pressure has no effect on the speed of sound in the air.
7. QUESTION: How far the consecutive nodes are separated from each other?
ANSWER: The distance between a node and the nearest antinodes is ƛ/4.
9. QUESTION: What is the phase difference between particles being on either side of a node ?
ANSWER: Π rad
10. QUESTION: What is the minimum frequency with which a string of length L stretched under
tension T can vibrate?
11. QUESTION: What is the essential condition for the formation of beats?
ANSWER: The difference in frequency of the two sound waves should not exceed 10 Hz.
12. QUESTION: If tension of a wire is increased to four times how is the wave speed changed?
13. QUESTION: An open organ pipe is closed at one end. How will the frequency of fundamental
note of the pipe change?
14. QUESTION: Name two important properties of a material medium responsible for the
propagation of waves through it?
15. QUESTION: Two astronauts on the surface of moon talk to each other why?
ANSWER: Sound wave require medium for propagation as there is no atmosphere on the
moon hence the sound wave cannot propagate.
SAMPLE PAPER
TERM-2
CLASS XI
PHYSICS (042)
2021-22
SAMPLE PAPER-1
TERM -2 EXAMINATION, 2021-22
CLASS – XI
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
M. M. 35 TIME : 2 HOURS
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
(i) There are 12 questions in all. All questions are compulsory.
(ii) This question paper has three sections: Section A, Section B and
Section C.
(iii) Section A contains three questions of two marks each, Section B
contains eight questions of three marks each, Section C contains one
case study-based question of five marks.
(iv) There is no overall choice. However, an internal choice has been
provided in one question of two marks and two questions of three
marks. You have to attempt only one of the choices in such questions.
(v) You may use log tables if necessary but use of calculator is not allowed.
SECTION A
1 Why does the velocity increases when water flowing in a broader pipe enters a 2
narrow pipe?
OR
A barometer accelerating downwards reads 76 cm of Hg. What will be the possible
air pressure inside the jar?
2 What happens to the change in internal energy of a gas during (a) isothermal 2
expansion and (b) adiabatic expansion?
3 A simple harmonic motion of acceleration a and displacement x is represented by 2
a+4π²x=0. What is the time period of SHM?
4 What are parallel axis theorem and perpendicular axis theorem in respect of 3
moment of inertia of a lamina, Define the same and give mathematical expressions.
Draw diagrams to support your answer.
5 Find the density of the metal under a pressure of 20000 N/cm². Given that the 3
density of metal 11 g/ cm³ , bulk modulus of metal 8x10⁹N/m²
OR
A solid cube is subjected to a pressure of 5×10⁵ N/m². Each side of the cube is
shortened by 1% . Find volumetric strain and bulk modulus of elasticity of the
cube.
6 Explain the following. 3
a. Stainless steel cooking pans are preferred with extra copper bottom, why?
b. Why does aquatic animal survive under frozen lake?
c. Why does boiling take longer time at hills?
OR
What is Absolute zero, explain. At what temperature, do the readings of Celcius
and Fahrenheit scales coincide?
7 Derive an expression for the work done during the adiabatic expansion of an ideal 3
gas.
8 State the law of equipartition of energy. 3
Calculate the molecular kinetic energy of 1 gram of helium (molecular weight 4) at
127⁰C.
OR
Find the degrees of freedom of monatomic diatomic and triatomic gas molecules
9 A body of mass 0.1 kg is executing SHM according to the equation 3
Y = 0.5cos(100t+3π/4) m. Find
(i) the frequency of oscillation
(ii) initial phase
(iii) maximum velocity
(iv) maximum acceleration and
(v) total energy.
10 State the laws of vibrations of a stretched string. 3
11 What are beats? explain. 3
A tuning fork when vibrating along with a sonometer produces 6 beats per second
and the length of the wire is either 20 cm or 21cm. Find the frequency of the tuning
fork.
12 Read the passage given below and answer the following questions from 1 to 5. 5
It states that for the streamline flow of an ideal liquid through a tube, the total
energy (the sum of pressure energy, the potential energy and kinetic energy) per
unit volume remains constant at every cross-section throughout the tube.
If the liquid is flowing through a horizontal tube, then h is constant, then according
to Bernoulli’s theorem,
(v). What is the value of pressure head at the surface of liquid in a vessel.
(a) one atm
(b) one Pa
(c) one torr
(d) Zero Pa
MARKING SCHEME (Sample Paper-1)
Q.1 In a stream-line flow of a liquid, according to equation of continuity, av = a 2
constant, where 'a' is the area of cross-section and v is the velocity of the liquid
flow. When water flowing in broader pipe enters a narrow pipe, the area of
cross-section of the water decreases, therefore, the velocity of water increases.
OR
The net acceleration of the elevator accelerating downwards
=g−a 1 mark
Pressure inside the elevator
=hρ(g−a)=76×13.6×(g−a)13.6×g cm of Hg 1 mark
Clearly, this pressure will be less than 76 cm of Hg.
Q2 (i) In isothermal expansion ,temperature remains constant. Therefore 2
internal energy which is a function of temperature will remain
constant.
(ii) for adiabatic change dQ = 0 and hence first law of thermodynamics
becomes 0 = dU + dW
dW = - dU During expansion, work is done by the gas i.e. dW is
positive. Hence , dU must be negative. Thus ,in an adiabatic
expansion , the internal energy of the system will decrease.
Q3 2
OR
Q6 For each Correct explanation 1 mark (1+1+1=3)
OR
OR
For correct calculation of degree of freedom of each mono, di and tri atomic gas
1 mark (3 marks)
Q9
ʋ+6 21
=
ʋ−6 20
or 1/2 mark
(ʋ+6)x(ʋ-6)= (ʋ-6)21
On solving ʋ= 246Hz. 1/2 mark
Q12 Case Study 5
(i) (c) conservation of energy 1
(ii) (a) dynamic lift of aeroplane 1
General Instructions:
SECTION A
1 Why the passengers are advised to remove the ink from their pens while going up in an aeroplane?
2 What is an isothermal process? What are the essential conditions for an isothermal process to take place?
OR
What is an adiabatic process? What are the essential conditions for an adiabatic process to take place ?
3 The amplitude of a simple harmonic oscillation is doubled. How does it affect
Page 1 of 4
(i) periodic time (ii) Maximum velocity (iii) maximum acceleration and (iv) maximum energy?
SECTION B
4 (i) It is difficult to open the door by pushing it or pulling it at the hinge. Why?
(ii) A ballet dancer stretches her hand out for slowing down. Name the conservation obeyed.
(iii) Why is moment of inertia also called rotational inertia?
5 A wire stretches by a certain amount under a load. If the load and radius of wire are both increased to four times, find the
elongation in the wire.
6 Define the coefficient of thermal expansion and derive the relation between coefficient of volumetric and linear thermal
expansion.
7 Can we increase the temperature of a gas without supplying heat to it? A gas is suddenly compressed to 1/4th of its
original volume. Calculate the rise in temperature when original temperature is 27 0 C. γ = 1.5.
8 A particle is moving in SHM in a straight line. When the distance of the particle from equilibrium position has values x 1
1⁄
𝑥̈ 22 −𝑥12 2
and x2, the corresponding values of velocities are u1 and u2. Show that the time period of vibration is T = (𝑢2 −𝑢2 )
1 2
OR
When the displacement is one half of the amplitude, what fraction of the total energy is kinetic energy and what fraction is
potential energy in SHM? At what displacement is the energy half kinetic and half potential?
9 State law of equipartition of energy. Using this law calculate the ratio of specific heat of diatomic gas.
10 Write Newton’s formula for the speed of sound in a gas. Why and what correction was applied by Laplace in this formula?
11 Show that in case of stretched string the first four harmonics are in the ratio of 1:2:3:4 .
OR
Show that in case of closed organ pipe the first four harmonics are in the ratio of 1:3:5:7.
Page 2 of 4
SECTION C
12 CASE STUDY: A spray gun is shown in the figure where a piston pushes air out of a nozzle. A thin tube of uniform cross
section is connected to the nozzle. The other end of the tube is in a small liquid container. As the piston pushes air through
the nozzle, the liquid from the container rises into the nozzle and is sprayed out. For the spray gun shown, the radii of the
piston and the nozzle are 20 mm and 1 mm respectively. The upper end of the container is open to the atmosphere.
(i) If the piston is pushed at a speed of 5 ms-1 , the air comes out of the nozzle with a speed of
(a) 0.1 ms-1
(b) 1 ms-1
(c) 2 ms-1
(d) 8 ms-1
(ii) If the density of air is ρa and that of the liquid ρl than for a given piston speed the rate (volume per unit time) at which
the liquid is sprayed will be proportional to
Page 3 of 4
(iii) While studying about fluid mechanics, the equations and postulates stand for the fluids which are
(a) non-viscous only
(b) incompressible only
(c) non-viscous and incompressible
(d) liquids only
(v) The rate of flow of liquid through an orifice of a tank does not depend upon
(a) the size of orifice
(b) density of liquid
(c) the height of liquid column
(d) acceleration due to gravity
Page 4 of 4
MARKING SCHEME(SAMPLE PAPER-2)
CLASS : XI
SUBJECT : PHYSICS (042)
TIME : 2 HOURS M.M. 35
Q.1 As atmospheric pressure decreases with height. Since ink inside the pen is 2
filled at the atmospheric pressure existing on the surface of earth, it tends to
come out to equalise the pressure. This can spoil the clothes of the
passengers, so they are advised to remove the ink from the pen.
Q.2 A process in which temperature remains constant is called isothermal ½+ ½ +1
process.
The essential conditions for an isothermal process to take place are : (i)
The walls of the container must be perfectly conducting to allow free
exchange of heat between the gas and the surroundings. (ii) The process of
compression or expansion should be slow, so as to provide sufficient time
for the exchange of heat.
OR
A process in which temperature remains constant is called adiabatic
process.
The essential conditions for an adiabatic process to take place are : (i) The
walls of the container must be perfectly insulating. (ii) The process of
compression or expansion should be so fast.
Q.3 𝑙 ½+ ½+½+
(i) As T= 2𝜋√𝑔 , does not change
½
(ii) V = ωA so velocity becomes double
(iii) As amax = ω2A acceleration becomes double
1
(iv) Total energy E = 2 𝑚(2𝜋𝜈)2 𝐴2 = 2𝜋 2 𝑚𝜈 2 𝐴2 so energy becomes four
times.
Q.4 (i) at the hinge, torque is min. as 𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑃⃗⃗ and r is min. 1+1+1
(ii)Conservation of angular momentum
(iii) It gives the measure of inertia in rotational motion so it is rotational
inertia.
Q.5 𝐹𝑙 𝐹𝑙 ½+½
Young’s modulus, 𝑌 = ⇒ 𝛥𝑙 ⋅= -------(i)
𝜋𝑟 2 𝛥𝑙 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑌
OR
Fraction of total energy which is KE = KE/TE
1 𝑎2
𝑚𝜔2 (𝑎 2 −𝑦 2 ) 𝑎 2 −𝑦 2 𝑎2 − 3 1
2 4
= 1 = 𝑎2
= 𝑎2
=4
𝑚𝜔2 𝑎 2
2
K.E. = P.E.
1 1
2
𝑚𝜔2 (𝑎2 − 𝑦2) = 2
𝑚𝜔2 𝑦 2 on solving y = a / √2 1
Q.9 Law of equipartition:- At thermal equilibrium, at temperature T each mode of 1
1
energy contributes an average energy equal to 2 𝑘𝑇.
Laplace pointed out that sound travels through adiabatic condition not under
isothermal because (i) temp. rises in the region of compression and falls in
regions of rarefactions. (ii) gas is a poor conductor of heat. (iii) compression
and rarefactions are formed so rapidly.
𝛾𝑃
Hence V = √ 𝜌
Q.11 Correct diagram of four modes ¼+¼+¼ +¼
Correct calculation ½+½+½+½
Q.12 (i) C 1+1+1+1+1
(ii) A
(iii) C
(iv) A
(v) D