UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN

FACULTY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

COURSE: SOC 712 URBAN SOCIOLOGY

SEMINAR TOPIC:

URBAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS: CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES AND SUSTAINABLE

SOLUTIONS

PRESENTED BY:

OMOTAYO IFESEWA SHITTU

MATRIC NO: 234042

LECTURER(s): PROF. OMOBOWALE

DR. AKANLE

DR. BUSARI
ABSTRACT

The continued growth of the urban population in Nigeria and sub-Saharan Africa has brought
along with it a myriad of challenges, exacerbated by a high birth rate and a continued
increase in the level of rural-urban migration. Cities worldwide have exponentially expanded,
and significant numbers of people have shifted from rural living to urban settlements for
easier access to facilities, opportunities, and the potential for a higher quality of life. The
economic, infrastructural, and social conditions in these urban centers have been incapable of
providing their inhabitants with a good standard of living. This paperwork analyses some of
these long-standing challenges, their interrelatedness and how they exacerbate the inability of
the Nigerian government to solve them. Furthermore, the conclusion lays a response to these
challenges with sustainable solutions on unravelling the complex conglomerate issues.
Understanding and addressing urban social problems requires a multi-dimensional approach
considering the social, economic, and environmental factors shaping urban life. By
examining the root causes and consequences of these challenges, we can develop effective
policies and interventions to create equitable, safe, and vibrant cities for all residents.
INTRODUCTION

Urbanisation has been a defining feature of the 21st century, with an increasing number of
people around the world moving to cities in search of better opportunities and improved
living standards. Cities are hubs for various activities, including ideas, commerce, culture,
research, production, and social growth. Through the development of jobs and the provision
of opportunities, cities have, at their finest, allowed people to advance both socially and
economically. Keeping cities in a state where they may continue to generate affluence and
jobs without depleting land or other resources, however, presents several difficulties. Cities
must find solutions to their problems to enable them to grow and prosper while utilising
resources more efficiently, lowering pollution levels, and reducing poverty. A distinct and
focused goal for sustainable urban development was formed due to the significant
transforming effects of Urbanisation and the vibrancy of cities. The 2030 Agenda includes a
dedicated goal on human settlements (SDG 11) to make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable. By endorsing a stand-alone goal on cities (Goal 11), the 'urban SDG', the
international community recognised Urbanisation and city growth as a transformative force
for development.

Nigeria contains some of Africa's oldest and newest cities (e.g., Kano and Abuja), hosts five
of the continent's 30 largest cities, and is estimated to have the most significant urban
population (United Nations, 2014). According to UN figures, just under 50% of Nigeria's
population now lives in urban areas, and this proportion is projected to reach 67% by 2050
(United Nations, 2014). Nigeria has emerged as Africa's urban giant. Although Urbanisation
is the driving force for modernisation, it brings about economic growth, development and
cultural diversity in Nigeria and globally. However, it also gives rise to a host of social
problems that pose significant challenges to the well-being of urban dwellers. These urban
social problems encompass a wide range of issues affecting individuals, communities, and
society. (Smith & Johnson, 2019). The concentration of population, diverse socioeconomic
backgrounds, and complex social dynamics characterize urban areas. Many people left the
village to get a quality education, find a job, and have a better life in the city. The towns were
constantly growing as the villages were depopulated (Gollopeni, 2015).

While cities offer numerous opportunities for economic growth, cultural exchange, and social
interactions, they also face many social problems that can impact their residents' well-being
and quality of life. Urban social problems encompass many issues, including poverty,
inequality, crime, homelessness, inadequate access to education and healthcare, social
isolation, and environmental challenges. Nigeria is rapidly urbanising, with more people
living in urban areas than in rural communities. A recent World Bank estimate shows that
53% of the 213 million Nigerians live in urban areas, which is projected to rise above 70% by
2050. Urban social problems arise from various factors, including rapid Urbanisation,
economic disparities, cultural diversity, and inadequate social infrastructure. The
concentrated nature of urban environments magnifies and exacerbates these issues, affecting
marginalised communities and vulnerable populations to a greater extent. These problems
impact individual well-being and have broader implications for social cohesion, economic
development, and urban sustainability.

Urbanisation is the physical growth of urban areas due to global change.

The rising growth of the urban population in recent years has been attributed to the unequal
development of the cities and their rural counterpart. Especially in developing countries like
Nigeria, the urban centres remain the cynosure of attraction among rural dwellers, pushing
them into their regions in search of greener pastures. Unfortunately, the cities carrying
capacities (support systems) usually do not meet the infrastructural and resource need of
these new immigrants.

This study aims to address particular urban social problems, their causes, consequences, and
potential solutions to promote awareness, understanding, and discussion surrounding them
and contribute to creating efficient approaches to handle them. It is important to note that
identifying Nigeria's populations according to their rural versus urban status is an essential
phase in developing efficient economic development programs.
CONCEPTUAL AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

URBAN

Many countries base their urban definition on settlement (population) size, applying a certain
threshold to distinguish between urban and rural areas. However, there remain ambiguities
regarding the placement of settlement boundaries or what threshold should be applied, and
the choice of threshold can affect a country's measured urbanisation level (Potts, 2018;
Satterthwaite, 2010). In Nigeria, a settlement is classified as urban if it contains 20,000
people or more, which is a relatively high minimum population threshold compared with
many other countries. According to the UN methodology (2014) and following the
convention in Nigeria, settlements with a population of 20,000 or more are classified as
urban. All state capitals are included.

Urban settlements are demographically large, relatively densely populated, built-up areas
(Fox & Goodfellow, 2016). In practice, using various criteria, many countries base their
urban definition on settlements for enumeration purposes. Urban is a place-based
characteristic that describes the degree to which the lives of a spatial concentration of people
are organised around nonagricultural activities. Throughout the world, the dominant
migration pattern within countries has been from rural to urban areas. This is partly because
improved technology has decreased the need for agricultural workers and partly because
cities offer more significant economic benefits. "Urban area" can refer to towns, cities, and
suburbs. An urban area includes the city itself, as well as the surrounding areas. Many urban
areas are called metropolitan areas. When two or more metropolitan areas grow until they
combine, the result may be known as a megalopolis. Rural areas are the opposite of urban
areas. Rural areas, often called "the country," have low population density and large amounts
of undeveloped land. According to IFAD 2010, rural areas refer to areas of open country and
small settlements, areas of small population size or areas of agricultural production.
However, like the urban definition, rural is a subject tive teem that can mean different things
to different people.
URBANISATION

Urbanisation is a process whereby populations move from rural to urban areas, enabling cities
and towns to grow. It can also be termed as the progressive increase in people living in towns
and cities. It is highly influenced by the notion that cities and towns have made better
economic, political, and social advancements than rural areas (Conserve Energy Future,
2020). Urbanisation refers to the expansion in the proportion of a population living in urban
areas and is one of the significant social transformations sweeping the globe; it represents the
movement of people from rural areas to urban areas, with population growth equating to
urban migration (Misilu et al., 2010). Several factors, including rural-urban migration, natural
population increase, and annexation, cause urbanisation and city growth. Because rates of
natural increase are generally slightly lower in urban than in rural areas, the principal reasons
for rising levels of Urbanisation are rural-urban migration, the geographic expansion of urban
areas through annexations, and the transformation and reclassification of rural villages into
small urban settlements (Barney, 2006).

Demographers define Urbanisation as the increasing share of the population living in urban
areas (Poston & Bouvier, 2010). Urbanisation differs from urban population growth, although
the two concepts are often conflated, creating considerable mischief. Since Urbanisation is
defined as a rising urban share, there is no urbanisation if urban and rural populations are all
growing at the same rate. Alternatively, if the total population is not changing, but the urban
share is increasing, all urban population growth is the result of Urbanisation, and the rate of
Urbanisation (the rate of increase in the share of the population living in urban areas) is equal
to the rate of urban population growth. Urbanisation represents the increase in the proportion
of people living in towns and cities due to people moving from rural areas to urban areas.

Urbanisation involves shifting the population from rural areas to urban centres, resulting in
the physical expansion and transformation of cities. It is driven by various factors, including
economic opportunities, improved access to education and healthcare, rural-urban migration,
and natural population growth. Urbanisation is closely linked to industrialisation and
economic development, as urban areas attract investment, innovation, and diverse industries.
The implications of Urbanisation are multi-faceted and can be both positive and negative. On
the positive side, Urbanisation often leads to increased economic productivity, job creation,
and improved living standards. Cities become commerce, trade, and cultural exchange
centres, fostering innovation, creativity, and social mobility. Urban areas also provide better
access to education, healthcare, and essential services, enhancing the quality of life for
residents.

However, Urbanisation also brings challenges and negative consequences. Rapid urban
growth can strain infrastructure and public services, leading to overcrowding, inadequate
housing, and traffic congestion. Urban areas often experience higher levels of pollution,
environmental degradation, and the depletion of natural resources. Social issues such as
inequality, poverty, and social exclusion can become more pronounced in cities, exacerbating
existing disparities and creating new challenges for marginalised populations.

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE URBANISATION OF A PLACE

A place can become an urban region through the dynamic process of Urbanisation, fueled by
several reasons. The following are some of these elements:

Urbanisation is influenced mainly by economic opportunities or factors. Rural inhabitants

seeking better living conditions are drawn to places with various employment options and
higher incomes. Urban locations frequently provide access to markets, services, and
industries, fostering economic growth and luring those looking for work and financial
stability. More individuals could be released from agricultural work and migrate to jobs
created in cities due to modern technology, which increased agricultural productivity per
person. Geographic location and accessibility have an impact on Urbanisation. Strategic sites,
including coastal regions, river valleys, or transportation hubs, frequently experience faster
urban growth because of their accessibility to resources, markets, and transportation
networks.

Furthermore, technological developments, particularly in communication and transportation,

have driven Urbanisation. The development and integration of metropolitan areas have been
made possible by advancements in transportation infrastructure, including roadway, rail, and
aviation technology. The prospects for the expansion of cities into larger cities are virtually
endless because of technology's ongoing advancement, particularly as it relates to the
manufacturing sector. The advancements in communication have allowed the world to
become a small, interconnected village. Urbanisation depends on the availability of
infrastructure and services. Roads, mass transit, and airports are all part of well-developed
transportation networks in urban areas. They also provide a vast range of other services,
including utilities, communication networks, healthcare facilities, and educational
institutions. Urban locations are more appealing for settlement when these amenities are
available. Urban locations are more appealing for settlement when these amenities are
available. Numerous social and cultural institutions, such as libraries, community centres,
theatres, art galleries, and museums, are frequently found in urban areas. These
establishments offer chances for artistic expression, intellectual inquiry, and social contact,
enhancing the vitality and allure of urban areas. Examples include the Nike Art Gallery in
Lagos, the Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library in Ogun State, and Abeokuta, the first
presidential library in Africa and the location of the nation's national archives as well as a
museum and a facility for the preservation of cultural items.

URBAN PLACES IN NIGERIA

Nigeria, located in West Africa, is the most populous country on the continent and has
experienced significant Urbanisation in recent decades. The nation is home to diverse urban
places that serve as centers of economic activity, cultural exchange, and social development.
The notable urban places in Nigeria, showcasing their unique characteristics and
contributions to the country's urban landscape according to World Bank (2019) report,
include:

Lagos: Lagos, Nigeria's economic and commercial hub, is Africa's most populous city.
Known for its bustling markets, vibrant nightlife, and entrepreneurial spirit, Lagos attracts
people from all over the country seeking economic opportunities. The city is characterised by
its iconic skyline, diverse neighbourhoods, and a blend of modern infrastructure and informal
settlements. Lagos serves as a major centre for finance, trade, and entertainment, making it a
symbol of urban dynamism in Nigeria.

Abuja: As the capital city of Nigeria, Abuja is a purpose-built city that was established in the
1980s to replace Lagos as the administrative centre. Known for its well-planned layout, wide
roads, and modern architecture, Abuja is home to government institutions, foreign embassies,
and international organisations. The city's serene landscapes, such as Aso Rock and
Millennium Park, contrast its bustling administrative and diplomatic activities.

Kano: Kano, situated in northern Nigeria, is one of the oldest urban centres in the country. It
has a rich historical and cultural heritage, with landmarks such as the Great Mosque and the
Emir's Palace showcasing the city's Islamic influence. Kano is known for its bustling markets,
including the famous Kurmi Market, one of the largest in West Africa. The city is a central
trading hub for agricultural products, textiles, and handicrafts.

Ibadan: Located in southwestern Nigeria, Ibadan is one of the largest cities in the country and
a centre of education, healthcare, and commerce. Ibadan is known for its rich Yoruba culture
and heritage, with landmarks like the University of Ibadan and the Cocoa House representing
its historical significance. The city is characterised by its sprawling neighbourhoods, vibrant
markets, and numerous educational institutions, making it an important intellectual and
cultural centre in Nigeria.

Port Harcourt: Situated in the Niger Delta region, Port Harcourt is a major industrial and oil-
producing city in Nigeria. The city's economy is closely tied to the oil and gas sector, with
multinational companies and refineries operating there. Port Harcourt boasts a diverse
population and a lively cultural scene, with notable landmarks such as the Isaac Boro Park
and the Port Harcourt Pleasure Park offering recreational spaces for residents and visitors.

Nigeria's urban places are diverse and vibrant, each offering a unique set of opportunities and
challenges. As the economic and financial nerve centers, the cities account for over 70% of
Nigeria's industrial and commercial establishments. They provide 70% of the country's
manufacturing value-added Lee, (1992). They have extensive infrastructural facilities, the
Busiest international airport, a seaport (in Lagos), and the most extensive road and
Telecommunication networks in Nigeria.

NIGERIA'S URBAN POPULATION INDEX

Urban population refers to people living in urban areas defined by national statistical offices.
It is calculated using World Bank population estimates and urban ratios from the United
Nations World Urbanization Prospects. Aggregation of urban and rural populations may not
add up to the total population because of different country coverages. According to the
United Nations' World Urbanization Prospects (2018), Nigeria had an estimated urban
population of 102.8 million people in 2018. This accounted for approximately 51% of the
country's total population. Nigeria's urban population is expected to continue growing in the
coming years. The United Nations projects that by 2050, Nigeria's urban population will
reach 275 million people, making it one of the most urbanised countries in the world.
Nigeria's urban population for 2019 was 104,004,479, a 4.13% increase from 2018

Nigeria's urban population for 2021 was 112,560,662, a 3.99% increase from 2020.
Nigeria's urban population for 2020 was 108,242,753, a 4.08% increase from 2019.

Lagos, Nigeria's biggest city, already has over 15.9 million people. The country's urban
growth rate is 6%, and the general population growth rate is about 2.4%.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE URBAN POOR AND URBAN NON-POOR

This study posits that the movement of people from rural to urban areas is a common
occurrence in Nigeria, especially from villages to cities. The movement poses some problems
in the rural and urban centres even though; there are benefits derivable from it. In most rural
areas, the impact of rural-urban migration was a rapid deterioration of the rural economy
leading to chronic poverty and food insecurity (Mini, 2000). It is also important to note that
not all rural migrants in Nigeria seek employment opportunities or greener pastures. Migrants
leave for the cities based on factors like conflict, war, community crises or the need to
explore. Hence, despite all the economic and industrial benefits provided in urban areas for
dwellers to make life easier, poor people still reside in urban areas. Moreover, in most cases,
there are even richer people in Rural areas than most urban dwellers. This argument is
supported by (Gray & Mueller, 2012; Chen et al., 2017), who posit that the effect of natural
disasters such as droughts and flooding can be ambiguous and a driver of migration.

Hence the characteristics between the urban poor and the urban non-poor will be explored.

Urban Poor:

The urban poor frequently have inconsistent or meagre income that is insufficient to cover
their essential needs and maintain a decent standard of living. Many people hold part-time or
low-paying jobs without benefits or employment security. Urban poor people frequently have
restricted access to high-quality education and may have lower levels of educational
achievement. Their chances of finding work may be hampered, and their capacity to
overcome poverty may be constrained. The urban poor frequently reside in bad housing
situations such as informal settlements, slums, or crammed residences. There may be a need
for more access to sanitary facilities, clean water, and other necessities in these dwelling
arrangements.

They frequently struggle to access essential social services like healthcare, education, and
social welfare programs. This could increase their vulnerability and limit their ability to
change their situation. Also, the urban poor frequently experience marginalisation and social
exclusion due to criteria like poverty, ethnicity, or immigration status. They might only have
a small circle of friends and have obstacles to full engagement in the social, economic, and
political realms.

Urban Non-Poor:

The urban non-poor, or middle and upper-income groups, typically exhibit the following
characteristics:

a. Higher Income: The urban non-poor generally have higher and more stable incomes that
allow them to meet their basic needs and afford a higher standard of living. They may have
access to more lucrative employment opportunities and benefits.

b. Better Education: The urban non-poor tend to have higher levels of education and access to
quality educational institutions. This provides them with better employment prospects and
opportunities for upward mobility.

c. Adequate Housing: The urban non-poor typically live in better housing conditions,
including formal housing with access to basic amenities and better infrastructure. They may
have access to secure and stable housing arrangements.

d. Access to Social Services: The urban non-poor generally have greater access to healthcare,
education, and social services. They can afford private healthcare and education options and
have better access to social safety nets and welfare programs.

e. Social and Political Influence: The urban non-poor often have more significant social and
political influence, enabling them to participate actively in decision-making processes and
shape urban policies. They may have more robust social networks and connections that
provide opportunities and resources.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

When a particular social phenomenon or condition disturbs the social order and hinders the
smooth working of social institutions, that comes to be identified as a social problem, social
problems are issues or conditions that negatively affect individuals, communities, or society.
These problems emerge from the interaction of social, economic, and cultural factors and
often require collective efforts to address and resolve. Understanding social problems is
crucial for sociologist, policymakers, researchers, and individuals seeking to create positive
social change. This study will explore social problems, their various forms, and their
implications for society. (Mooney, 2019)

URBAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Urban areas are often marked by various social problems that emerge due to complex social,
economic, and environmental interactions. These problems can have significant implications
for individuals, communities, and the overall well-being of urban societies. This paper posits
that urban areas are not immune to social problems; just as rural areas have peculiar
problems. Social problem in an urban area is interwoven; one problem leads to another.
Although numerous social problems exist in urban areas, in the context of this study, ten
major urban social problems will be examined.

1. Population Increase:

Natural population increase (more birth than death rate) and migration were most of the
significant factors responsible for the process of city growth in a lot of developing countries
like Nigeria; this is caused by improved medical facilities, food availability, as well as better
sanitation, this consequently reduces death rate and results to much population growth, abject
poverty in most cases drives people from rural to urban areas in search of job opportunities,
food and better health care in Nigeria. (Ezeigwe, 1995). Many rural migrants comprise more
younger people searching for greener pastures. Hence, they are more agile and productive;
this serves as a major factor leading to natural population increase in urban areas.

2. Migration

Migration is defined as the movement of people from one geographical region to another,
which may be temporary or permanent. People migrate based on the prevailing conditions,
and the reasons for it vary from one person to another depending on the situation that brought
about the decision. Migration is a selective process affecting individuals or families with
certain economic, social, educational and demographic characteristics. (Adewale, 2005).

Nigeria is one of the countries in the world with a very high rural-urban dichotomy. Although
the nation is generally characterised by poor social amenities, both in quality and quantity,
rural communities are disproportionately more disadvantaged than urban centres due to
governmental neglect. Consequently, the number of rural inhabitants that migrate to cities
with high hopes of overcoming powerlessness consistent with rural life is unprecedented
(Nwokocha, 2007). People migrate to cities to gain a better standard of living. They are
influenced by urban pull factors (education, employment, better life) and rural push factors
(dissatisfied with rural life: poor physical infrastructure, poor-quality education and health,
unemployment). The concentration of employment opportunities in urban areas' industrial
and service sectors is the root cause of Urbanisation and rural–urban migration.

Rural-urban migration has reached an alarming proportion in Nigeria. Consequently, many

potential rural-urban migrants, rather than leave a rural origin in search of a job which
guarantees immediate cash rewards, seem to conclude 'apprenticeship' arrangements for
training in the various informal sector activities (primarily dominated by the trading function)
before leaving their natal communities for different urban destinations. Thus, the large
number of distributive establishments in Nigerian urban centres has been explained partly in
terms of the absence of adequate opportunities for full-time employment (Olakanpo, 1972).
Whatever form the 'apprenticeship' takes, one common feature is that there is an 'expected
income reward' in the years after the apprentice has established an independent business. This
is particularly evident in the southeastern part of Nigeria; the business people bring younger
migrants to the city to be salesboys in their shops. Migration flows to urban areas will
generally include a range of income groups ''including individuals and households that are not
on a low income'' they will also often include rural migrants pushed to urban areas by
drought, livelihood loss or debt and sometimes conflict. These groups may need help finding
accommodation they can afford. They may be concentrated among the most insecure and
worst-served settlements, often in peripheral locations (Khrishna et al., 2014). Migration,
therefore, becomes a social problem in urban areas as it leaves strain on societal
infrastructure and economic resources, resulting in overcrowding of the urban areas.

3. Homelessness:

Homelessness, as defined by (Wright, 2007), "is the condition of people who lack regular
legal access to adequate housing". Housing is universally acknowledged as one of the most
basic human needs for life, and it is a residential structure where man lives and grows (Aluko,
2004; Akinluyi & Akingbohungbe, 2012). One characteristic and consistent human behaviour
over thousands of years is that humans build shelters. Homes offer protection from the
elements and various health hazards and provide basic amenities such as a secure place to eat
and sleep, keep one's possessions, raise a family, and be part of a community.
The adequate shelter has always been one of man's basic needs; it is a significant component
of human survival and a useful barometer for gauging societal development. An estimated
24.4 million people in Nigeria are homeless (Global Homelessness Statistics, 2016).
Homelessness is often an effect of complex social and economic problems. Homelessness is
triggered by multi-dimensional factors, like – in-affordable housing, housing speculation and
land in-availability, tribal conflict, rapid unplanned Urbanisation and privatisation of civic
services and skyrocketing house rent in urban areas, for example, in Lagos, Nigeria.

During the oil boom era in Nigeria, major cities, including Lagos, witnessed a massive influx
of rural dwellers (Metz, 1991; Jiboye & Omoniyi, 2010).

Living in cities permits individuals and families to take advantage of proximity, diversity,
and marketplace competition opportunities. People move into cities to seek economic
opportunities. A major contributing factor is known as "rural flight". In rural areas, often on
small family farms, it is not easy to improve one's standard of living beyond basic sustenance.
Farm living is dependent on unpredictable environmental conditions and in times of drought;
although; there is homelessness in rural areas, too but not compared to urban areas.

In developing countries with rapid Urbanisation, the problem of inadequate housing for the
people, especially among the low-income group, constitutes one of the significant challenges
to economic development and the welfare of citizens.

The problem of inadequate housing for the people, especially among the low-income group,
constitutes one of the significant challenges to economic development and the welfare of
citizens. Existing studies have shown that despite the rapid growth and population increases
in urban areas, evidence also revealed a rapid decrease in the addition of new housing stock,
as well as poor state and inadequate urban housing infrastructures to support the increasing
population (Aguda & Ajala, 1998; Jiboye,2009).

Types of homelessness

One of the most common ways of categorising people without homes is to divide the
population into three subgroups. The three subgroups are the chronically homeless, including
people who live on the periphery of society. The cyclically homeless: Includes individuals
who have lost their dwelling due to some change in their situation, such as the loss of a job.
The temporarily homeless: Includes those without accommodation for a relatively short
period. (Lyne, 1999).
4. Urban Slums

A slum area refers to any area and dwellings predominated by dilapidation, overcrowding,
inadequate building management and design systems, poor or lack of ventilation, insufficient
sanitation facilities and poor space management, all or some of which constitute hazards to
the healthy living of the people (Davis, 2006). Other terms denoting slums include blighted
areas, low-income areas, renewal arenas and ghettos. Primarily, the communities that live in
urban slums belong to the class of low-income households who migrate to cities expecting a
better future. They live in slums to be close to work opportunities, which often tend to be
exploitative and informal or sometimes criminal.

Slums are neglected parts of cities where housing and living conditions are appallingly
lacking; slums range from high-density, squalid central city tenements to spontaneous
squatter settlements without legal recognition or rights, sprawling at the edge of cities. Some
are over fifty years old; some are land invasions just underway. Access to urban land for
housing has been a significant issue for the vast majority of low-income families in most
developing countries like Nigeria (Bayram, UZUNet-al,2004).

The formation of slums and squatter settlements is not inevitable; this is evident in the
varying proportions of the population living in such types of settlements in cities in the
developing world (Giok & Kai, 2008). Slums are home to the poorest of urban populations in
Africa. The houses inhabited by slum dwellers are primarily decrepit and overcrowded in
neighbourhoods prone to flooding and beset with poor sanitation and a shortage of potable
water. Slums, regarded as an element of urban decay, also result from congestion in
overcrowded cities where poor immigrants seek to settle for any available accommodation,
irrespective of quality. Housing the urban poor is one of humankind's significant challenges
in the twenty-first century. Although studies have shown that the housing problem is
universal, it is, however, more critical in less developed countries (LDCs), including Nigeria.

In most instances, the urban poor live in overcrowded housing, often in self-made temporary
structures in slums and squatter settlements, where they exert unprecedented pressure on
deteriorating urban infrastructure and social services (Diogu, 2002).

Almost 75% of Nigeria's urban dwellers live in slums (Olotuah, 2005) and in such forms of
shelter that are degrading to human dignity.
These urban poor are subjected to a life characterised by precarious conditions of lack of
nutrition and health, little or poor material possessions, substandard housing and a generally
degraded environment. Their housing does not ensure dry shelter, safe water supply,
drainage, sewerage, refuse disposal, or access roads. The housing constitutes a health risk to
its occupants. Examples of slums in Nigeria include Makoko slums and sawmills in Lagos,
Nigeria, and Street in Bodija Market slum. Toilets are on the right, houses on the left, the
core area of Beere and some part of Agbowo in Ibadan, and A waterfront slum in Port
Harcourt. Ajegunle is located in the Ajeromi Ifelodun Local Government Area. The site is a
significant slum, often described as a 'jungle city'.

According to Irin 2006, Although what constitutes slums vary according to cities and their
peculiarities, a typical slum is depicted as possessing the following attributes:

a: Poor or complete absence of basic infrastructure such as good roads, electricity, good water
and a planned environment, among others.

b: Temporary, dilapidated or poor houses resulting from poor planning and system of
approval, if any.

c: Overcrowding, high population density and congestion also result from poor space
management or insufficient space for building. Sometimes, a room is used for different
purposes like cooking, dining, sleeping and even for commercial purposes.

d: High tendency for deviant behaviour such as prostitution, criminal acts, bunkering, illicit
sexuality, drug abuse, beggary and juvenile delinquencies, among others. The existing
structures, experts believe, create a conducive atmosphere for such behaviour to thrive.

e: Because of the poor integration of slum dwellers into mainstream urban life, it is believed
that resentments, apathy and isolation characterise slum areas.

In other words, slums are often ignored in the urban development process because slum
dwellers are seen as an inferior set of people (IRIN 2006). slum dwellers have their unique
culture and economy sustained through group cohesion and resilient innovative practices; it is
essential to note that slums have their functional uniqueness and relevance to the ever-
increasing urban centres.

Factors Resulting in the Formation of Slums in Urban Areas

There are several factors which contribute to the prevalence of slums in Nigeria.

Some of the contributory factors are:

1. Scarcity of Lands, Services and Security of Tenure

The inability of most low-income earners to secure cheap plots with services and the
prevalence of non-secure tenures invariably breed squatting, congestion and, consequently,
the growth of slums.

Neglect of Buildings and Their Environment, which Makes Them Become Derelict

2. Poor Maintenance Culture: Poor attitude to the maintenance of buildings and infrastructure
is commonplace in Nigeria. Poor maintenance of buildings and public utilities significantly
contributes to slum formation.

3 Congestion- Congestion of residential areas is a significant factor and a catalyst for the
emergence of low environmental quality and unsanitary conditions in urban centres.

4. Poor Enforcement of Sanitation Laws

Many cities in Nigeria do not enforce environmental sanitation laws.

5. Social disintegration: Collapse of Nigeria's social institutions

The social institutions entrusted with the responsibility of continued upkeep, development
and survival of society, social groups and individuals have all collapsed in Nigeria. The
collapse and changes have emerged due to exposure to Western education, civilisation, rural-
urban migration and technological development (Akingbade, 2016). This is probably because
of the acute poverty plaguing not only the family but also all spheres of Nigerian society.

Compared to rural areas, Urbanization also dissolves the traditional family (leading to a
family with a smaller number of members). A joint family cannot be kept in the cities due to
the high cost and way of life. People prefer to live in the nuclear family. According to Wirth,
the city's way of life has some social peculiarities, such as the replacement of close social ties
with secondary ties, the fading of strong tribal ties, the fading of family importance in the
social context, the loss of a sense of bond formation close to neighbours, and the fading of
traditional social solidarity (Alver et al., 2007; Likaj, 2013). The socialisation processes are
sometimes left to the mothers alone. With emerging changes in society, men's roles are also
changing.

Child Trafficking, Female Prostitution and Surrogacy (Surrogate Mothers) as the Worst
Forms of Child labor are widely accepted in urban societies. This is a crucial upcoming
societal problem, especially in urban areas.

6. Urban Poverty and Income Inequality:

The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Africa and the Pacific (ESCAP)
identified three (3) aspects of urban poverty: poverty of money, access, and power. These
poverty aspects are another critical element that fans the ember of slum growth in Nigeria.

Urban poverty finds expression in an environment characterised by high densities of

buildings, the crowding of large numbers of people into those buildings, lack of space for
open-air living between houses, poor health, substandard housing, and acute environmental
and sanitary problems (Olotuah, 2009). This is the environment in which the Nigerian urban
poor live.

For slum dwellers, their obvious lack of money means that they could hardly afford to pay for
house rent or build their own houses within the cities' traditional land and housing markets.
Furthermore, their poverty of access means that they lack access to basic social infrastructure
and services provided by the government, such as piped water, good road, good sewerage
system etc. This has resulted in the urban poor living in illegal and informal overcrowded,
unsanitary and despicable slum settlements.

This paperwork posits that poverty of power is evident among urban dwellers. This means
that the urban poor are seen but have yet to be heard in the scheme of things within and
around their environment. They need more power to influence how cities are governed as
selected formal and informal elites concentrate on decision-making. These conditions of
poverty push people in the final analysis into building more and more slums in Nigeria.

The paper focused its attention on urban poverty, which literarily signifies the absence of
urban poor basic infrastructure, employment, inability to earn paid jobs and poor quality of
the environment of this vulnerable group of the urban centres. Like slums, urban poverty is
something that people believe they can easily define in terms of household income, for
example, the proportion of a city's household who are earning less than what is needed to
afford a basket of necessities or living on less than US$ 1 or US$ 2 a day. Monetary measures
of poverty have been used in many countries they do not capture the multi-dimensional
nature of poverty (Amis, 1995; Baulch, 1996; Chambers, 1997)

For slum dwellers, their apparent lack of money means that they could hardly afford to pay
for house rent or build their own houses within the cities' traditional land and housing
markets. Furthermore, their poverty of access means they lack access to basic social
infrastructure and services provided by the government, such as piped water, good road,
sound sewerage system etc. This has resulted in the urban poor living in illegal and informal
overcrowded, unsanitary and despicable slum settlements.

Urbanisation resulting from the migration of unskilled, uneducated or not well-educated

migrants from rural areas hoping to secure employment in the urban centres is one of the
causes of poverty. These migrants, by the time they get to the city, would see the reality of
life: unemployment, retrenchment and low income for those employed, and a high cost of
living. This often prompts them to squatter living in the towns' squalor areas. Another cause
is the demographic structure. In most cases, a large family size without the necessary
financial backing results in poverty (Olowu & Akinola, 1995).

There is no concise way of defining the concept of poverty, for it is a multi-dimensional issue
that affects many aspects of the human condition, from physical to moral to psychological
(Ogwumike, 2002). Urban Poverty has become an issue of global concern as other continents
continue to register sustainable economic growth and development. Nigeria has the largest
population of about 146 million in sub-Saharan Africa. Its urban poverty has its roots in the
profound inequalities that characterise her society.

Most people with low incomes in the urban areas in Nigeria live in overcrowded, unsanitary
slums and squatter settlements and often do not have access to basic infrastructure and
services. They are forced to live in illegal and informal settlements because they cannot enter
the formal land and housing

7. Health and environmental issues

It is crucial to note that analyzing metropolitan regions requires consideration of the growing
health concerns. The majority of the city's health risks are directly related to the rise in
pollution of all kinds. The lives of individuals living in both cities and the accompanying
slums are in danger due to the continuous release of harmful biological and chemical
compounds such as carbon monoxide into the atmosphere. In this aspect, partial combustion
in car engines is not excused. Similar to the problem of pollution is the issue of congestion,
which comes with poor ventilation. Poor ventilation, in turn, negatively impacts the proper
respiration of dwellers. As a result of the ever-increasing demand for housing, greed and
inadequate planning, a good number of houses in Lagos needs to be better ventilated. The
poor sanitation system is close to the problem of congestion, which usually harbours
increasing incidents of diseases like cholera, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted diseases,
among others. Very close to the problem of poor sanitation is the issue of poor or inadequate
waste management schemes and the problem of drainage. Efficient refuse disposal requires
huge logistics, expertise and financing. If left in the hands of private individuals alone, abuse
will become inevitable. It is important to note that there is a redefinition of health by the
World Health Organization (WHO), which includes the economic, social, physical, mental
and emotional well-being of the people, revealing that stress and depression immensely
contribute a significant threat to healthy living in the city spaces. This explains why some
physically healthy people attempt suicide, probably because of stress at the workplace or
other forms of social or psycho-emotional frustrations (Ilesanmi, 2010). Also, Urbanisation
has always raised environmental concerns. Indeed, the links between Urbanisation and
environmental risks were more evident in early cities, where resource constraints were more
localised, and environmental health issues loomed large. Ibn Khaldu¯ n, writing on the
requirements for the planning of towns in the 14th century, identified the following as
necessary to prevent them from falling into ruins: ample water fit for human consumption,
pastures for livestock, fields suitable for cultivation and forests for fuelwood and building
materials (Khaldu¯n, 1967) Climate change is creating new environmental risks and
exacerbating old ones, including the risks of inadequate water and sanitation provision.
Urbanisation is putting in place infrastructure that will contribute to or protect people from
more local environmental burdens and determine whether cities and Urbanisation contribute
to climate change mitigation and adaptation. Where urban growth takes place will also
influence how many people are living i

n risk-prone regions and localities.

8. Traffic Congestion:

In cities, there is nothing unusual about experiencing a lot of traffic. An increase in the
amount of people using the roads causes traffic congestion. The movement of commuters and
the conveyance of products and services are both delayed as a result of this scenario. Of all
the Nigerian cities, Lagos has the biggest percentage of workers employed in the tradable
sector, which includes manufacturing, engineering, and finance. Combined with a steady
program since the 1970s of road and, more recently, mass transport investments, these forces
have driven more differentiation and articulation of mini-agglomerations than in other cities.
Differentiated districts in Lagos include Lagos Island (the historic CBD), Victoria Island (the
new centre for the finance industry), Ikeja (the government centre, and formerly the location
of the Nigerian Federal government), Apapa (the Port area and surrounding industrial zone),
and Lekki (the preferred bedroom community for the Lagosian elite).

It is uncommon for residents of a megacity like Lagos to perform morning prayers, eat
breakfast or dinner, and partake in other activities to relieve the stress of traffic congestion. In
reality, traffic jams lengthen commutes and slow down moving vehicles. This renders taking
public transit difficult and provides information about the productivity and health of the
populace. People in Lagos often leave for work very early in the morning and may not arrive
home until very late at night in order to avoid traffic congestion.9. Urban Gentrification

9. Gentrification is a relatively contemporary term. The concept was developed by sociologist

Ruth Glass in 1964 in London, where middle-class people who migrated to suburbs are
moving back into the inner city. It means a planned change in the population of Poland users
so that the new users are of higher socioeconomic status than the last users.

Gentrification is an urban social problem because the original, poor and working-class
residents are displaced from the neighbourhood by rising costs and other forces directly
related to the new weather residents.

Building of estate

This denotes a social condition in which more affluent people take possession of the assets of
the less privileged people because of the envisaged potentials of the area under consideration.
This becomes an evident social problem in urban areas because as gentrification occurs,
lifestyles change, and eviction of lower-income people becomes preponderant, a condition
necessitated by the inability of relatively poor dwellers to afford new rent rates and cope with
policies and other factors relating to the high cost of living. As rurality continues to pave the
way for urbanity occasioned by gentrification, investors and more affluent people are
attracted. This is exemplified in places like Lekki and Ajah in Lagos, where the aboriginal
dwellers would gladly sell off their properties to high bidders, an area resulting from
wealthier people buying housing property in a less prosperous community.

(Kilmartin 2003) defined gentrification as the process by which a higher-income household

displaces lower-income residents of a neighbourhood. Under this definition, gentrification
has three specific characteristics

1. Displacement of original residents

2. Physical upgrading of the neighbourhood, particularly of the housing stock

3. Change in neighbourhood character

There is also a change in constructed environment through investment in fixed capital.

A gentrified area is characterised by a displacement of a lower-income group by a higher-

income one. It occurs mainly in residential areas and involves the rehabilitation of dilapidated
buildings into codomain. Consequent to gentrification, the average income increases and
average family size decreases in the community, which may result in the informal economic
eviction of the lower-income residents because of increased rents, house prices and property
taxes. This type of population change reduces industrial land use when it is redeveloped for
commerce and housing. In addition, new businesses catering to a more affluent base of
consumers tend to move into formerly blighted areas, further increasing the appeal to more
affluent migrants and decreasing the accessibility to fewer wealthy natives.

10. Crime, Violence and urban unrest:

Stark 1987 coined the term deviant places to refer to urban neighnorhoods that had certain
features that contributes to high crime rates. Urban areas often experience higher crime rates
compared to rural areas. Factors contributing to crime and violence in urban settings include
poverty, inequality, social disorganisation, limited employment opportunities, gang activity,
and drug-related issues. The fabrics of urban life are such that druggists, fraudsters
(especially advanced free fraudsters) and public fund looters take a shield under city life's
pronounced stress and complexities. Cities are more prone to terrorism, robbery, an Increase
in the number of corpses on the street or other forms of attacks than their counterpart rural
centres. Before spreading to other regions of Nigeria, counterfeit goods like bogus
pharmaceuticals and money frequently enter the Lagos harbor. Substance abuse, including
drug addiction and alcoholism, is a significant urban social problem. Urban areas often face
higher rates of substance abuse due to socioeconomic disparities, stress, availability of drugs,
and social marginalisation. Substance abuse risks individuals' health, strains healthcare
systems, and contributes to crime and social disintegration.

CAUSES OF URBAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Urban areas are not immune to social worries; the dense population, cultural diversity, and
rapid change that characterise urban areas environments can all play a role in forming several
social problems. For effective solutions to be developed, it is essential to comprehend the root
causes of urban social problems. (Cote, 2017). The paper will examine some typical causes of
urban social issues while illuminating the results and viable solutions. These factors are
connected and frequently reinforce one another, resulting in complicated and multi-faceted
societal issues in urban areas.

Rural – Urban Migration: in the context of this study is the voluntary movement of people
(as individuals, family units or large groups) from their homelands (place of birth or
residency) to a new location with the intention of settling down temporarily or permanently;
due to economic and technological growth or advancement in their desired destination.
The absence essential basic amenities and the unavailability of government presence and little
or no commercial activities in the rural areas in Nigeria serve as push factor that drives
people away from the rural settlements; whereas the cities remains the focus of
government developmental projects and the center of several opportunities, necessitating
rural dwellers to troop in their numbers to the cities due to these pull factors. In
developing countries most especially, the main causative factor of urban social problem is
rural-urban migration (Bodo, 2015) Hence, In urban areas, an increase in the population of
urban dwellers as a result of rural-urban migration tends to lead to inadequate housing, poor
education due to overcrowded schools, inadequate health care facilities, an increase in
criminal activities, traffic problems, few employment opportunities and other social problems
which can make life difficult for the urban inhabitants.
Poverty and Inequality: Urban areas often exhibit higher levels of poverty and income
inequality than rural areas Aigbokhan (2017). Concentrating disadvantaged populations in
urban centres can lead to social exclusion, limited access to resources and opportunities, and
a lack of basic amenities. Structural factors such as unequal distribution of wealth, limited job
opportunities, and inadequate social welfare systems contribute to these issues. According to
UNRISD (2010), poverty and inequality are interconnected parts of the same problem, and
where they exist, they prevent development. Aigbokhan (2017) reiterates that “inequality is
the cause and consequence of the failure of the market system as well as the political
system”; and it also contributes to economic and political instability, which in turn leads to
increased inequality

Inadequate Access to Education and Healthcare: Although urban areas typically offer better
access to education and healthcare than rural areas, access disparities can still exist within
cities. Most training institutions, colleges, elementary schools, and technical institutions are
in urban areas. Also, most libraries are located in the cities. Recruiting agencies, as well as
the examination councils, are situated in the cities. Limited availability of quality educational
institutions, healthcare facilities, and social services in certain neighbourhoods can contribute
to educational and health inequalities, perpetuating social problems. Clearly, due to the
location of these facilities, most students and adult learners are attracted to the town for easy
access to higher education. Opera and Amusement Theaters are also in urban areas, drawing
more people to the cities.

Homelessness – There is an Inadequate supply of affordable land in urban places.

The land has been described as the fulcrum of all types of development in any society; the
constrain posed by its inaccessibility have reduced the provision of affordable housing for
about 70 per cent of whom live below the poverty line. Lack of adequate land for urban
development, particularly for low-income housing, is the most crucial impediment to
achieving the goal of shelter for all. Scarcity of land leads to escalating land prices,
overcrowding of existing neighbourhoods, illegal invasion of vacant land and growth of
squatter settlements. Studies have shown that poverty, lack of affordable housing, and
domestic violence are the principal causes of family homelessness in Nigeria, and this has
increased.

Rapid Urbanisation and Overcrowding: Rapid Urbanisation, characterised by the inflow of

people from rural areas and natural population growth, can lead to overcrowding and strain
on infrastructure and resources. Insufficient housing, inadequate sanitation facilities, and
increased competition for limited resources can contribute to social tensions, health problems,
and reduced quality of life. Also, the natural increase in population, the rate of death and
births characterises the natural expansion of an area. In areas where births are more than
deaths, the population is bound to increase. People who migrate to towns and cities are young
people searching for housing, jobs, or better education. Young men and women have a high
fertility rate; therefore, they increase in numbers quickly and will eventually look for new
spaces within the urban area to settle and fend for their kind.

Advancement of transport and communication: When factories were introduced, local

transportation was weak, forcing the factory labourers to reside near their place of work. The
cities were partitioned into dwelling areas, market areas, factory areas, slums, and so on.
Increased population led to housing congestion and added to the existing community by
extension of boundaries. Today, people prefer to live near their place of work, not because of
poor transport but to shorten distance travel and avoid the traffic jam on their way to work.
Active transportation helps make the cities more habitable by easing communication, and
transportation and creating convenient accessibility.

CONSEQUENCES OF URBAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Urban social problems have wide-ranging consequences that affect individuals, communities,
and society. These consequences can be categorised into two, which are

Societal Consequences

Individual Consequences

On societal consequences, the implication of unemployment vis-a-vis rural-urban migration

is made obvious by the scarcity of food in the vast Nigerian cities. The fact is that most
migrants to cities who should remain behind to cultivate the land in villages remain idle and
become dependent on urban residents who are employed. In the process of cities' emergence,
vast land for Agriculture and claiming wetlands for urban uses and infrastructure are
identified. This is associated with widespread vegetation removal to support the urban
ecosystem and put additional pressure on nearby areas that may be even more ecologically
sensitive.
Poverty and housing deficit in rapidly growing cities are reasons for the emergence of slums
(World Bank, 2002). Rapid rate of Urbanisation resulting from rural-urban migration is a
major contributing factor to slum development in developing countries (UNCHS, 2003;
1986), negatively affecting society. Due to the unsustainable planning and management,
immigrants tend to congregate and seek accommodation which is available for them because
they need to improve. Inadequate urban housing supply coupled with increasing demand for
housing in many developing countries propels the formation of slums (Durand- Lasserve,
1996). This situation has relegated many city dwellers to slums due to inadequate low-cost
and decent housing provisions. Moreover, the need for sufficient public housing caused a
series of housing crises and an increased growth of unauthorised settlements in urban areas.

It is important to note that the definition of poverty to individuals in urban areas varies.
Although references are often made to those who 'live in poverty', it is rare for housing
conditions to be considered within definitions of poverty. Monetary poverty lines are often
applied to urban populations, and these are based primarily on the cost of food. This is when
there is little urban poverty. Many urban dwellers 'live in poverty' in overcrowded tenements
or cheap boarding houses, informal settlements or temporary camps (Mitlin & Satterthwaite,
2013).

poverty led to social exclusion. of urban dweller. Low income also exposes the urban poor to
social exclusion, not only from basic needs but also from civil and political rights. They
contribute to limited access to resources and opportunities, quality education, healthcare and
disparities in living conditions. In all these, women and female-headed households are
generally the more vulnerable. More than in the rural areas, the limited asset bases of the
urban poor leave them particularly vulnerable to sudden economic shocks and longer-term
crises, such as serious illness and injury (Moser, 1998). It is important to note that the basis
for people's exclusion from infrastructure and service provision is the basis of the settlements
they live in, not whether or not they are migrants. However, migrants may be
disproportionately represented within some of the worst-quality informal settlements (for
instance, temporary camps for construction workers, small temporary structures on public
land, or settlements set up by recent migrants, often on the urban periphery).

Also, high crime rates and violence are significant consequences of urban social problems.
They create an atmosphere of fear and insecurity, limiting residents' freedom and quality of
life. Crime and violence have a detrimental impact on community well-being, economic
development, and social cohesion. Urban social problems can contribute to urban decay,
characterised by the deterioration of physical infrastructure, abandonment of properties, and
disinvestment in specific neighbourhoods. This can create a cycle of decline, as disinvestment
leads to further deterioration, limited economic opportunities, and reduced quality of life for
residents. The consequences of urban social problems manifests in social and political unrest.
Inequities, social tensions, and injustice can lead to protests, civil unrest, and social
movements. These disruptions can challenge governance systems and impede social progress
in urban areas. Furthermore, Urban social problems can lead to social disintegration and
fragmentation within communities. High crime rates, social tensions, and marginalisation can
erode social bonds and trust among residents. This can result in the breakdown of social
networks, decreased community participation, and limited social cohesion.

On the environmental consequences, an urban heat island is formed when industrial and
urban areas are developed, resulting in more excellent production and retention of heat. In
cities with less vegetation and exposed soil, most of the sun's energy is absorbed by urban
structures and asphalt. Vehicles and factories release additional city heat, as do industrial and
domestic heating and cooling units. An increase in population (Urbanisation) courses a high
level of homelessness, which eventually affects the environment; however, it has exposed the
deplorable and pathetic situations of the homeless and urban poor in the country. At the same
time, millions of Nigerians live under bridges. Since these people live in dirty surroundings,
they become prone to diseases. In Nigeria, the collapse of family units & economic hardship
dislocates women and puts children in harsh psychological well-being conditions.
Homelessness is a part of public health, and its health consequences are profound. Therefore,
the observed overcrowding, cold living conditions and damp, poor nutrition, lack of
immunisation, and poor access to health care services and other health/psychological well-
being impacts of homelessness in Nigeria cities result in - infectious diseases, mental health
glitches, disability, physical disorders, and premature death. Data disclosed that Nigerians
are most vulnerable to infectious diseases like - AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome) are predominantly the homeless population involved in prostitution and drug
abuse.

On the individual's part, one of the main consequences of urbanisation in Nigeria is

unemployment. Many of the rural people that migrated in search of jobs in the cities end up
on the streets. Most times out of frustration, they start petty stealing like snatching bags from
unsuspected victims and may even advance their craft to highway and bank robbers. The
women engage in commercialisation of sex to help them fend for their families. The sex
business is common in the cities of both the developed and developing countries. In Nigeria,
for instance prostitutes could be sited at night in cities like Lagos, Abuja and Port Harcourt in
places where mostly the rich citizens of the country visits.

SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION.

Addressing urban social problems requires sustainable solutions that promote long-term
positive change, inclusivity, and social well-being.

The social capital theory was used in explaining urban social problems. Hence, this
paperwork encourages the need to Foster social capital and networks within urban
communities as it is essential for resilience and social cohesion. Encouraging social
interactions, facilitating community events and gatherings, and creating platforms for
dialogue and cooperation strengthen social connections and promote mutual support.
Building trust and social networks empowers residents to collectively address social
problems, advocate for their rights, and contribute to positive change in their
neighbourhoods.

This study also recommends that Agro-allied industries be set up in rural areas to provide job
opportunities for the people of the rural area and reduce rural-urban migration. Agricultural
inputs and farming technology, such as mechanization, should be introduced to the rural
people to improve production. if this can be fully implemented, it will greatly reduce the
country's rural-urban migration and increase the nation's food production capacity. According
to Hiraskar (1993), regular maintenance of old buildings in urban areas can be a major
remedy to slum formation. However, repairs and maintenance issues are evident to Nigeria,
causing rapid decay and deterioration of buildings which affects the sustainability of the
urban environment and consequently leads to slum development. Therefore, tenants,
landlords and government have a role in repairing and recovering these buildings.

Also, investing in education and skill development programs is vital for breaking the cycle of
poverty and empowering individuals to improve their socioeconomic status. Accessible and
quality education, vocational training, and lifelong learning opportunities equip individuals
with the necessary skills and knowledge to secure employment, participate in the economy,
and contribute to society. Targeted initiatives that address educational disparities and provide
equal opportunities for all residents can help reduce social. Finally, promoting environmental
sustainability is intertwined with addressing social problems. Sustainable urban practices,
such as improving waste management, reducing pollution, promoting green spaces, and
implementing energy-efficient initiatives, not only enhance the quality of the environment but
also improve public health, enhance livability, and reduce socio-environmental disparities.

Finally, there should be population control in Nigeria, medical health clinics oriented towards
family planning options must be made accessible across the entire urban areas with the
objective of controlling diseases and population growth. It is important to note that
sustainable solutions to urban social problems require a holistic and context-specific
approach that considers the unique characteristics of each urban area. Collaboration among
government agencies, community organisations, academia, and residents is crucial for
effective implementation and long-term success. By adopting these sustainable solutions,
urban areas can work towards creating inclusive, resilient, and thriving communities that
prioritise social well-being, equality, and environmental stewardship.

THEORIES ADDRESSING URBAN SOCIAL PROBLEMS

This paperwork posits the triangulation of two theories in addressing social problems in
urban areas. The social capital theory addresses the urban social problem from the individual-
relational context. On the other hand, the concentric zone theory addresses the explanation of
the distribution of social groups within urban areas; hence, the problems within each zone are
practically evident for policymakers to formulate plans to meet their needs.

Social Capital Theory: arises from the human capacity to consider others, to think and act
generously and cooperatively. Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002) was the first to conceptualise
social capital in an explicitly sociological manner that is at variance with the economic view.
He understands capital in the sense of power and resources and considers the family a
primary source of social capital. Social capital provides the context for understanding a range
of phenomena beyond an economic Len and, as such, has been heralded as a very conceptual
innovation for inter and transdisciplinary theoretical integration (Adam & Roncevic, 2003).
The central position of social capital theory is that 'relationship matters and that social
network is a valuable asset. The word is social in this context refers to the bits that have
productive benefits, while capital emphasises the store of solidarity or goodwill between
people and groups. Social capital is what allows people to collaborate and coexist coordinate.
It is essential for human social existence. A practical example in a Yoruba adage translated to
English to mean it is not just what you know but whom you know. Urban social problems are
multi-dimensional; as a theory, social capital operates at multiple levels. Hence, Social
capital theory emphasises the importance of social relationships, networks, and trust in
fostering positive outcomes in urban communities. It suggests that communities with strong
social ties and networks are better equipped to address social problems. Building social
capital through community engagement, fostering social connections, and promoting
collective action can help address urban social issues.

The social capital theory provides a framework for understanding how social networks,
relationships, and community trust can contribute to addressing urban social problems. It
emphasises the importance of social connections, cooperation, and collective action in
promoting positive social outcomes. The Social capital theory emphasises the value of social
networks and relationships in fostering trust, reciprocity, and cooperation within
communities. Urban areas can promote social cohesion and connectedness among residents
by focusing on building and strengthening social networks. Initiatives that facilitate
community gatherings, events, and dialogue can forge bonds, bridge social divides, and foster
a sense of belonging and mutual support. Urban areas can foster social cohesion and reduce
social exclusion by actively addressing social inequalities and promoting equal access to
resources and opportunities. Initiatives that promote intercultural understanding, diversity
appreciation, and dialogue across different social groups can contribute to a more inclusive
and cohesive urban environment. By incorporating social capital theory into urban planning,
policy-making, and community development initiatives, urban areas can foster social
connections, trust, and cooperation, leading to more resilient, inclusive, and thriving
communities. Implementing strategies that empower residents, promote civic engagement,
and strengthen social networks can contribute to sustainable solutions for urban social
problems.
CONCENTRIC ZONE MODEL

The Concentric ring model, also known as the Burgess model, is one of the earliest
theoretical models to explain urban social structures. It was created by sociologist Ernest
Burgess in 1925. The concentric theory, also known as the concentric zone model, was
developed by sociologist Ernest Burgess in 1925. It is one of the earliest theoretical models to
explain urban social structures and their problems. The theory proposes that cities are
organised into concentric zones, each with distinct characteristics and social issues. This
paperwork opines that by understanding these zones and their associated problems, targeted
interventions can be developed to enhance sustainable solutions. It was the first to explain the
distribution of social groups within urban areas. This concentric ring model depicts urban
land use in concentric rings:

Zone I (Central Business District) – This is the centre (innermost zone) where the central
business district is located and has the highest land value. The zone has tertiary activities and
earns maximum economic returns. Another feature is the accessibility of the area because of
the convergence and passing of transport networks through this part from surrounding and
even far places in the city. This part has tall buildings and noticeably high density to
maximise the returns from land. Commercial activity taking place in the area results in
negligible residential activity in this zone.

Zone II (Transition Zone) – The mixed residential and commercial use characterises this
zone. This is located adjacent to and around the CBD and continuously changes, i.e., a
transition occurs. Another feature is the range of activities taking place, like mixed land use,
car parking, cafe, and old buildings. This transition zone is considered to "decay" because of
many old structures, as the buildings in the transition zone were earlier used for factories and
tenement housing blocks. This zone had a high population density when industrial activities
were at their peak. Those residing in this zone were of the poorest segment and had the
lowest housing condition. Urban sums are found in these zones, houses of first generations of
immigrants.

Zone III (Inner City/ Working Class zone) – This area is occupied for residential purposes
and is also known as the "inner city" or "inner suburbs." It consisted of houses built to
accommodate factory workers but had better conditions than the transition zone. This area
has a mix of new and old development and generally requires orderly redevelopment. People
living in this zone are second-generation immigrants, as many move out of the transition zone
to this zone whenever it is affordable. This zone is nearest to the working area with modest
living conditions, and this resulted in reduced commuting costs. Another interesting feature
includes the large rental housing occupied by single workers.

Zone IV (Outer Suburbs/ White Collar Homes) – This zone had bigger houses and new
development occupied by the middle class. Many homes are detached; unlike single
occupants of inner suburbs, families reside in these homes. Better facilities are available to
the residents, like parks, open spaces, shops, and extensive gardens, but this comes at an
increased commuting cost. This zone has a large area of residential land. People living in this
outer ring look for a better quality of life.

Zone V (Commuter Zone) – This is the peripheral area and farthest from the CBD; this
resulted in the highest commuting cost compared to other zones. High commuting costs gave
the name "commuter zone" to this part. People living in this part were high-income groups
who could afford large houses, pay commuting charges, have access to different
transportation modes, and enjoy modern facilities like shopping malls. Low-rise
development, extensive gardens, and less population density are some of the characteristics of
this zone. This zone offered the highest quality of life and facilities but at higher commuting
costs.

Application of concentric theory to address urban social problems

The theory identifies the central zone, also known as the central business district, as the core
area with high population density and commercial activities. Often, this zone experiences
decay and neglect. By focusing on neighbourhood revitalisation efforts, such as improving
infrastructure, upgrading housing, enhancing public spaces, and attracting businesses,
policymakers can address social problems associated with urban decay and disinvestment.
Also, the zones farther from the central business district are characterised by residential areas.
Housing affordability, quality, and accessibility are critical issues in these zones.
Policymakers can implement measures to promote affordable housing options, ensure
adequate infrastructure (such as transportation and utilities), and create mixed-income
neighbourhoods to address social problems related to housing disparities and inadequate
living conditions. The concentric theory emphasises that the outer zones are typically
residential suburbs. These areas may face challenges such as limited job opportunities and
economic disparities. To address these problems, policymakers can focus on economic
development strategies that attract businesses, promote entrepreneurship, and create
employment opportunities in suburban areas. This can help reduce unemployment, enhance
income levels, and address social problems associated with poverty and economic inequality.
The theory suggests that social problems are more concentrated in inner-city areas, with
higher crime rates, poverty, and limited access to social services. To address these issues,
policymakers can prioritise providing social services, such as healthcare facilities,
educational resources, community centres, and youth programs, in these zones. Community
development initiatives that engage residents and empower local communities can also play a
crucial role in addressing social problems. The concentric theory recognises that urban areas
are organised around transportation networks. Improving transportation infrastructure and
accessibility can help address social problems associated with limited mobility and isolation.
Policies that focus on expanding public transportation options, improving connectivity
between different zones, and ensuring equitable access to transportation can enhance social
inclusion and improve the quality of life for residents.

CONCLUSION

Due to the dense population, increasing Urbanisation, and socioeconomic disparities in

metropolitan regions, complex and varied issues known as urban social problems exist. These
issues, including poverty, inequality, violence, and unreliable access to resources and
services, can harm people individually, and in communities and negatively impact
metropolitan surroundings. By implementing these sustainable solutions, urban areas may
work to create inclusive and resilient communities that put social well-being, equity, and
environmental stewardship first. Implementing and maintaining these solutions requires
cooperation among governmental entities, community organisations, academic institutions,
and citizens. Addressing social issues to foster social justice, equity, and the significant
involvement of all stakeholders is crucial.
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