Natural Hazards

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-04797-4

REVIEW ARTICLE

Speaking of the devil: a systematic literature review

on community preparedness for earthquakes

Hayrol Azril Mohamed Shaffril1 · Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah1,2 · Syafila Kamarudin1

Received: 1 November 2020 / Accepted: 11 May 2021

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. 2021

Abstract
Community preparedness in facing natural hazards such as earthquakes is extremely impor-
tant. Although there are numerous studies on community preparedness for earthquakes, the
effort to systematically review this particular research topic has been challenging since it
fails to incorporate the review procedures, presenting a considerable challenge for scholars
to replicate or interpret. Therefore, this study aims to conduct a systematic literature review
concerning community preparedness for earthquakes. The review processes included five
key methodological steps, namely guided by review protocol, formulation of research ques-
tions, systematic searching strategies based on identification, screening, and eligibility on
several established databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct, Emerald,
Taylor Francis, Springer Link, and Sage Journals, followed by quality appraisal, and data
extraction and analysis. Seven main themes were also discovered based on the thematic
analysis: (1) infrastructure-related; (2) information seeking and sharing, and experience
sharing; (3) related programmes, training and campaign; (4) strong social relationships; (5)
survival kits and supplies; (6) involvement, planning, training in evacuation or emergency
drills; and (7) life-saving techniques and life protection. These seven themes were divided
into 18 sub-themes.

Keywords  Earthquake preparedness · Earthquake · Natural hazards · Community

preparedness

* Hayrol Azril Mohamed Shaffril

[email protected]
Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah
[email protected]
Syafila Kamarudin
[email protected]
1
Institute for Social Science Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Putra Infoport, 43400 Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

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 Natural Hazards

1 Introduction

Earthquakes are considered one of the most terrifying natural hazards. A total of 1791
earthquakes with the Richter magnitude scale ranging from 5.0 to 6.9 were recorded in
2018 (US Geological Survey 2019), while the largest earthquake ever recorded occurred
in Chile in 1960. This catastrophe, which struck at a magnitude of 9.5, is also known
‘Great Chilean Earthquake’ and the ‘1960 Valdivia Earthquake’ (Geology.com 2019).
The effects of an earthquake on physical facilities, the environment, and humanity are
disastrous. The seismic impacts result in a devastating number of deaths. For instance,
the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami resulted in approximately 227,898 casu-
alties across 14 countries, including India, Nepal, Thailand, the Maldives, Somalia, and
Myanmar, with Banda Acheh in Indonesia recording the highest number of mortalities
(130,376). The earthquake also caused irreparable damage to mangroves areas, coastal
areas, farms, livestock, coral reefs, forests, animal and plant biodiversity, and ground-
water. While the most affected communities, such as farmers and the tourism workforce,
were obstructed from conducting their socio-economic routines, other victims suffered
from widespread psychological trauma.
Since predicting the occurrence of future seismic events is almost impossible, further
efforts must be directed towards strengthening community preparedness so that the com-
mon mindset of ‘if an earthquake strikes’ can be shifted to ‘when an earthquake strikes’
(Bronfman et al. 2020). The principal aim of earthquake preparedness is to reduce the
impact of these natural hazards on vulnerable populations, to prepare an organisation for
an influx of activity, and to formulate strategies that utilise resources, time, and efforts
effectively when tragedy strikes. Organised preparedness can save lives, reduce property
damage during a disaster, and expedite the process of returning to normality.
It should also be emphasised that there is no comprehensive review of earthquake
preparation or preparedness research undertaken at this juncture. SLR refers to a formal
technique that comprehensively locates and synthesises pertinent research, in addition
to practising organised, transparent, and replicable procedures at each step in the pro-
cess (Higgins et al. 2011). The SLR proposed in this study relies explicitly on integra-
tive review analysis where quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods are combined.
The issue of community preparedness for catastrophic events such as earthquakes has
gained considerable interest among scholars worldwide. While Azim and Islam (2016),
Guo  and Li (2016), and Onuma (2017) examined the subject of community prepared-
ness for earthquakes in Saudi Arabia and Japan, Ismail et al. (2016), Paton et al. (2015),
and Kenney and Phibbs (2015) focused their research on the same issue in the context of
Indonesia and New Zealand.
Although there is a vast body of literature on earthquake preparedness at present,
the effort to systematically review these studies, identify patterns, and develop potential
themes on the subject remains limited. Notably, the review procedures, including iden-
tification, screening, and eligibility, have not been adequately addressed. The practices
of traditional literature reviews have several issues related to transparency and bias.
Many authors would typically simply choose articles that favour their research (Shaffril
et al. 2020). Indeed, such a system would consequently pose a substantial challenge to
future scholars to replicate the study, validate the interpretations, or examine the study’s
comprehensiveness.
Given this gap found in the literature, the current study aims to conduct an SLR that
focuses explicitly on community preparedness in facing earthquakes. Through this

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approach, the authors’ empirical evidence can be justified to identify the gaps and guide
the direction for future research in this field. In progressing the review, the authors were
guided by the main research question; ‘How do the community worldwide prepare for the
threat of an earthquake?’. Moreover, the main focus of this paper lies in the preparation
strategies employed by communities since it is important to mitigate against the hazards
and risks to reduce the number of casualties and damage to properties.

2 Methodology

2.1 Review protocol—ROSES

The SLR is guided by ROSES (Reporting Standards for Systematic Evidence Syntheses).
ROSES was developed by Haddaway et al. (2018), aiming to strengthen and maintain a sound
methodology for developing an SLR via increased transparency and to ensure and control
the quality of the review. Although this review is more centred towards disaster management
and given the fact that ROSES was explicitly developed for environment management, this
review protocol suits the current review as it is developed to suit the nuances and heteroge-
neity across diverse situations and research regarding the synthesis method (Haddaway et al.
2018). Guided by ROSES, the SLR process began with formulating the research questions
applying the PICo method; ‘P’ for Problem or Population, ‘I’ for Interest and ‘Co’ for Context.
Next, the strategy for document searching was planned and was conducted according to three
systematic phases: identification, screening, and eligibility. A quality appraisal process was
then conducted based on the adapted criteria outlined by Hong et al. (2018). Here, the qual-
ity of each selected article was determined before incorporated into the review. Lastly, the
selected articles were processed through several stages, data extraction and data analysis. The
data extraction process was guided by the primary research question, while the qualitative data
synthesis (thematic synthesis) was performed in analysing the extracted data. Where suitable,
the authors followed the suggestions put forward in the review by considering alternatives to
ensure the review protocol met the aim of the review.

2.2 Formulation of the research question

In formulating the research question, two sources were utilised; first, ideas from previous stud-
ies such as by Joffe et al. (2019), Bronfman et al. (2019) and Pacheco et al. (2020). All the arti-
cles were related to how and why do communities prepare against earthquakes. Second, using
the mnemonic of PICo, which signifies ‘P’ (Population or Problem), ‘I’ (interest) and ‘Co’
(Context) (Lockwood et al. 2015). Based on these concepts, the authors included three main
aspects as part of the review, the global community (Population), earthquake threats (Interest)
and preparation against earthquake threats (context). This enabled the authors to formulate the
main research question of this study; “How do communities globally prepare for the threat of
earthquakes?”.

2.3 Systematic searching strategies

Three systematic processes of identification, screening, and eligibility proposed by Shaffril

et  al. (2018) were employed to retrieve the relevant articles. Implementing these processes

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allowed the authors to comprehensively locate and synthesise the studies in conducting a well-
organised and transparent SLR.

2.3.1 Identification

Based on the formulated research questions, three main keywords were identified: commu-
nity, prepare, and earthquake. To enrich these keywords, the authors sought its synonyms,
related terms and variations by using an online thesaurus, such as thesaurus.com, refer-
ring to the keywords used by past studies, referring to the keywords suggested by Sco-
pus and by asking the opinion of experts. Based on this process, several keywords similar
to earthquake preparedness, including earthquake, community, prepare, plan, readiness,
awareness, alert, precaution, strategy, safeguard and safety measure, were checked. The
combinations of these keywords were processed using search functions, such as field code
functions, phrase searching, wildcards, truncation, and Boolean operators in two databases:
Scopus and Web of Science (see Table 1).
Additionally, the searching process was based on a manual searching technique.
Here ‘handpicking’ was used in databases like Science Direct, Emerald, Taylor Francis,
Springer  Link and Sage Journals. Although a tsunami earthquake can trigger a tsunami,
different natural hazards may result in different impacts, which require a different set of
preparation strategies. Accordingly, it is worth noting that the present study only addresses
community preparedness for earthquakes. Based on the searching efforts, a total of 4773
potential articles were identified from the selected databases.

2.3.2 Screening

Screening was the second procedure carried out where articles were either included or
excluded (with the assistance of the database or manually screened by the authors) from the
study based on a specific set of criteria (see Table 2). Considering the concept of ‘research
field maturity’ emphasised by Kraus et  al. (2020), this review limited the screening pro-
cess to only include the articles published between 2015 and 2020. This timeline was cho-
sen given that the number of published studies was sufficient to perform a representative
review. The authors decided to review empirical research papers since they offer primary
data. Notably, to avoid confusion, only those written in English were considered. Since the
SLR objective related to community preparation, choosing social science research studies

Table 1  Search string used in the Database String

selected database
Scopus TITLE-ABS-KEY ((earthquake*)
AND (communit*) AND (pre-
pare* OR plan* OR read* OR
aware* OR alert* OR precaution
OR strateg* OR safeguard OR
“safety measure”))
Web of Science TS = ((earthquake*) AND (commu-
nit*) AND (prepare* OR plan*
OR read* OR aware* OR alert*
OR precaution OR strateg* OR
safeguard OR “safety measure”))

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Table 2  Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Criterion Inclusion Exclusion

Timeline 2015–2020 2014 and earlier

Document type Articles (with Review article, chapter in a book, book, conference proceeding, etc
empirical data)
Language English Non-English
Subject area Social Science Medical, public health, environmental science, engineering, geog-
raphy, other non-social science studies

as one of the criteria was believed to increase the possibility of acquiring more articles
related to community preparedness. A total of 4541 articles were excluded from the review
during this stage since they were not in line with the inclusion requirement. This resulted in
232 remaining articles for evaluation in the subsequent stage.

2.3.3 Eligibility

The authors manually checked the remaining papers to identify (either by reading the title,
abstract or the entire paper) whether the papers matched the established inclusion crite-
ria. One hundred twenty-two articles were excluded during the title screening state, and
during the abstract screening stage, 68 articles were removed. Another six articles were
excluded after the authors read the content of the selected articles. In total, 196 articles
were removed in this stage since they did not focus on preparedness at the community
level, did not focus on earthquakes, were in the form of a review paper, and were science-
based (referring to studies that are non-social science-based such as engineering or envi-
ronmental science, etc.). The final number of articles for the quality appraisal stage was
28 (see Fig. 1).

2.4 Quality appraisal

The quality appraisal stage was performed to ensure that the methodology and analysis
of the selected studies were completed satisfactorily. For this purpose, the Mixed-Method
Appraisal Tool (MMAT) by Hong et al. (2018) was used. MMAT enables researchers to
appraise a systematic mixed studies review and covers the appraisal of five kinds of stud-
ies: qualitative research, randomised controlled trials, non-randomised studies, quantitative
descriptive studies, and mixed methods studies (Hong et al. 2018). For each selected study,
two screening processes were conducted before proceeding to the quality assessment. The
selected articles were assessed based on their quality using five main criteria established in
the research design. To ensure the selected qualitative sources had a sound methodology
and underwent rigorous analysis, MMAT helped emphasise the criteria such as the appro-
priateness of the research questions to provide adequate data, the adequacy of qualitative
data collection to address the research questions, the coherence between qualitative data
sources, data collection, analysis and interpretation.
For quantitative research design, the authors relied on the assessment criteria such as the
relevance of the sampling strategy towards the research questions, the sample’s representa-
tiveness to its population, the appropriateness of the measurement and the suitability of the

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 Natural Hazards

Records retrieved using databases (Scopus, Web of Science, Science Direct,

Emerald, Taylor Francis, Springer Link and Sage Journals) (n = 4,773)

The search was based on keywords such as earthquake, community, prepare,

IDENTIFICATION

plan, readiness, awarenes, alert, precau‚on, strategy, safeguard and safety

measure

Records excluded due to being published in 2014 and earlier; published in a

form of a review ar‚cle; chapter in a book; a book’ conference proceedings;
published in non-English;
medical, public health, environmental science, engineering, geographic, other
non-social science studies (n = 4,541)
SCREENING

Total records a‹er Duplicates records

screening (n = 232) removed (n = 8)

Records excluded (‚tle screening (122

Records excluded (abstract screening - 68
ar‚cles)
ELIGIBILITY

Records excluded (content screening - 6 ar‚cles)

Full-text ar‚cles
assessed for eligibility Full-text ar‚cles excluded due to not focusing on
(n = 224) preparedness at the community level; not focusing on
earthquakes, or review paper and published ar‚cles
were science-based
(total number of records excluded, n = 196)

Quality appraisal on
ARTICLES
READY FOR

remaining ar‚cles
REVIEW

Studies included in the

qualita‚ve synthesis
(n = 28)

Fig. 1  Flow diagram of the searching process

analysis performed. Meanwhile, for mixed-method research designs, to control the quality
from the methodological and analysis perspective, MMAT helped in providing guidance
concerning the rationale for using the mixed-method to address the research questions, the
effectiveness of the different research design to answer the research questions, the integra-
tion of qualitative and quantitative and the ability to address the divergence and the differ-
ences between research designs.
With the assistance of two co-authors, the corresponding author then assessed each arti-
cle’s methodological and analytical rigour. Each article was carefully read with a focus
on its methodology section and the analysis undertaken. Guided by MMAT, the authors
scrutinised the articles, for example, searching the consistency of the sampling performed
and analysis undertaken (e.g. random sampling vs inferential analysis) (Table  3). Each
article was assessed based on five criteria with three options provided in presenting their
answers: “yes”, “no”, and “don’t know/can’t tell”. The articles were included in the review
if they passed at least three criteria. All decisions on the assessment were based on mutual

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agreement, and any disagreement was quickly settled via discussion among the authors.
Based on this process, all authors agreed that all selected articles passed the minimum
quality requirement regarding the methodology and analysis. In total, 15 articles fulfilled
all criteria, seven articles fulfilled at least four criteria, and a further six articles managed to
fulfil at least three criteria (Table 4).

2.5 Data extraction and analyses

The articles were thematically analysed, given that the review relied on diverse research
designs, presenting the best ways to integrate the differences by performing qualitative syn-
thesis (Whittemore and Knafl 2005). While several qualitative syntheses could be applied,
the present review relied on the approach suggested by Flemming et  al. (2019), who
stressed the suitability of thematic synthesis on synthesising data from diverse research
designs due to its flexible mode. Thematic analysis is a form of analysis that attempts to
identify and notify the pattern of existing studies by detecting any similarities or relation-
ships that could exist in available data (Braun and Clarke 2019). In this review, the the-
matic synthesis was based on the steps suggested by Kiger and Varpio (2020). First, the
Table 3  The criteria used to determine the rigour of the methodology and analysis used in the selected
articles
Research design Assessment criteria

Qualitative QA1—Is the qualitative approach appropriate to answer the research

question?
QA2—Are the qualitative data collection methods adequate to address the
research question?
QA3- Are the findings adequately derived from the data?
QA4- Is the interpretation of results sufficiently substantiated by data?
QA5—Is there coherence between qualitative data sources, collection,
analysis and interpretation?
Quantitative (descriptive) QA1—Is the sampling strategy relevant to address the research question?
QA2- Is the sample representative of the target population?
QA3- Are the measurements appropriate?
QA4- Is the risk of nonresponse bias low?
QA5- Is the statistical analysis appropriate to answer the research ques-
tion?
Quantitative (non-randomised) QA1- Are the participants representative of the target population?
QA2- Are measurements appropriate regarding both the outcome and
intervention (or exposure)?
QA3- Are there complete outcome data?
QA4- Are the confounders accounted for in the design and analysis?
QA5- During the study period, is the intervention administered (or expo-
sure occurred) as intended?
Mixed methods QA1- Is there an adequate rationale for using a mixed methods design to
address the research question?
QA2- Are the different components of the study effectively integrated to
answer the research question?
QA3- Are the outputs of the integration of qualitative and quantitative
components adequately interpreted?
QA4- Are divergences and inconsistencies between quantitative and quali-
tative results adequately addressed?
QA5- Do the different components of the study adhere to the quality crite-
ria of each tradition of the methods involved?

Source: Hong et al. (2018)

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Table 4  Results of the quality assessment

Study Research Design QA1 QA2 QA3 QA4 QA5 Number Inclusion
of criteria in the
fulfilled review

Chou et al. (2015) MX √ √ X √ √ 4/5 √

Paton et al. (2015) QN (DC) √ C √ X √ 3/5 √
Kenney and Phibbs QL √ √ √ √ √ 5/5 √
(2015)
Azim and Islam (2016) QN (DC) X √ √ √ √ 4/5 √
Guo and Li (2016) QN (DC) √ √ √ √ √ 5/5 √
Ismail et al. (2016) QN (DC) √ √ √ √ √ 5/5 √
Jang et al. (2016) QN (DC) C C √ √ √ 3/5 √
Kirschenbaum et al. QN (DC) X √ √ √ √ 4/5 √
(2017)
McClure et al. (2016) QN (DC) X √ √ C √ 3/5 √
McGeehan and Baker QL √ √ √ √ √ 5/5 √
(2017)
Tipler et al. (2016) QN (DC) C √ √ X √ 3/5 √
Onuma et al. (2017) QN (DC) √   √ √ √ √ 5/5 √
Aryankhesal et al. (2017) QL √ √ √ √ √ 5/5 √
Becker et al. (2017) QL √ √ √ √ √ 5/5 √
Han et al. (2017) QN (DC) √ √ √ X √ 4/5 √
Ray (2017) QN (DC) √ X C √ √ 3/5 √
Chan et al. (2018) QN (DC) X X √ √ √ 3/5 √
Cerchiello et al. (2018) QN (DC) C √ √ √ √ 4/5 √
Shapira et al. (2018) QN (DC) √ √ √ √ √ 5/5 √
Doyle et al. (2018) QN (DC) √ √ √ X √ 4/5 √
Cui and Han (2018) QN (DC) √ C √ √ √ 4/5 √
Bronfman et al. (2019) QN (DC) √ √ √ √ √ 5/5 √
Cvetkovic et al. (2019) QN (DC) √ √ √ √ √ 5/5 √
Joffe et al. (2019) QN (NR) √ √ √ √ √ 5/5 √
Songlar et al. (2019) QN (DC) √ √ √ √ √ 5/5 √
Rostami-Moez et al. QN (DC) √ √ √ √ √ 5/5 √
(2020)
Pacheco et al. (2020) QL √ √ √ √ √ 5/5 √
Bronfman et al. (2020) QN (DC) √ √ √ √ √ 5/5 √

QA = Quality assessment; QN (DC) = Quantitative descriptive; QN (NR) = Quantitative non-randomised;

QL = Qualitative; MX = Mixed-Method; C = Can’t tell

researchers familiarised themselves with the entire dataset via active and repeated readings.
This process offered the researchers valuable orientation to the raw data and set the founda-
tion for all subsequent steps.
The second process involved generating initial codes. Here the researchers organised
data at a granular and specific level. During this stage, the researchers read all selected
articles and extracted any data related to the main research question. The third process
involved theme generation. The researchers practised inductive coding frameworks and
attempted to note any interests, similarities, and connection between the extracted data

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based on the coded data. The synthesis relied on an inductive coding framework where
the themes were derived from the coded data. The themes developed were associated with
the original data and reflective of the entire data set (Braun and Clarke 2019). During this
process, nine main themes were developed. Then for each of the themes, the researchers
repeated the same process to identify any possible sub-themes, which resulted in 18 sub-
themes. The next process involved reviewing the developed themes. Here, the research-
ers examined the suitability of the main themes and sub-themes; they decided to combine
three main themes: information seeking and sharing, awareness and experience sharing,
into one theme, namely information seeking and sharing and experience sharing. The main
themes were reduced to seven, keeping the 18 sub-themes. The themes and sub-themes
were then presented to two experts in qualitative synthesis and community development
and were asked to validate the themes and sub-themes. Both experts were also asked about
the relevancy of the themes to the research questions. All seven themes and 18 sub-themes
were maintained following this process.

3 Results

3.1 Background of the selected studies

From 28 articles, a total of six papers focused their studies in New Zealand (Doyle et al.
2018; Becker et al. 2017; McClure et al. 2016; Tipler et al. 2016; Paton et al. 2015; Kenney
and Phibbs 2015), three in Taiwan (Chou et al. 2015; Jang et al. 2016; Han et al. 2017),
two in Japan (Onuma et  al. 2017; Guo and Li  2016), Israel (Kirschenbaum et  al. 2017;
Shapira et al. 2018), China (Chan et al. 2018; Cui and Han 2018), Chile (Bronfman et al.
2019, 2020), and Iran (Aryankhesal et  al. 2017; Rostami-Moez et  al. 2020). Meanwhile,
each research study also focused on Thailand (Songlar et al. 2019), Serbia (Cvetkovic et al.
2019), the United States (US) (McGeehan and Baker 2017), Saudi Arabia (Azim and Islam
2016), Palestine (Cerchiello et al. 2018), Nepal (Ray 2017), Indonesia (Ismail et al. 2016),
Portugal (Pacheco et al. 2020) and a study conducted in the US) and Turkey (Joffe et al.
2019) (see Fig. 2).
It was recorded that 22 studies focused on quantitative analyses (Rostami-Moez et  al.
2020; Bronfman et al. 2019, 2020; Joffe et al. 2019; Cvetkovic et al. 2019; Songlar et al.
2019; Doyle et al. 2018; McClure et al. 2016; Tipler et al. 2016; Paton et al. 2015; Jang
et al. 2016; Han et al. 2017; Onuma et al. 2017; Guo and Li 2016; Chan et al. 2018; Cui
and Han 2018; Shapira et al. 2018; Azim and Islam 2016; Cerchiello et al. 2018; Ray 2017;
Aryankhesal et al. 2017; Ismail et al. 2016) while the other five studies focused on qualita-
tive analyses (Pacheco et al. 2020; Becker et al. 2017; Kirschenbaum et al. 2017; McGee-
han and Baker 2017; Kenney and Phibbs 2015). One study employed the mixed-method
approach (Chou et al. 2015) (see Fig. 3).
Regarding the year of publication, three articles were published in 2015 (Paton et  al.
2015; Kenney and Phibbs 2015; Chou et al. 2015), seven studies were published in 2016
(McClure et  al. 2016; Tipler et  al. 2016; Jang et  al. 2016; Guo and Li  2016; Kirschen-
baum et  al. 2017;  Azim and Islam 2016; Ismail et  al. 2016), six articles were published
in 2017 (Han et al. 2017; Onuma et al. 2017; Ray 2017; Aryankhesal et al. 2017; Becker
et al. 2017; McGeehan and Baker 2017), five papers were published in 2018 (Doyle et al.

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USA and Turkey 1

Indonesia 1
Nepal 1
Palesne 1
Saudi Arabia 1
USA 1
Thailand 1
Serbia 1
Portugal 1
Israel 2
Iran 2
Chile 2
Japan 2
China 2
Taiwan 3
New Zealand 6

Fig. 2  Countries where the selected studies were conducted

Mixed Methods 1

Qualitave 5

Quantave 22

Fig. 3  Research design of selected studies

2018; Chan et  al. 2018; Cui and Han 2018; Shapira et  al. 2018; Cerchiello et  al. 2018),
four studies were published in 2019 (Bronfman et al. 2019; Cvetkovic et al. 2019; Songlar
et al. 2019; Joffe et al. 2019), and three were published in 2020 (Rostami-Moez et al. 2020;
Bronfman et al. 2020; Pacheco et al. 2020) (see Fig. 4).
Furthermore, the review revealed that 10 articles were published in the International
Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction (Kenney and Phibbs 2015; Chou et  al. 2015; Paton
et al. 2015; McClure et al. et al. 2016; Becker et al. 2017; Onuma et al. 2017; Kirschen-
baum et al. 2017; Cerchiello et al. 2018; Doyle et al. 2018; Shapira et al. 2018), two arti-
cles were published in Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal

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Year 2020 3

Year 2019 4

Year 2018 5

Year 2017 6

Year 2016 7

Year 2015 3

Fig. 4  Publication years of selected studies

(Guo and Li 2016; Tipler et al. 2016), and another two published in Disasters (Jang et al.
2016; McGeehan and Baker 2017). In contrast, only one article was published in the fol-
lowing journals: Risk Analysis (Bronfman et al. 2020), Acta Geographica Slovenica (Cvet-
kovic et al. 2019), Journal of Health Research (Songlar et al. 2019), BMC Public Health
(Rostami-Moez et  al. 2020), Nature Human Behaviour (Joffe et  al. 2019), International
Journal of Psychology (Pacheco et  al. 2020), Plos One (Bronfman et  al. 2019), Disaster
Medicine and Public Health Preparedness (Aryankhesal et al. 2017), Health Security (Han
et al. 2017), International Journal of Disaster Risk Science (Chan et al. 2018), International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (Cui and Han 2018), Environmental
Hazards (Azim and Islam 2016), Rural and Remote Health (Ismail et  al. 2016) and The
Professional Geographer (Ray 2017). All selected journals had good quality as the journals
were indexed by both Scopus and Web of Science databases. Most were ranked either in
Quartile 1 or Quartile 2 (see Table 5).

3.2 The developed themes

The thematic analysis was undertaken on 28 selected articles resulted in seven main
themes: (1) infrastructure-related, (2) information seeking and sharing and experience
sharing; (3) related programme, training and campaign; (4) strong social relationship; (5)
survival kits and supplies; (6) involvement, planning, training in evacuation or emergency
drills; and (7) life-saving techniques and life protection. These seven themes further pro-
duced 18 sub-themes (see Table 6). Based on the results, seven themes and 18 sub-themes
provided answers to the main research question of this SLR, “ How do communities
globally prepare for the threat of earthquakes?”. The background of the selected studies
explained in the following section.

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Table 5  Selected journals and their ranking
Total number of Indexed by WoS Quartile (referring to Indexed by Scopus Quar-
selected articles WoS latest information) Scopus tile
(referring to
latest informa-
tion)

International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 10 √ Q1 √ Q1

Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal 2 √ Q4 √ Q2
Disasters 2 √ Q2 √ Q1
Risk Analysis 1 √ Q1 √ Q1
Acta Geographica Slovenica 1 √ Q4 √ Q2
Journal of Health Research 1 √ - √ Q4
BMC Public Health 1 √ Q2 √ Q1
Nature Human Behaviour 1 √ Q1 √ Q1
International Journal of Psychology 1 √ Q3 √ Q1
Plos One 1 √ Q2 √ Q1
Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness 1 √ Q4 √ Q3
Health security 1 √ Q3 √ Q2
International Journal of Disaster Risk Science 1 √ Q3 √ Q2
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 1 √ Q1 √ Q2
Environmental Hazards 1 √ Q4 √ Q2
Rural and Remote Health 1 √ Q4 √ Q1
The Professional Geographer 1 √ Q3 √ Q1
Natural Hazards
 Table 6  Findings
Authors/Theme Infrastructure-related Information Related Strong social relation- Survival kits Involvement, plan- Life-saving
seeking and programme, ship and supplies ning, training in techniques and life
sharing, and training and evacuation or emer- protection
Natural Hazards

experience campaign gency drills

sharing
Sub-themes SS IN PS KN EX CM PG CC SR CA BA NB PT DP EP LS SK INS

Chou et al. (2015) √ √ √

Paton et al. (2015) √ √ √ √
Kenney and Phibbs (2015) √ √ √
Azim and Islam (2016) √ √
Guo and Li (2016) √ √
Ismail et al. (2016) √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Jang et al. (2016) √ √
Kirschenbaum et al. (2017) √
McClure et al. (2016) √ √ √ √ √
McGeehan and Baker (2017) √ √ √ √
Tipler et al. (2016) √ √ √ √
Onuma et al. (2017) √ √ √ √ √
Aryankhesal et al. (2017) √ √ √
Becker et al. (2017) √ √ √ √ √
Han et al. (2017) √ √ √ √
Ray (2017) √ √ √ √
Chan et al. (2018) √ √ √
Cerchiello et al. (2018) √ √
Shapira et al. (2018) √ √ √
Doyle et al. (2018) √ √
Cui and Han (2018) √ √ √ √ √ √
Bronfman et al. (2019) √ √ √

13

Table 6  (continued)
Authors/Theme Infrastructure-related Information Related Strong social relation- Survival kits Involvement, plan- Life-saving
seeking and programme, ship and supplies ning, training in techniques and life

13
sharing, and training and evacuation or emer- protection
experience campaign gency drills
sharing
Sub-themes SS IN PS KN EX CM PG CC SR CA BA NB PT DP EP LS SK INS

Cvetkovic et al. (2019) √ √ √ √ √ √

Joffe et al. (2019) √ √
Songlar et al. (2019) √ √ √ √ √ √
Rostami-Moez et al. (2020) √ √ √
Pacheco et al. (2020) √ √ √ √ √
Bronfman et al. (2020) √ √ √ √ √
Infrastructure-Related Information seeking Related programme, Strong social relation- Survival kits and Involvement, planning, life-saving related
and sharing and expe- training and campaign ship supplies training in evacuation techniques and life
rience sharing or emergency drills protection

SS = Strengthen KN = Information CM = Campaign CC = Collectivist BA = Basic needs PT = Participation in LS = Life-saving tech-

structure seeking PG = Programme/ culture (food, water, clothes, evacuation drills niques
IN = Interior EX = Information and Training SR = Shared responsi- medication) DP = Disaster prepar- SK = Survival skills
PS = Providing safe Experience sharing bilities NB = Basic needs edness training INS = Purchase insur-
place/room and CA = Community- other than food, EP = Evacuation plan- ance
routes agency relationship water, clothes, medi- ning
cation
Natural Hazards
Natural Hazards

3.2.1 Infrastructure‑related

The first sub-theme under infrastructure-related was strengthening the structure of houses.
In Saudi Arabia, for example, one way to prepare for earthquakes is by choosing a less
vulnerable site for building their house and constructing a more robust dwelling with
reinforced rods, cement, and concrete (Azim and Islam 2016). Similarly, McClure et  al.
(2016) revealed that people in New Zealand employ structural damage mitigation such as
making the house quake safe, checking the house safety, or removing the brick chimney.
Ray (2017) stated that house constructions in Kathmandu Valley are still built tradition-
ally; not only does this construction practice preserve the local cultural values, but it also
enables houses in this region to withstand strong tremors, further lessening the earthquake
threat to people. The people in Iran typically replace their roof with higher quality mate-
rial in ensuring that the roof will not collapse during an earthquake event (Rostami-Moez
et al. 2020). Meanwhile, in Thailand, Serbia, and Portugal, people reinforce or secure their
homes, repair house cracks, and build earthquake-proof houses (Songlar et al. 2019; Cvet-
kovic et al. 2019; Pacheco et al. 2020).
The second sub-theme was related to the interior arrangement. Some studies discov-
ered that community members take precautions against earthquakes by fastening or brac-
ing heavy objects such as shelves to walls, securing furniture at home, and shifting heavy
objects to lower levels. These steps will further prevent objects from falling during tremors,
hence, reducing injury risks and property damage (Bronfman et  al. 2020; Pacheco et  al.
2020; Joffe et al. 2019; Cvetkovic et al. 2019; Songlar et al. 2019; Han et al. 2017; Shapira
et al. 2018; McClure et al. 2016). Another earthquake preparedness strategy practised by
the community is by preparing safe places or rooms and routes. A safety area or room is
vital to keep earthquake victims safe and provide shelter or a room for people who are
displaced by a natural disaster (Bronfman et al. 2020; Pacheco et al. 2020; Bronfman et al.
2019; Cvetkovic et  al. 2019; Songlar et  al. 2019; Paton et  al. 2015; Kenney and Phibbs
2015; Cerchiello et al. 2018; Aryankhesal et al. 2017). Tipler et al. (2016), who conducted
a study in selected schools in New Zealand (representing 20 per cent of all NZ schools),
concluded that a safe place was prepared for students and staff to assemble when evacuat-
ing the buildings, and people were also well informed about the availability of alternative
routes to the assembly area. On the other hand, a unique study of earthquake prepared-
ness among the Māori community in New Zealand (Kenney and Phibbs 2015) found that
the local residents cooperated to build physical spaces, which also functioned as psycho-
socially protective spaces for distressed residents. This strategy was based on a specific
cultural value whakarurutanga (‘safety’ or ‘protection’), highlighting the significance of
developing and maintaining a safe environment for those in need.

3.2.2 Information seeking and sharing, and experience sharing

The first sub-theme is related to the efforts of the community to seek information related
to earthquake preparation. It was observed that the use of technology and communica-
tion technologies is prevalent as far as community preparedness for earthquakes is con-
cerned. Some people reported that they would listen to radio forecasts about the occurrence
of earthquakes, while others would typically search for and receive relevant information
via official media or other social network sources (Ismail et al. 2016; Kirschenbaum et al.
2017; Jang et al. 2016). On the other hand, Chan et al. (2018) confirmed the effective use

13
 Natural Hazards

of the Internet and mobile technology to access disaster-related information among com-
munity members.
The second sub-theme is related to information and experience sharing. Sharing activi-
ties that usually occur among colleagues and family members can further improve their
preparedness efforts and response capabilities (Songlar et  al. 2019; Becker et  al. 2017;
Onuma et al. 2017; Han et al. 2017; Tipler et al. 2016). Guo and Li (2016) and Chou et al.
(2015) claimed that recalling past experiences is highly important to raise public con-
sciousness and motivate people to take actions accordingly. Information and experience
sharing with earthquake experts and earthquake survivors, for example, can further result
in increasing knowledge at a broader level of society. Ismail et al. (2016) noted the signifi-
cance of parents having healthy communication with their children regarding disaster pre-
paredness and discussing with other family members beforehand where to reassemble if a
disaster occurs. Additionally, some people would usually disseminate educational materials
on preparedness (e.g. Family Home Storage and Family Finances pamphlets) and geologi-
cal disaster education (McGeehan and Baker 2017; Cui and Han 2018).

3.2.3 Related programmes, training and campaigns

Under this theme, a total of two sub-themes were produced: programme/training and
campaign. This theme is defined as any course of action conducted to reinforce the com-
munity’s preparation against the threat of earthquakes. These efforts were undertaken by
several organisations, including the government, to assist the community in understand-
ing the nature of geological disasters and their impact (Cui and Han 2018). For example,
the School Earthquake Safety Programme in Nepal involves teachers and parents. Its main
content covers the retrofitting of school buildings and the development of soft skills for
earthquake management (Ray 2017).
Similarly, a disaster prevention programme in Taiwan attempted to facilitate knowl-
edge transfer and sharing experiences and skills required to identify early earthquake signs
(Chou et al. 2015). Some disaster awareness media campaigns also offer related knowledge
to the public (Ray 2017). In New Zealand, campaigns known as “Get Ready, Get Thru”
and “Emergency Services” have been successfully aired as television advertisements to
enhance community knowledge on earthquake threats (Becker et al. 2017).

3.2.4 Strong social relationship

There were three sub-themes under the fourth theme of strong social relationships: shared
responsibilities, collectivist culture, and community-agency relationship. A strong social
relationship creates a sense of shared responsibilities, prompting a desire among the com-
munity members to help one another during hazards and disasters, lessening their depend-
ence on government assistance (Becker et  al. 2017; Guo  and Li 2016). Bronfman et  al.
(2020) and Cvetkovic et al. (2019) stressed that people would commonly provide special
care to the most vulnerable groups in the community during catastrophic events, such as
the elderly, disabled, infants, and young children. Furthermore, it was revealed that resi-
dents living within a collectivist cultural context possess a better understanding of the
information, resources, and other community needs since they relate to earthquake risks
and preparedness much better than those in an individualistic cultural setting (Jang et al.
2016). In New Zealand, Māori risk management initiatives were collaborative, effective,
and shaped by kaupapa (cultural values), especially the value of ’aroha nui ki te tangata’

13
Natural Hazards

(extend love to all people) (Kenney and Phibbs 2015). The review also noted a strong
community-agency relationship via established external linkages to government agencies
(Paton et al. 2015). The Ministry for Māori Development and the traditional authority over
the region where earthquakes commonly occur cooperate with the locals to strengthen the
preparedness strategies in line with community needs, abilities, and interests (Kenney and
Phibbs 2015).

3.2.5 Survival kits and supplies

The survival kits and supplies theme produced a further two sub-themes: basic needs,
which consist of food, water, clothes, and medicine and the non-basic needs, which encom-
pass kits and supplies other than the basic needs. The community members typically regard
basic kits and supplies as the most important necessities to ensure their survival during
emergencies like natural disasters. Ismail et al. (2016) and Onuma et al. (2017), who per-
formed their research in Indonesia and Japan respectively, reported that the community
would always store sufficient non-perishable food and clean water for at least three days in
their home. Meanwhile, others would prioritise keeping enough supplies of canned food,
clean clothes, first-aid kits, and medication (Bronfman et  al. 2020; Rostami-Moez et  al.
2020; Pacheco et  al. 2020; Cvetkovic et  al. 2019; Han et  al. 2017; McClure et  al. 2016;
McGeehan and Baker 2017; Paton et al. 2015; Shapira et al. 2018; Chan et al. 2018; Cui
and Han 2018).
Among the non-basic items that people would make available to prepare for earthquakes
include vehicles, battery-operated radio at home, mobile phones, torches, batteries, flash-
lights, important documents, fire extinguisher, functional smoke alarms, cash on hand and
items to barter, as well as filling bathtubs with water, stockpiling supplies and hygiene-
related items, and making fire-related safety adjustments (Bronfman et al. 2020; Pacheco
et al. 2020; Joffe et al. 2019; Cvetkovic et al. 2019; Songlar et al. 2019; Shapira et al. 2018;
Chan et al. 2018; Doyle et al. 2018; Onuma et al. 2017; Ismail et al. 2016; McClure et al.
2016; McGeehan and Baker 2017). Interestingly, Iranians keep necessary contact numbers
such as the local fire station, police, and other contacts for emergencies that are vital for
pre/post-disaster times (Rostami-Moez et al. 2020).

3.2.6 Involvement/planning/training in evacuation/emergency drills

Three sub-themes were identified under this theme: evacuation drills, disaster prepared-
ness training, and evacuation planning. Participation in evacuation drills is one of the
most effective preparation strategies employed in the community (Bronfman et al., 2019;
Songlar et al. 2019; Cui and Han 2018; Han et al. 2017; Onuma et al. 2017; Ismail et al.
2016; Jang et al. 2016). However, it must be noted that participation in evacuation drills
should not simply occur at the individual level. For example, several schools in New Zea-
land indicated that they had actively involved families in the drill by directly informing stu-
dents about earthquakes and encouraging them to discuss this material at home with their
family members (Tipler et al. 2016).
The second sub-theme is disaster preparation training, which attempts to disseminate
knowledge, experiences and skills needed to detect early seismic threats and events, where
the training content includes information-sharing sessions with earthquake experts and
knowledge and experience sharing with earthquake survivors (Bronfman et al. 2019; Chou
et al. 2015; McGeehan and Baker 2017; Ismail et al. 2016; Onuma et al. 2017). Evacuation

13
 Natural Hazards

strategies that may incorporate information on what to do, where to go, and meeting place
during an earthquake are also among the activities planned in preparation for dealing with
earthquake threats within the community (McClure et al. 2016; Shapira et al. 2018; Doyle
et al. 2018). Some devise a more specific plan, such as a few schools in New Zealand that
had formulated a unique method to trigger a building evacuation, especially if they could
not use existing alert systems due to power failures or damage (Tipler et al. 2016).

3.2.7 Life‑saving techniques and life protection

This main theme comprised of three sub-themes: life-saving techniques, survival skills,
and insurance purchases. Ray (2017) and Cui and Han (2018) claimed that community
members are orientated towards improved and effective life-saving techniques. Mastering
these methods enable them to respond to a disaster. On the other hand, Tipler et al. (2016)
discussed a specific life-saving technique called the turtle safe technique, where the indi-
vidual crouches down on the ground and covers his or her head and neck with their arms,
similar to a turtle. Another preparation activity of the community is purchasing insurance
to prepare financially before and after natural disasters occur (Han et al. 2017; Cerchiello
et al. 2018).

4 Discussion

Strengthening houses and public infrastructure is a good preparedness strategy to mitigate

against earthquake threats (Azim and Islam 2016; McClure et  al. 2016; Ray 2017). It is
undeniable that no building is immune from foundation failure during an earthquake event.
Nevertheless, in a less powerful quake, such problems can be evaded. For instance, the
construction technique of removing brick chimnies reduces the risk of injury, while the
use of anchor bolts to tie buildings to their foundation helps prevent the two from disinte-
grating or collapsing. This damage-reducing feature of preparedness is critical for people’s
safety and wellbeing during earthquake events, given that most deaths and injuries during
earthquakes result from damaged or collapsing buildings falling on people (Pan et al. 2019;
World Bank 2009).
According to the World Bank (2009), most deaths during natural disasters are caused by
buildings collapsing, and most cases occur in the developing world. Pan et al. (2019) also
reported that collapsing and damaged buildings (either severe or slight) during the 2016
southern Taiwan earthquake caused 115 deaths and injured another 114 residents of the
Weiguan Jinlong Complex. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the lack of skills in house
renovations or construction and other additional costs (e.g. cost of the materials or hir-
ing contactors/expertise) might obstruct people from applying this construction technique
(Russel et al. 1995). Moreover, not everyone can implement this strategy as home or room
construction and renovation is not an ordinary or common skill that members of the society
possess.
As for those with financial restraints, they might be obstructed by the extra costs
incurred by contractors or via payment to experts. It has been acknowledged that re-
designing the interior arrangement of houses will reduce the risks of becoming injured
from collapsing objects (Han et al. 2017; Shapira et al. 2018; McClure et al. 2016). While
allocating a safe room/place or routes and providing shelter or a room for people who are

13
Natural Hazards

displaced by an earthquake will help ease the impacts of such events (Paton et al. 2015;
Kenney and Phibbs 2015; Cerchiello et  al. 2018; Aryankhesal et  al. 2017). Despite its
importance, Russel et al. (1995) asserted that people demonstrate less interest in employing
these measures as they require a significant amount of time, resources, and expenses. They
further stated that those who rent would face various issues to implement this strategy; for
example, the processes of installing cupboard latches and bolting furniture rely on access
to utility equipment and the restriction of their living arrangements. In order to avoid a
more serious conflict, renters would refrain from making any modifications to the property
and its arrangement without obtaining the owner’s permission.
It has been reported that information seeking and sharing of information and experience
help to raise public knowledge and understanding of earthquake preparedness. According
to Guo and Li (2016), seeking information voluntarily increases people’s knowledge of the
causes of natural hazards, their negative impacts, and humanity’s powerlessness in control-
ling them. Shaffril et  al. (2015) claimed that information seeking about natural hazards
provides adequate information to the community, enabling them to produce reactive and
proactive plans to face the phenomenon and reduce associated risks. Experience sharing
is another important element in community preparedness since it offers the most authentic
knowledge about a disaster and can also be the most easily accessible clue for judgements
for future seismic threats (Guo and Li 2016).
Nonetheless, Paton et al. (2015) and Celci et al. (2005) expressed their concerns on sev-
eral negative impacts of experience sharing. Celci et al. (2015) concluded that the interac-
tion between experience and people’s prediction on the magnitude of earthquake tremors
could lead to underestimating the impacts of a potential future of these natural hazards,
thus reducing their likelihood to prepare for any emergency. In contrast, Paton et al. (2015)
examined the potential of Gambler’s Fallacy, (i.e. the assumption that a future earthquake
would not occur for several hundred years) in causing people to become less vigilant in
preparing for potential seismic threats. The information and experience seeking and shar-
ing process can be undertaken via verbal communication or via technology devices (Becker
et  al. 2017; Han et  al. 2017; Tipler et  al. 2016; Ismail et  al. 2016; Kirschenbaum et  al.
2017; Jang et al. 2016). As the elderly are generally expected to possess vast experience in
life, their role in experience sharing is vital. However, they need to possess the right com-
munication skills to effectively transfer their experiences to the younger generation (Shaf-
fril et al. 2015).
In addition to the importance of senior community members, Hassan et  al. (2010)
focused on the roles of community leaders and colleagues to disseminate and share perti-
nent information and experiences as they are considered as a trusted and reliable source of
information. Modern technology such as the Internet and smartphone devices has acceler-
ated the seeking and sharing of knowledge and information. The community, especially
the younger generation, can now search for earthquake-related information regardless of
the time and their location. However, Omar et  al. (2011) mentioned that factors such as
technology phobia and negative attitude might deter senior members of the community
from using modern technology devices, and they would prefer to rely on local radio to gain
information on natural hazards.
Survival kits encompassing basic and non-basic necessities are vital preparations for
those in earthquake threatening areas. Russel et  al. (1995) claimed that the accepted
rule of thumb of post-earthquake events includes the community being left or isolated
‘on their own’ for the initial 72 h; stores may be closed for several weeks, and roads may
be unsafe. During this period, having a minimum of a three-day supply per person of
the basic needs such as non-perishable food, clean water, first-aid kit, and medication

13
 Natural Hazards

supplies is most essential for their survival (Han et  al. 2017; McClure et  al. 2016;
McGeehan and Baker 2017; Paton et  al. 2015; Shapira et  al. 2018; Chan et  al. 2018;
Cui and Han 2018). Furthermore, since perceived earthquake preparedness is strongly
associated with actual survival preparedness, the community will need to prepare the
most commonly advocated preparation items such as a battery-operated radio at home,
mobile phone, a well-charged torch, batteries, and flashlights (Shapira et al. 2018).
Even though evacuation drills might be seen as a nuisance to the community,
it remains an effective strategy for emergency preparedness, and thus, must be well-
planned to ensure it is in line with the community’s abilities, needs, and interests (Cui
and Han 2018; Han et al. 2017; Ismail et al. 2016; Jang et al. 2016). Several factors will
influence the type of evacuation drills, such as building category, occupancy, identified
risks, and the nature of the emergency simulated or tested (Pan et  al. 2019; Annette
et al. 2018; Nakaya et al. 2018). Hurricanes or earthquakes, for example, might require
policymakers to produce different evacuation strategies. Also, given these diverse char-
acteristics, ongoing involvement from the community is required to familiarise them-
selves with the drills.
According to Annette et al. (2018), policymakers should consider several demographic
factors such as gender, race, income, education, homeownership, and housing type, which
have been shown to influence community evacuation behaviour. However, despite these
factors, Nakaya et al. (2018) confirmed that some of the community might not be interested
in involving themselves in evacuation drills, especially among those who have never been
affected by natural disasters and those who do not understand the necessity for evacuation.
Likewise, individuals who have a strong attachment to their place (i.e. home) might cause
self-conflict and inter-conflict with the rescue team during the process of evacuation and
transferring them to a safe area.
Nevertheless, a strong social relationship amongst the community offers several ben-
efits regarding earthquake preparedness. According to Becker et  al. (2017) and Guo and
Li (2016), a community with a strong social bond will have a sense of shared responsibili-
ties which will inspire them to help one another, either before (e.g. building a safe room),
during (e.g. offering assistance during evacuation process), or after a disaster has occurred
(e.g. raising money for disaster relief). This sense of togetherness will also prompt them to
check on other families, colleagues, and neighbours and offer assistance wherever possible
(Becker et al. 2017). Secondly, it has shown that a strong social relationship will enhance
the community’s independence from government support. For example, Gismondi (2012)
demonstrated how the local people in Kawaguchi, Japan, responded to the isolation of
the affected area and the inaccessibility of government support by organising and shar-
ing resources. They cooperatively rebuilt several physical infrastructures and a commuting
road, resulting in easy access for the rescue and emergency teams. Shaffril et  al. (2017)
also added that this strong social relationship would form a solid understanding and lessen
internal conflicts, further ensuring the effectiveness of rescue plans. They also stated that
this type of relationship increases trust among each other, thus encouraging knowledge and
experience sharing. Interestingly, the same research suggested that the firm or solid bond
within the community shall accelerate the victims’ recovery process from trauma, shock,
and dented emotions caused by natural disasters.
Typically, relevant training and programmes on earthquake preparedness are conducted
at the community level by those most concerned. This strategy aims to facilitate the trans-
fer of necessary knowledge, experiences, and skills to detect early earthquake threats
while concurrently educating the public about survival skills vital during and after the dis-
aster. In addition to meeting the learners’ needs, abilities, and interests, the training and

13
Natural Hazards

programmes should be well-integrated with broader public participation and continuous

support from the authorities (Shaffril et  al. 2013; Chou et  al. 2015). For example, pro-
grammes that address the cause of tremors might attract little interest if compared to those
focusing on the impacts of earthquakes on the community’s socio-economic routines.
Some community members also practise life protection strategies such as purchasing
life insurance. Not only does having life insurance allow those insured to cope with any
uncertainties, but it also has a significant role in risk reduction and avoiding more consid-
erable losses. Nevertheless, there are several issues related to this strategy that need fur-
ther consideration. First, community members who are insured might be less interested in
understanding and implementing such strategies. Egbelakin et al. (2018) related this situa-
tion to the social norm of moral hazards. In this condition, the individual becomes involved
in a risky event knowing that they (the insured) are secured against the risk and that the
other party bears the losses. Second, as purchasing insurance requires additional costs and
financial commitment, this strategy might not be a popular option for poor and low-income
groups. Third, there is a risk of denial coping—when they think the damages caused by an
earthquake are controllable—and Gambler’s Fallacy—the assumption that a future earth-
quake would not occur for several hundred years, which might influence the community
for not buying insurance to address or cover natural hazards (Paton et  al. 2015; Russell
et al. 1995). Survival skills and life-saving techniques are important elements for commu-
nity preparation against the threat of earthquakes. Mastering survival skills can reduce the
risk of injury and death to the individual while knowing life-saving techniques will enable
individuals to save and protect other communities if the situation arises (Han et al. 2017;
Onuma et al. 2017). Furthermore, survival skills and learning life-saving techniques allow
the community to reduce its dependence on emergency teams; this is especially important
when the emergency team is late or unable to enter the disaster area due to damage to basic
infrastructure (Han et al. 2017; Bronfman et al. 2020).

5 Implications, research gaps and recommendations for future studies

Several implications resulted from this study. According to the World Bank (2009), most
deaths caused by natural disasters are caused by building collapses attributed to seismic or
earthquake events. Therefore preparation strategies related to strengthening or reinforcing
houses and public infrastructure should be further investigated by researchers in this field.
However, this review concluded that the community often shows less interest in employ-
ing these measures since they require considerable time, resources, and expense. This sit-
uation offers a future opportunity to government agencies, the private sector, NGOs and
other interested parties to assist the community in addressing and overcoming the issues
(i.e. lack of technical experts, resources and financial support), which then enable them to
improve their surrounding infrastructure to withstand the threat of earthquake events.
In this review, themes related to life-saving techniques, survival skills and insurance
were less evident than other themes. Similarly, limited research has been conducted to
review and examine these preparation elements. Therefore, researchers and other schol-
ars should explore how these elements can further strengthen the preparation strategies
for communities. Likewise, for place attachment, scholars should examine how a posi-
tive affective bond between people and place and their closeness to objects and places
can strengthen their preparation towards earthquake threats. Furthermore, government
agencies, the private sector, NGOs and other interested parties need to examine how the

13
 Natural Hazards

community can sustain their wellbeing and survive during the post-earthquake term.
They also need to have sufficient information given its importance since different indi-
viduals and community members might respond differently to the impacts. Some might
be slightly affected, others might be severely affected, and their strategy to sustain and
survive might be worth investigating.
Accordingly, based on SLR, several research gaps were identified. First, there is a need
to understand why people are reluctant to spend money and effort to fortify their physical
infrastructure even though building and infrastructure collapse has been given as the lead-
ing cause of death during an earthquake event. Second, there is a need to acquire a good
understanding of life-saving techniques, survival skills, and insurance purchase. These
themes, while important, are not discussed in previous studies. Furthermore, although pre-
vious studies have stressed the importance of place attachment, there is a need to under-
stand this aspect from developing a preparation strategy rather than from a risk perspective.
The existing gap can be narrowed if future scholars focus on conducting qualitative and
mixed-method approaches, producing a more systematic integrative review, and develop-
ing more publication standards. The empirical data of this research illustrated that a quanti-
tative research design extended the existing literature on earthquake preparedness, thereby
presenting a significant gap for qualitative and mixed-method design studies. It must also
be pointed out that both approaches have distinct advantages and should therefore be inves-
tigated by future scholars. The qualitative design offers a source of well-grounded and
comprehensive explanations of processes in identifiable local contexts, driving empirical
data to produce much richer data that transcends quantitative statistics (Ridder 2014).
On the other hand, the mixed methods approach enhances data validity, informs the
collection of the second data source, assists with knowledge creation, and concurrently
integrates the components that provide more depth and detail to the findings and drawing
conclusions (McKim 2017). Future research of community preparedness for earthquake
events should also focus on the integrative review technique that combines various research
designs. However, despite several issues such as the hazards of synthesising diverse types
of literature caused by different epistemological approaches, political and cultural contexts,
including political and scientific infrastructure (Sandelowski et  al. 2006), Heyvaert et  al.
(2011) and Dixon-wood et al. (2005) claimed that integrating several research designs in a
review study is plausible.

6 Conclusion

Since predicting future seismic events is almost impossible, more effort must be directed
towards improving community preparedness to transform the public perspective from ‘If an
earthquake strikes’ to ‘When an earthquake strikes’. The present study has systematically
reviewed previous studies related to community preparedness for earthquakes. By adopting
this approach, any claims of rigour in some of these studies be challenged, allowing for the
identification of gaps and providing opportunities for future study. In this study, employ-
ing an SLR approach, 28 articles were appraised for their quality. Also, since the review
depended on the heterogeneity of research designs, thematic analysis was conducted on the
28 selected articles, resulting in seven main themes: (1) infrastructure-related; (2) infor-
mation seeking and sharing and experience sharing; (3) related programme, training and
campaign; (4) strong social relationship; (5) survival kits and supplies; (6) involvement,

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planning, training in evacuation or emergency drills, and (7) life-saving techniques and life
protection. These themes were categorised into 18 sub-themes.
The review concluded that strengthening individual or public infrastructure is important
as most deaths due to natural disasters are caused by building collapse. Understandably,
having a more studier dwelling or building can save more lives if an earthquake or seis-
mic event occurs. It was noted that some community members take appropriate action by
seeking information on earthquake preparation through several sources, while others have
no problem in sharing information and experiences regarding hazards or natural disasters.
The government and other interested parties also organised programmes, training and cam-
paigns. The main purpose is in providing knowledge and assisting the community in under-
standing the nature of geological disasters and their impact. The review also concluded
that having a stronger social relationship provides benefits to the community by creating
a sense of shared responsibility, enhancing the community’s independence from receiving
government support, reducing internal conflicts, and increasing trust.
Furthermore, having survival kits and supplies available to the community is vital,
especially after an earthquake. Ensuring all basic necessities are available and prepared,
such as food, water, clothes, and medication, will ensure people can survive during such
events. To further enhance their survival, the community’s involvement, planning, training
in evacuation or emergency drills will help to inform the community about information and
activities to carry out during an earthquake event. For example, in training programmes,
participants will be informed of what actions and activities to prioritise, where they need
to congregate (i.e. safe place) during an earthquake event. Lastly, life-saving techniques
adopted by the community demonstrate their willingness to acquire more ‘paramedics’ and
medical staff, which increases the possibility of saving and protecting more lives. On the
other hand, insurance was demonstrated as one of the best preparation strategies, although
not all community members could afford to buy such insurance.
Nevertheless, there are several limitations inherent in this study. While Gusenbauer
and Haddaway (2020) suggested 14 databases having the potential to search for relevant
articles, due to limitations regarding access to these databases, only three databases were
used, namely Scopus, Web of Science and Science Direct, supported by other databases,
namely Emerald, Taylor Francis, Springer Link and Sage Journals. Secondly, the appraisal
of the quality process relied on MMAT. It was anticipated that the articles would highlight
variations in quality if examined based on different quality assessment tools. As such, it
suggests in the future to examine either a greater number or fewer articles compared to
the 28 articles finally reviewed in this study using various assessment tools. Shaffril et al.
(2021) emphasised that a quality assessment is not simply aimed to seek perfect articles
but rather to assist in searching for articles that suit the purpose of the review. Thirdly,
although performing meta-analysis is encouraged in SLRs due to its advantages of acquir-
ing a better estimation of relationships that exist in the population than in single studies,
including its ability to minimise bias, this review opted to focus on a qualitative systematic
literature review (QSLR) given the heterogeneity of methods used in the selected studies.
Other studies such as by Jansen (2020), Chen (2018) and Bonaiuto et al. (2016) have
emphasised the effect of place attachment concerning the preparation of community strat-
egies for earthquakes, although different in this SLR. However, having said that, since
place attachment is significantly related to the perception of risk (Jansen 2020; Bonaiuto
et al. 2016), this could be the main reason why this theme is not emerging since the review
focused on a preparation strategy rather than the perception of risk.

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 Natural Hazards

Acknowledgements  This study was supported by Universiti Putra Malaysia’s Putra Grant, 2017/9579300.

Authors’ contributions  The idea for the article (Hayrol Azril Mohamed Shaffril, Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah),
performed the literature search and data analysis (Hayrol Azril Mohamed Shaffril; Syafila Kamarudin),
drafted and/or critically revised the work (Hayrol Azril Mohamed Shaffril, Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah), Writ-
ing—review and editing (Hayrol Azril Mohamed Shaffril, Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah, Syafila Kamarudin),
read and approved the final manuscript (Hayrol Azril Mohamed Shaffril, Asnarulkhadi Abu Samah).

Funding  This study was supported by Universiti Putra Malaysia’s Putra Grant, 2017/9579300.

Availability of data and materials  Not applicable’ for this section.

Code availability  Not applicable’ for this section.

Declaration 

Conflict of interest  The authors declare no conflict of interest involved in the study.

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