MODULE – 3

DC MACHINES

 A DC Machine is an electro-mechanical energy conversion device. There are two types of DC

machines; one is the DC generator, and another one is known as DC motor.
 Most of the DC machines are equivalent to AC machines because they include AC currents as
well as AC voltages in them. The output of the DC machine is DC output because they convert
AC voltage to DC voltage. The conversion of this mechanism is known as the commutator, thus
these machines are also named as commutating machines.
 DC machine is most frequently used for a motor. The main benefits of this machine include
torque regulation as well as easy speed.
 The applications of the DC machine are limited to trains, mills, and mines. For example,
underground subway cars, as well as trolleys, may utilize DC motors. In the past, automobiles
were designed with DC dynamos for charging their batteries.

Construction of DC Machine:

Question: Explain the construction of D.C Machine with neat diagram.

 The construction of the dc motor and generator is nearly the same. The generator is employed in a
very protected way. Hence there is an open construction type.
 But the motor is used in the location where they are exposed to dust and moisture, and hence it
requires enclosures for example dirt proof, fireproof, etc. according to requirement.
 Theoretically, a DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional changes and
vice versa is also possible. Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly termed as a DC
machine. These basic constructional details are also valid for the construction of a DC motor.
 Hence, let's call this point as construction of a DC machine instead of just 'construction of a dc
generator'.
 A DC machine is constructed with:
Yoke
Lifting eye
Poles
Armature
Commutator
Brushes
Base

The above figure shows constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A DC machine
consists of two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are
described below.
YOKE: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel. It
not only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic flux
produced by the field winding.
 The main function of the yoke in the machine is to offer mechanical support intended for poles
and protects the entire machine from moisture, dust, etc. The materials used in the yoke are
designed with cast iron, cast steel otherwise rolled steel.
 For small machines, yoke is made up of Cast Iron and for large machines it is made up of
fabricated steel.

POLES AND POLE SHOES: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding.
They carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i)
they support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
 The pole of the DC machine is an electromagnet and the field winding is winding among pole.
Whenever field winding is energized then the pole gives magnetic flux. The materials used for
 this are cast steel, cast iron otherwise pole core. It can be built with the annealed steel laminations
for reducing the power drop because of the eddy currents.
 Purpose of the pole shoe is to enlarge the cross section area so that the reluctance of the magnetic
path is reduced. It spreads the magnetic flux in the air gap more uniformly.
 Pole shoe in the DC machine is an extensive part as well as to enlarge the region of the pole.
Because of this region, flux can be spread out within the air-gap as well as extra flux can be
passed through the air space toward armature. The materials used to build pole shoe is cast iron
otherwise cast steed, and also used annealed steel lamination to reduce the loss of power because
of eddy currents.

FIELD WINDING: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed
on each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized,
they form alternate North and South poles.
 Purpose of the field winding is to produce the magnetic flux when an electric current is passed
through it. It is placed on pole and a small DC source is connected to it. Material used for Field
Winding is Enamelled Copper Wire.
 Field coils are former wound and placed on each pole and are connected in series. They are
wound in such a way that, when energized, they form alternate North and South poles.

ARMATURE CORE: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape with
slots to carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for
reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling
purposes. Armature is keyed to the shaft.
 Armature is the rotating part of the machine and is cylindrical in shape. It is made up of thin
silicon steel laminations, which are circular in shape and are riveted together. Thin laminations
are used to reduce Eddy Current Loss.
 On the outer periphery/circumference of the armature, slots are provided to accommodate the
Armature winding.
 The armature core is a made up of soft steel laminations which are insulated from each other and
tightly clamped together. In small machines, the laminations are keyed directly to the shaft,
whereas in large machines, they are mounted on a spider. The laminated armature core is used to
reduce the eddy current loss.

ARMATURE WINDING: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature
slots. The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core.
Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding.
Double layer lap or wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that each
armature slot will carry two different coils.
 The armature winding can be formed by interconnecting the armature conductor. Whenever an
armature winding is turned with the help of prime mover then the voltage, as well as magnetic
flux, gets induced within it. This winding is allied to an exterior circuit. The materials used for
this winding are conducting material like copper.
 COMMUTATOR
 The main function of the commutator in the DC machine is to collect the current from the
armature conductor as well as supplies the current to the load using brushes. And also provides
uni-directional torque for DC-motor.
 The commutator can be built with a huge number of segments in the edge form of hard drawn
copper. The Segments in the commutator are protected from the thin mica layer.
 A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the direct current input to the motor from
the DC source into alternating current in the armature winding.
 The commutator is made of wedge-shaped copper segments insulated from each other and from
the shaft by mica sheets. Each segment of commutator is connected to the ends of the armature
coils.
 A commutator is a device that is used for the collection of current from the armature winding
whereas the brush collects the current from the commutator.

BRUSHES
 Brushes in the DC machine gather the current from the commutator and supply it to the exterior
load. Brushes wear with time to inspect frequently. The materials used in brushes are graphite
otherwise carbon which is in rectangular form.
 The brushes are mounted on the commutator and are used to inject the current from the DC
source into the armature windings. The brushes are made of carbon and is supported by a metal
box called brush holder.
 The pressure exerted by the brushes on the commutator is adjusted and maintained at constant
value by means of springs. The current flows from the external DC source to the armature
winding through the carbon brushes and commutator.
 Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on commutator segments and slide
on the segments when the commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or supply
the current.

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Youtube link for video:

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oI-O9FCDqmg
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d_LOXUEFA-o
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mq2zjmS8UMI
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CWulQ1ZSE3c
 DC GENERATOR
Question: What is the principle of D.C Genrator operation? Describe with
diagram.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A DC GENERATOR:
 According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor is placed in a
varying magnetic field (OR a conductor is moved in a magnetic field), an emf (electromotive
force) gets induced in the conductor.
 The magnitude of induced emf can be calculated from the emf equation of dc generator. If the
conductor is provided with a closed path, the induced current will circulate within the path.
 In a DC generator, field coils produce an electromagnetic field and the armature conductors are
rotated into the field. Thus, an electromagnetically induced emf is generated in the armature
conductors. The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
 According to Fleming’s right hand rule, the direction of induced current changes whenever the
direction of motion of the conductor changes.
 Let’s consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at the left is moving upward.
When the armature completes a half rotation, the direction of motion of that particular conductor
will be reversed to downward.
 Hence, the direction of current in every armature conductor will be alternating. If you look at the
above figure, you will know how the direction of the induced current is alternating in an armature
conductor.
 But with a split ring commutator, connections of the armature conductors also get reversed when
the current reversal occurs. And therefore, we get unidirectional current at the terminals.

• The direction of the current can be determined by

Flemming’s right hand Rule.
• This rule says that if you stretch
thumb, index finger and middle finger of your right-
hand perpendicular to each other, then thumbs indicates
the direction of motion of the conductor, index finger
indicates the direction of magnetic field, i.e., N – pole
to S – pole, and middle finger indicates the direction of
flow of current through the conductor.

Fleming’s right hand rule

 Hence the most basic two essential parts of a generator are:
The magnetic field
Conductors which move inside that magnetic field.
Relative motion should exist between two.
 Let’s us consider, the rectangular loop of the conductor is ABCD which rotates inside the
magnetic field about its axis.
 When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal position, it cuts the flux lines of
the field.
 As during this movement two sides, i.e., AB and CD of the loop cut the flux lines there will be an
EMF induced in these both of the sides (AB and BC) of the loop.
 Conductor AB is connected(soldered) to segment S1 and conductor side CD is
connected(soldered) to segment S2.
 Two copper segments are separated by mica sheet. Brushes B1 and B2 are pressed on segments
S1 and S2.Between brushes external load is connected.
 We can see that in the first half of the revolution current always flows along ABDCML, i.e.,
brush no 1 in contact with segment S1.
 In the next half revolution, in the figure, the direction of the induced current in the coil is
reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments S1 and S2 are also reversed which
results that brush no 1 comes in touch with the segment S2.
 Hence, the current in the load resistance again flows from M to L.
 The waveform of the current through the load circuit is as shown in the figure. This current is
unidirectional.

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 TYPES OF DC GENERATORS:

 DC generators can be classified in two main categories, viz; (i) Separately excited and (ii) Self-
excited.
(i) Separately excited: In this type, field coils are energized from an independent external DC
source.
(ii) Self-excited: In this type, field coils are energized from the current produced by the generator
itself. Initial emf generation is due to residual magnetism in field poles. The generated emf causes
a part of current to flow in the field coils, thus strengthening the field flux and thereby increasing
emf generation.
 Self excited dc generators can further be divided into three types -
(a) Series wound - field winding in series with armature winding
(b) Shunt wound - field winding in parallel with armature winding
(c) Compound wound - combination of series and shunt winding

Types of DC Generator – Separately Excited and Self Excited

 The DC generator converts mechanical power into electrical power. The magnetic flux in a DC
machine is produced by the field coils carry current. The circulating current in the field windings
produces a magnetic flux, and the phenomenon is known as Excitation.
Separately Excited Dc Generator
 A DC generator whose field winding or coil is energised by a separate or external DC source is
called a separately excited DC Generator. The flux produced by the poles depends upon the field
current with the unsaturated region of magnetic material of the poles. i.e. flux is directly
proportional to the field current. But in the saturated region, the flux remains constant.
 The figure of self-excited DC Generator is shown below:

Separately Excited DC Generator

 Here,
 Ia = IL where Ia is the armature current and IL is the line current.
 Terminal voltage is given as:


 If the contact brush drop is known, then the equation (1) is written as:


 The power developed is given by the equation shown below:

Self Excited DC Generator

 Self-excited DC Generator is a device, in which the current to the field winding is supplied by the
generator itself. In self-excited DC generator, the field coils may be connected in parallel with the
armature in the series, or it may be connected partly in series and partly in parallel with the
armature windings.
 The self-excited DC Generator is further classified as

Shunt Wound Generator

 In a shunt-wound generator, the field winding is connected across the armature winding forming
a parallel or shunt circuit. Therefore, the full terminal voltage is applied across it. A very small
field current Ish, flows through it because this winding has many turns of fine wire having very
high resistance Rsh of the order of 100 ohms.
 The connection diagram of shunt-wound generator is shown below:
 Shunt Wound DC Generator
 The shunt field current is given as:

 Where Rsh is the shunt field winding resistance.

 The current field Ish is practically constant at all loads. Therefore, the DC shunt machine is
considered to be a constant flux machine.
 Armature current is given as:

 Terminal voltage is given by the equation shown below:

 If the brush contact drop is included, the equation of the terminal voltage becomes

Series Wound Generator

 A series-wound generator the field coils are connected in series with the armature winding. The
series field winding carries the armature current.
 The series field winding consists of a few turns of wire of thick wire of larger cross-sectional area
and having low resistance usually of the order of less than 1 ohm because the armature current
has a very large value.
 Its convectional diagram is shown below:
 Series Wound DC Generator
 Series field current is given as:

 Rse is known as the series field winding resistance.

 Terminal voltage is given as:

 If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is written as:

 The flux developed by the series field winding is directly proportional to the current flowing
through it. But it is only true before magnetic saturation after the saturation flux becomes constant
even if the current flowing through it is increased.
 EMF EQUATION OF DC GENERATOR
Question: Derive the EMF equation for DC Generator.

 The EMF equation is given by E = ФZNP/60A

 Let
P = no of poles
Z = no of conductors distributed in the armature
Ф = flux produced by each pole in weber
N = speed of the rotor in r.p.m
A = no of parallel paths
 The induced emf within the armature conductors is according to the faradays law of
electromagnetic induction.
 where e = rate of change of flux , e = dФ/dt
 Total flux produced (ФT) or (dФ) = flux produced by individual pole * no of poles
(ФT) = Ф * P
 The time required for a conductor to complete one revolution (dT) = 60/N
substituting these values in emf induced, we get
e = Ф * P / 60/N
e = Ф * P *N/ 60 for one conductor
e = Ф * P *N *Z / 60*A for ‘Z’ conductors for ‘A’ parallel paths
 Therefore, the EMF equation is given as e = Ф * P *N *Z / 60*A
 DC MOTOR

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DC MOTOR

 DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
 The working of DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force.
 The direction of the mechanical force is given by Fleming’s Left-hand Rule and its magnitude is
given by F = BIL Newton.
 A DC motor is an electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The basic working principle of the DC motor is that whenever a current carrying conductor places
in the magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force.

Fleming's Left Hand Rule:

 If we stretch the first finger, second finger and thumb of our left hand to be perpendicular to each
other, and first finger represents the direction of the magnetic field, the second finger represents
the direction of the current, then the thumb represents the direction of the force experienced by


 the current carrying conductor.

 F = BIL Newtons
 Where,
 B = magnetic flux density,
 I = current and
 L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.
 When armature winding is connected to a DC supply, an electric current sets up in the
winding. Permanent magnets or field winding (electromagnetism) provides the magnetic field. In
this case, current carrying armature conductors experience a force due to the magnetic field,
according to the principle stated above.
 The Commutator is made segmented to achieve unidirectional torque. Otherwise, the direction of
force would have reversed every time when the direction of movement of the conductor is
reversed in the magnetic field.

BACK- EMF OF DC MOTOR

 According to the fundamental law of nature, no energy conversion is possible until there is
something to oppose the conversion. In case of generators, magnetic drag provides this
opposition, but in the case of dc motors, there is back emf. Presence of the back emf makes a dc
motor ‘self-regulating’.
 When the armature of a motor is rotating, the conductors are also cutting the magnetic flux lines
and hence according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, an emf induces in the
armature conductors.
 The direction of this induced emf is such that it opposes the armature current (Ia). The circuit
diagram below illustrates the direction of the back emf and armature current.

BACK-EMF
 Magnitude of back emf is directly proportional to speed of the motor. Consider the load on a dc
motor is suddenly reduced. In this case, required torque will be small as compared to the current
torque.
 Speed of the motor will start increasing due to the excess torque. Hence, being proportional to the
speed, magnitude of the back emf will also increase. With increasing back emf armature current
will start decreasing.
 Torque being proportional to the armature current, it will also decrease until it becomes sufficient
for the load. Thus, speed of the motor will regulate.
 On the other hand, if a dc motor is suddenly loaded, the load will cause decrease in the speed.
Due to decrease in speed, back emf will also decrease which allows more armature current.
 Due to increase in armature current the torque will increase to fulfill the load requirement.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTORS

 Three characteristic curves are considered important for DC motors which are, (i) Torque vs.
armature current, (ii) Speed vs. armature current and (iii) Speed vs. torque.
 These are explained below for each type of DC motor. These characteristics are determined by
keeping the following two relations in mind.
Ta α ɸ.Ia and N α Eb/ɸ
These above equations can be studied at - emf and torque equation of dc machine. For a DC
motor, magnitude of the back emf is given by the same emf equation of a dc generator i.e. Eb =
PɸNZ / 60A. For a machine, P, Z and A are constant, therefore, N α Eb/ɸ

CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SERIES MOTORS

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia):

 This characteristic is also known as electrical characteristic. We know that torque is directly
proportional to the product of armature current and field flux, Ta α ɸ.Ia.
 In DC series motors, field winding is connected in series with the armature, i.e. Ia = If. Therefore,
before magnetic saturation of the field, flux ɸ is directly proportional to Ia.
 Hence, before magnetic saturation Ta α Ia2. Therefore, the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for smaller
values of Ia.
 After magnetic saturation of the field poles, flux ɸ is independent of armature current Ia.
Therefore, the torque varies proportionally to Ia only, T α Ia. Therefore, after magnetic saturation,
Ta-Ia curve becomes a straight line.
 The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than armature torque (Ta) due to stray losses. Hence, the curve Tsh
vs Ia lies slightly lower.
 In DC series motors, (prior to magnetic saturation) torque increases as the square of armature
current, these motors are used where high starting torque is required.

Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia):

 We know the relation, N α Eb/ɸ
 For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change in back emf Eb is small and
it may be neglected. Hence, for small currents speed is inversely proportional to ɸ.
 As we know, flux is directly proportional to Ia, speed is inversely proportional to Ia. Therefore,
when armature current is very small the speed becomes dangerously high. That is why a series
motor should never be started without some mechanical load.
 But, at heavy loads, armature current Ia is large. And hence, speed is low which results in
decreased back emf Eb. Due to decreased Eb, more armature current is allowed.

Speed Vs. Torque (N-Ta)

 This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic. From the above two characteristics
of DC series motor, it can be found that when speed is high, torque is low and vice versa.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SHUNT MOTORS

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia):

 In case of DC shunt motors, we can assume the field flux ɸ to be constant. Though at heavy
loads, ɸ decreases in a small amount due to increased armature reaction.
 As we are neglecting the change in the flux ɸ, we can say that torque is proportional to armature
current. Hence, the Ta-Ia characteristic for a dc shunt motor will be a straight line through the
origin.
 Since heavy starting load needs heavy starting current, shunt motor should never be started on a
heavy load.

Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia):

 As flux ɸ is assumed to be constant, we can say N α Eb. But, as back emf is also almost constant,
the speed should remain constant. But practically, ɸ as well as Eb decreases with increase in load.
Back emf Eb decreases slightly more than ɸ, therefore, the speed decreases slightly.
 Generally, the speed decreases only by 5 to 15% of full load speed. Therefore, a shunt motor can
be assumed as a constant speed motor.
 In speed vs. armature current characteristic in the following figure, the straight horizontal line
represents the ideal characteristic and the actual characteristic is shown by the dotted line.
 APPLICATIONS OF DC MOTORS

 The main applications of the three types of direct current motors are given below.

Series Motors
 The series DC motors are used where high starting torque is required and variations in speed are
possible. For example – the series motors are used in the traction system, cranes, air compressors,
Vaccum Cleaner, Sewing machine, etc.

Shunt Motors
 The shunt motors are used where constant speed is required and starting conditions are not severe.
The various applications of DC shunt motor are in Lathe Machines, Centrifugal Pumps, Fans,
Blowers, Conveyors, Lifts, Weaving Machine, Spinning machines, etc.

Compound Motors
 The compound motors are used where higher starting torque and fairly constant speed is required.
The examples of usage of compound motors are in Presses, Shears, Conveyors, Elevators, Rolling
Mills, Heavy Planners, etc.
 The small DC machines whose ratings are in fractional kilowatt are mainly used as control device
such in techno generators for speed sensing and in servo motors for positioning and tracking.