ELECTRON BEAM

WELDING

BEST PRACTICE GUIDE

EBP
Electron Beam Processes Ltd
Europe’s most experienced
EB Welding specialist

www.ebpglobal.com
+44(0)1483
+44 1483 21540
215400

© 2016
Electron Beam Processes Ltd
Electron Beam Processes Ltd pioneered the concept of providing an
EB Welding service to industry in 1966 and have since established an enviable reputation,
with a customer base covering a wide sector of the engineering field and whose applications
range from Aerospace to sub-sea equipment and Formula 1 racing to medical components.

Not surprisingly, technical problems arise from time to time, particularly with work for a
company who may not have had previous experience of EBW as a process. Invariably
however, in such cases the problem can be linked to one or more of the following causes:-

 The selection of a material specification or condition

unsuitable for welding.
 Incorrect joint design.
 Incorrect machining preparation.
 Assembly of parts in a contaminated condition.

As welding specialists we naturally wish to ensure that these pitfalls are avoided and will
readily advise on any aspect of the design and machining of a component in order to get
things off to a good start.

Obviously, the best time to input our advice is at an early design stage rather than as the
parts are leaving the machine shop! A telephone call, or a sketch by fax or e-mail, outlining
the problem is all that is needed for us to establish that the scheme is viable as planned, or
would benefit from a design change.

The object of this brochure is to give ‘best practice’ guidelines on those aspects of the
preparation of parts for EBW that have a direct bearing on the quality of the welded
component. Our aim, like yours, is to produce a welded fabrication that fully meets the
design criteria.

© 2016
Electron Beam Processes Ltd
Selecting weldable materials
When designing a component as a welded fabrication it may be necessary to compromise
between opting for the ideal mechanical properties of a material and choosing another
specification that has better welding properties. A grade of steel normally used for a cast
component for example, would not be the obvious choice for a welded fabrication.

These notes outline the factors that determine the weldability of some of the metals most
commonly employed in EBW application, but are intended as a guide rather than a complete
listing of all weldable material specifications.

If in any doubt therefore, ‘consult the welder before cutting metal’!

Steels
Low carbon, case hardening and austenitic stainless steels are generally weldable as are
most nickel and copper base alloys.

It is important to note that free cutting grades should not be specified for welded fabrications;
the lead and sulphur additions so helpful to the machinist act as a contaminant and can
adversely affect weld quality.

Case hardened components must be free of case in the immediate weld area. In practice,
this means that the joint faces and adjacent surfaces within 3mm of the joint should either be
masked off during the hardening operation or, have the case removed locally afterwards.

High carbon, direct hardening steels need careful selection as the welding operation hardens
the joint area. The degree of hardness varies with the composition of the alloy and in
general, the higher carbon grades become crack prone and difficult to weld satisfactorily.

Aluminium Alloys
The low and medium strength grades weld satisfactorily but the higher strength alloys are
crack prone, primarily due to their higher copper content.
The availability of a wide range of extruded tube, bar and plate sections has resulted in EBW
becoming a popular method for fabricating precision machined components of all
descriptions as an alternative to casting, forging or machined from solid.

Exotic Metals
Titanium alloys are ideally suited to a welding technique carried out in vacuum and, with the
limited range of stock sections available, the ability to fabricate complex components by
EBW opens up interesting design possibilities. Hastelloy and Nickel based alloys such as
Inco 625 & 718 all EB weld with great success.

Other refractory metals are less commonly used in general engineering and of these,
Molybdenum and Zirconium are weldable but Tungsten is very crack prone.

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Electron Beam Processes Ltd
Dissimilar Metals
Dissimilar metals that are weldable include low carbon and stainless steels to each other and
to copper and nickel base alloys. Aluminium and refractory metals generally cannot be
joined satisfactorily to other materials by EBW .

Joint Design
The machining preparation for EBW is very straightforward; the basic requirement being for
the joint to simulate ‘solid’ metal in the path of the electron beam.

The need for closely fitting joints can be better appreciated when it is realised that no filler
material is used in beam welding (except for special applications) and consequently, it is
essential to have good fit conditions.

The key features of a well prepared EBW joint are:-

 Joint faces to be in close abutment, e.g. a gap in the order of 0.05mm (0.002”) is
acceptable when welding a 10mm section but should be less for a thinner joint.

Turned parts fall into two categories, having either circumferential or planetary joint
configurations and these have different fit requirements:-

Circumferential joints are typically used to attach a flange, or gear, to the end of a
shaft with a spigot serving to hold concentricity and also to make the assembly self-
locating. In this case a slight clearance fit is needed on the spigot diameters allowing
the component to be ‘cold’ assembled.

For planetary joints, i.e. the joint running around the axis of the shaft, a size/size to
slight interference fit is required to compensate for shrinkage which occurs in the
weld. A good rule of thumb is to allow an interference of ‘one thou per inch’ of joint
diameter (0.025mm per 25mm diameter) up to a maximum of 0.125mm.

 The machining preparations for welding components with linear welds are illustrated
overleaf and include plain, spigotted butt and lap joints. The same standards apply
however; joint faces should be machined true and square to give close abutment on
assembly.

 The use of chamfers should be avoided as these simply reduce the effective weld
section. When it is necessary to relieve a sharp corner it is better to use the
instruction ‘break edge’. With spigot preparations it is important that the corner radii
on each mating part do not prevent the joint faces from abutting on assembly.

 Joints should be located in clear ‘line of sight’ of the beam i.e. clear of any projecting
flange or buttress features. Normally a clearance of 3mm is sufficient but a greater
clearance is required where a projection stands well above the joint surface e.g. as in
the case of a large gear assembled onto the end of a much smaller diameter shaft.

© 2016
Electron Beam Processes Ltd
Full penetration welds
The advantages of full penetration weld joints are that they:
 Increase the strength of the joint
 Are easier to inspect than partial penetration welds
 Contract more symmetrically during solidification than partial penetration
welds
 Tend to have fewer defects than partial penetration welds

Weld preparations for full penetration welds may be simpler and less expensive to
machine than those for partial penetration welds. If joints cannot be made self-
locating, very close attention must be paid to the fit-up, fixturing and tacking in order
to achieve correct alignment and good final tolerances. If a full penetration weld is
required, but there are concerns that he final tolerances may not be achieved using a
full penetration weld joint, a slightly deeper, self-aligning partial penetration weld can
be used and the excess un-welded section machined off after welding, if possible.
For circumferential full penetration assembly, welding with root backing (usually
metallic cylinder metallurgically compatible with the welded materials) must be
employed if spatter and undercutting are to be avoided. A post-weld machining step
is necessary to remove the backing piece. This may not always be possible
depending on the oval design of the tool and the manufacturing stage at which the
EB welding occurs.
Such a process must be validated during WPS approval, and indicated in the WPS.

Partial penetration welds

Many EB weld design applications require partial penetration welds. This is mainly
because welds are often used to assemble end pieces or covers to a main body that
contains sensitive electronic and non-metallic parts. The relatively low heat input
allows EB welds to be used in this way. With partial penetration the joint design can
often self-locate the parts improving alignment and reducing or eliminating post-weld
machining.

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Electron Beam Processes Ltd
The fitting thickness is depending on the conception needs; however it must be
greater than the maximum weld penetration

Short fitting
Design constraints may limit the overlap. In such cases, the location spigot will only
ensure the concentricity of the assembly. The straightness may be ensured by the
use of suitable fixtures keeping the weld faces together.

Locating the joint

It may be necessary to include features that assist in locating the joint prior to and
after welding, ideally this should be reviewed and agreed with EBP Limited.
The options for such features are:
 A specified tolerance dimension between the joint and a machined feature that
is accessible after welding. This is readily applicable to small and medium-
sized parts as a preferred solution.

Reference lines on one or both sides of the welds. Note that reference lines with
sharp corners can act as stress risers and therefore rounded corners are preferred

Tacking, clamping and fixtures

In the case of EB welding, all materials used for clamping and fixtures should be non-
magnetic or de-magnetised prior to use in order to avoid any risk of the deflecting
beam. The part numbers of any specific tooling must be recorded on the weld
parameter data card.
Tacking can often be used to simplify clamping and fixtures. Tacks may also be
essential to keeping the joint in close contact throughout the welding process. Tacks
may be EB or T.I.G. welds of short segments, spots or even a shallow seal pass.
Since the tacks will be incorporated into the weld joint they must be of high quality
and must also be included in the welding specification and qualified with the weld
procedure. The tacking process can create some distortion, and tacks are therefore
essential parameter of the WPS.44

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Electron Beam Processes Ltd
© 2016
Electron Beam Processes Ltd
EXAMPLES OF GOOD ASSEMBLY PRACTICE (EN 1011-7)

Gear welded assemblies

Length Reduction

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Electron Beam Processes Ltd
 Linear Welds

For linear seams, to eliminate the end crater, run-on and run-off pieces should be used.
These must be the same material and clamped or tack welded in position and removed by
post weld machining

© 2016
Electron Beam Processes Ltd
Weld shrinkage
Regardless of whether joints are full or partial penetration, joint design must take
shrinkage into account. If the design does not allow uniform shrinkage of the weld
metal, cracks can form, especially in high yield strength materials.

For all welds, the amount of shrinkage relates to the weld cross-section as follows:
Transverse shrinkage = k A/t
Where:
K = empirical factor between 0.1 and 0.17, usually 0.1
A = weld cross-sectional area (fused area)
t = weld thickness

For full penetration butt welds, this can be simplified as:-

Transverse shrinkage = k x average width of the weld.
More elaborate equations are available, but for single-pass welding (which is the
case of EB welding) the equations above are useful for quick predictions and
comparisons. For longitudinal welds, transverse shrinkage will reduce the width
across the joint. This will also happen in circumferential welds, but the diameter will
also be reduced to the some extent. The raised profile of the cap and root of most EB
welds are due to the transverse shrinkage.
The behaviour of the qualification test assembly will give a very good indication of the
weld shrinkage that will occur in the final assembly. The oval length before and after
welding should be noted during the qualification procedure.

Machining
EBW is a precision welding process that allows parts to be joined with minimal distortion and
free from oxidation effects. It follows therefore, that the pre-weld machining should also be to
a good standard if close dimensional tolerances are to be achieved on the finished
component.

From the machinists viewpoint however, it is not at all difficult to meet these requirements, as
the joint configurations used are basically very simple turning or milling operations. In fact,
the part may have been designed as a welded fabrication in order to make the machining
easier.

The key features to be observed when machining are:-

 A 1.6µmRa (63µ in CLA) surface finish is satisfactory for EBW joints.

 Machined parts should not be rumbled or vibro-deburred.

 Free cutting grades of steel should not be used for welded components – the lead
and sulphur content causes porosity and cracking defects.

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Electron Beam Processes Ltd
  When machining aluminium alloys of thick section it is good practice to make the
finishing cut on joint faces ‘dry’ i.e. without cutting lubricants, as these are very
difficult to remove at the pre-weld cleaning stage.

 In machining locating spigots, corner radii should be relieved just enough to ensure
that the joint faces are not prevented from fully closing on assembly. Chamfering
however, should be discouraged as this can result in the creation of an air trap within
the joint and result in weld porosity defects. So it is always safer to use the term
‘Break edge’ rather than ‘Chamfer’.

 Parts which have planetary joint preparations, e.g. a gear fitted to the end of a stub
shaft, require a size/size to slight interference fit condition, in order to compensate for
contraction which occurs in the weld. (Refer to the section on ‘Joint Design’ for
dimensional details).

 Where external spigot preparations are used it is helpful to the welder if a machine
mark is made on the O/D to indicate the true joint position. (A simple method is to
skim 0.010” (0.25mm) off the O/D up to the joint location).

 For new applications we typically need three sets of test pieces (or scrap
components) for establishing welding parameters. These are then recorded and
applied to all future production batches.

It is very important that the test pieces fully simulate both the material specification,
joint cross-section and local mass of the actual component.

 Finally, the ‘as machined’ components should not be assembled prior to despatch for
welding. A pre-weld cleaning operation (and a demagnetising stage for ferrous parts)
is normally carried out by the welder just before processing.

Preparation and Assembly

EB Welding is carried out in vacuum and as a result, the process allows parts to be joined
without any adverse oxidising effects. It follows therefore, that the components should be
free of any contaminants, such as cutting lubricants, anti-rusting oils etc. when they are
assembled for welding. Hence, the pre-weld preparation stage is all-important to the
success of the operation and it is for this reason that the pre-weld assembly is normally
undertaken by the welder, working to the following procedure:-

 Before components are released for welding a check is made to verify that they
conform to the latest drawing issue.

 It is also very important that clear assembly instructions accompany the work sent for
processing; remember, the welder is probably unaware of the function of the
component – one ‘widget’ looks much like another – and if something can be put on
back to front, sooner or later it will be!

 Parts must be thoroughly degreased before assembly, either by vapour or hot

detergent, and the joint faces abraded and Acetone washed.

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Electron Beam Processes Ltd
  For parts that need to be assembled by shrink fitting, e.g. planetary joints having
interference fits, the procedure is to warm the outer and chill the inner section, to
allow assembly to be carried out without risk of seizure.

 Ferrous components need to be demagnetised to avoid deflection of the electron

beam by stray magnetism.

EBW is a process in which the welding parameters are closely controlled and recorded at the
initial development stage so that on subsequent production runs each batch is welded to
precisely the same settings. It is essential therefore, to notify the welder of any modification
that may affect the welding operation.

A change in the material specification, or an alteration in the joint section, may make it
necessary to redevelop the machine settings.

EB welding quality control

Weld Integrity - EB Welding is essentially a machine-controlled process in which precise
parameters can be determined at the development stage and logged for future use in the
production of the component.

The EB weld process is a vacuum remelt of parent materials, providing parts are thoroughly clean
and correctly fitted, results are highly respectable and of excellent quality.

Hence, providing that the weld development is designed to accurately simulate the physical
geometry and material specification of the actual component the results achieved on the test
pieces will be repeatable within very close tolerances on the production components.

Non-destructive testing of EB welds is a subject in its own right but a brief summary of the
principal NDT methods used should be included:-

1. Visual Inspection - All welds are visually inspected using x 10 or greater magnification as
necessary. Surface defects e.g. cracks, mis-alignment, under penetration or undercutting can
usually be detected by this method.
2. Penetrant Crack Detection - Normally the water washable fluorescent dye technique is
used to identify possible surface defects that may not be readily seen by visual examination.
3. Radiography - Where the component joint geometry permits, an X-ray examination
technique can identify sub-surface defects that would be hidden from the Visual and Penetrant
Inspection methods. In particular, internal porosity and crack defects can be identified and
recorded on film. Radiography is, however, a relatively expensive NDT technique and for this
reason is sometimes used on a sample basis, typically 10% of the batch of components welded.

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Electron Beam Processes Ltd
4. Ultrasonic Testing - Subject to component geometry, Ultrasonic testing can provide a cost
effective and reliable method for detecting internal weld defects. Results can be assessed against
a go/no go setting and printed to provide a permanent record.
5. Pressure or Vacuum Leak Testing - These provide, again subject to component
configuration a performance test of individual components.
6. Batch Control Test Pieces - Test pieces directly simulating the component weld and
material condition can be used for quality control and can be run either before, after or during the
production batch. They provide the opportunity for NDT and macro and micro section
examination.
7. Process Control Specification - ENISO now offer process control and acceptance criteria
specification. EBP has its own specification for weld acceptance criteria, EBP/QAS/01 Iss. 2.
which is available on request.

We are sure that your introduction to electron beam welding will get off to a good start by
following these ground rules and hopefully encourage you to …
i

‘Design Electron Beam Welding into your next product to

save Cost, Size, Weight and Lead Time’

ELECTRON BEAM PROCESSES Ltd.

Unit 4, Octimum, Forsyth Road, Woking, Surrey. GU21 5SF

Tel: +44 (0)1483 215400 Fax: +44 (0)1483 215444

General Enquiries [email protected]
www.ebpglobal.com

© 2016
Electron Beam Processes Ltd
© 2016
Electron Beam Processes Ltd