1 s2.0 S2352152X21014018 Main

Journal of Energy Storage 46 (2022) 103727
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est
Heat transfer enhancement of latent heat thermal energy storage in solar

heating system: A state-of-the-art review
Weiyi Liu a, Yu Bie b, *, Tao Xu b, Andrzej Cichon c, Grzegorz Królczyk d, Zhixiong Li e
a
Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China
b
Academy of Building Energy Efficiency, School of Civil Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China
c
Department of Electrical Engineering, Opole University of Technology, Opole 45758, Poland
d
Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Automation Products, Opole University of Technology, Opole 45758, Poland
e
Faculty of Mechniacal Engineering, Opole University of Technology, Opole 45758, Poland
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Latent heat thermal energy storage (LHETS) has been widely used in solar thermal utilization and waste heat
Phase change materials recovery on account of advantages of high-energy storage density and stable temperature as heat charging and
Latent heat thermal energy storage discharging. Medium and low temperature phase change materials (PCMs), which always with their low thermal
Heat transfer enhancement
conductivity, are used in solar thermal utilization system, resulting in unsatisfactory heat storage performance.
Solar thermal utilization
This paper summarizes the PCMs used in solar thermal utilization and their thermal physical parameters in
different operating temperature ranges (low, medium, and high). Considering the specific cold and heat sources
of the solar thermal system, the thermal performance evaluation index of the LHTES is put forward. Also several
methods concerning to LHTES performance improvement are reviewed, which involve three aspects: material
optimization, structure optimization and system optimization. Finally, through further discussion, some deeper
problems about these optimizations are proposed and some recommendations for future research were put
forward.
the efficiency of the solar water heater by adding three benzene formic
acids and erythritol into the vacuum tube collector. Compared with the
1. Introduction
traditional solar water heater, the thermal efficiency increased by 26%
and 66% in normal operation mode and charging mode, respectively.
Although solar energy has the characteristics of inexhaustible,
Riahi et al. [6] compared the exergy efficiency of the LHTES and
widely distributed, clean pollution-free and so on, it also has the dis two-tank SHTES of the solar thermal power plant. The results show the
advantages of unstable illumination intensity changing with time [1]. total efficiency difference between the LHTES and SHTES can be
The effective light time is only 6–8 h per day, with intermittency and reduced within 4% by adopting suitable PCMs/heat transfer fluid (HTF)
imbalance in time and space. For these reasons, solar energy cannot combination. Compared with the traditional SHTES, the LHTES can
provide with a continuous and stable heat source, and therefore, it is achieve high volumetric energy density and high exergy recovery as
essential to introduce an efficient and reliable thermal energy storage well.
system [2]. At present, the main thermal energy storage types include The LHTES usually consists of three parts. (1) PCM with appropriate
sensible heat thermal energy storage (SHTES), LHTES, thermochemical phase change temperature; (2) HTF (heat transfer fluid) with good
thermal energy storage [3]. Among them, the thermal storage density of thermal conductivity; (3) Vessel of PCM and HTF.
LHTES is 5–10 times higher than that of SHTES [4], and it is safer and PCMs is usually divided into three types according to chemical
more reliable than thermochemical thermal energy storage. Because the composition: (1) Inorganic PCMs: mainly include crystal hydrate salt,
material temperature at phase transition is almost constant, it can pro molten salt, metal and alloy, etc. Crystal hydrate salts are mainly used as
vide relatively stable charging and discharging process. Therefore, low-temperature PCMs, which have the advantages of low price, easy
LHTES has been widely used in the field of solar energy utilization at low access, relatively large thermal conductivity, high heat storage density,
and medium temperature, such as Papadimitratos et al. [5] improved
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Y. Bie), [email protected] (T. Xu), [email protected] (A. Cichon), [email protected] (G. Królczyk), zhixiong.
[email protected] (Z. Li).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.103727
Received 15 October 2021; Received in revised form 24 November 2021; Accepted 30 November 2021
Available online 24 December 2021
2352-152X/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
W. Liu et al. Journal of Energy Storage 46 (2022) 103727
Nomenclature K total heat transfer coefficient

α convective heat transfer coefficient
PCM phase change material ∅ thermal energy storage and release ratio
LHTES latent heat thermal energy storage Q thermal energy
SHTES sensible heat thermal energy storage η energy efficiency
HTF heat transfer fluid E exergy
CSP concentrated solar power m mass
HP heat pipe T temperature
DSC differential scanning calorimetry Cp specific heat
TES thermal energy storage ψ exergy efficiency
LA lauric acid NS entropy production number
EG expanded graphite Sg specific entropy generation
SA stearic acid W exergy rate
CF carbon fiber Edensity energy storage density
SAT sodium acetate trihydrate V volume
etc., but they are likely to be suffered the supercooling and phase sep research hotspot in recent years. Panchabikesan et al. [14] found from
aration. Molten salt, metal and alloy are mainly used in the field of phase the parametric study of PCMs and HTF that the inlet temperature of HTF
change energy storage at medium and high temperature, but pure had the most influence on the charging of PCMs, followed by the thermal
molten salt has disadvantages of being easy to leak and low thermal conductivity of PCMs and HTF velocity. Formula (1) is the total heat
conductivity. Metal and alloy PCMs have high thermal conductivity, transfer coefficient of the heat exchanger when the heat transfer wall is
high latent heat value per volume, but they are corrosive and easy to thin tube wall and the fouling thermal resistance is ignored. According
leak [7,8]. (2) The organic PCMs: mainly include alcohols, organic to Formula (1), the total heat transfer coefficient K is bound to approach
polymer, high fat hydrocarbon, etc., it has the advantages of easy pro and be smaller than the smaller value of α1 and α2, that is, the total heat
cessing, good molding, low price, little corrosion and no supercooling transfer coefficient of heat exchanger is controlled by the high thermal
and phase separation, but it has disadvantages of low thermal conduc resistance side, and improving the heat transfer coefficient of the low
tivity, large volume change and low melting point which leads to not thermal resistance side has little influence on improving the heat
easy to be used in high temperature environment. (3) Eutectic PCMs: transfer performance of heat exchanger. Because the coefficient of
mainly include binary or ternary mixtures of inorganic salts [9]. They thermal conductivity of PCM is far lower than that of HTF, the main
have high density and liquid stability, and are mainly used in the field of thermal resistance is at PCM side, and the heat transfer enhancement is
solar thermal utilization at medium-high temperature [10–12]. mainly based on improvement of thermal conductivity of PCMs, heat
There are many types of HTF, such as water, air and oil and nano storage device structure, and the matching of sub-systems of LHTES.
fluids with better thermal conductivity. Additionally, PCMs can be used This paper is a comprehensive review about the PCMs classification and
as HTF in direct absorption solar thermal collection systems. The main thermophysical parameters, performance evaluation of LHTES,
structure of LHTES devices can be generally divided into three types: and several ways of heat transfer enhancement, so as to provide refer
shell-and-tube type, packing type and plate type (Fig. 1), among which ence for strengthening heat storage and release.
shell-and-tube type heat storage tank are most widely used in industry.
1 1 1
However, thermal storage and release properties of the LHTES are = + (1)
K α1 α2
limited for the low thermal conductivity of the PCMs, therefore, the
performance enhancement of solar driven LHTES system has become a
Fig. 1. . Different types of LHTES [13] (Case 1 shell-and-tube type; Case 2 packing type; Case 3 plate type).
2
2. PCMs classification and performance evaluation in solar released thermal exergy.

applications
∫T2 ( )
T0
Ex = m 1− Cp dT (6)
2.1. PCMs for low temperature thermal applications T
T1
According to the temperature range, solar thermal applications ∫

Ėstored dt Estored
technology can be divided into low temperature (below 80 ◦ C), medium ψ stored = = (7)
temperature (80–200 ◦ C) and high temperature (above 200 ◦ C).The Estoredmax Estoredmax
PCMs should be properly chosen for different temperature requirements. ∫
Ėreleased dt Ereleased
The low temperature thermal applications mainly include solar building ψ released = = (8)
heating, the solar water-heating system and solar dryers, etc., and the Ereleasedmax Ereleasedmax
materials usually can be organic PCMs (such as various fatty acids and In addition, the exergy efficiency can also be expressed by entropy
alcohols), hydrated salt and a small amount of eutectic compounds. The production number.
medium and high temperature solar thermal applications mainly [( ) ( ) ]
distribute in the industrial process heating, waste heat recovery and Tambient Sg stored + Sg released
solar thermal power generation, and the materials usually include NS = (9)
WStored + Wreleased
molten salt, eutectic mixture and metal PCMs. Several common PCMs
and their thermophysical properties are listed in Table 1. ψ = 1 − NS (10)
2.2. Performance evaluation approach for solar driven LHTES 2.2.3. Uniformity index
The uniformity of PCM state in the charging or discharging process
The performance evaluation for solar driven LHTES mainly considers determines whether the LHTES can be used as a stable thermal energy
speed index, efficiency index, uniformity index and material re source, which can be expressed by PCM inner temperature distribution.
quirements [17], including energy analysis based on the first law of
thermodynamics [18,19] and exergy analysis based on the second law of 2.2.4. Economic index
thermodynamics [20]. Energy storage density: The maximum amount of available thermal
energy stored per volume, which can affect the economic efficiency
2.2.1. Rate index obviously.
The complete melting and freezing time of PCMs, which is affected Qstoredmax
by PCMs changing temperature, thermal conductivity, natural convec Edensity = (11)
V
tion and heat transfer area.
Thermal energy storage and release ratio: the ratio of the total 3. Heat transfer enhancement methods of PCMs
thermal energy stored (released) in a certain time to the maximum
stored (released) thermal energy available. 3.1. PCMs formulation and encapsulation improvement
∫
Q̇stored dt Qstored
∅stored = = (2) 3.1.1. Formulation adjustment
Qstoredmax Qstoredmax
To manipulate the melting temperature of phase change material,
∫
Q̇released dt Qreleased Qiu et al. [21] prepared two new eutectic mixtures of barium hydroxide
∅released = = (3) octahydrate (BHO)-KCl and BHO-KNO3. The results revealed that the
Qreleasedmax Qreleasedmax
two eutectic mixtures still possessed high latent heat more than 200 J/g
when containing 10 wt% KCl and 12 wt% KNO3, respectivel. Jiang et al.
2.2.2. Efficiency index
[22] prepared novel PCMs by mixing Na2CO3 and NaCl in the mass ratio
Energy efficiency: The ratio of actual acquired thermal energy to
of 59.45:40.55.The experiment proved that the material had good
total thermal energy provided (total released).
thermal stability and chemical stability. In order to find suitable low
∫
Q̇ dt Q temperature PCMs, Ding et al. [23] prepared six kinds of binary organic
ηstored = ∫ stored = stored (4)
Q̇supplied dt Qsupplied composite PCMs with different mass ratios of lauric acid (LA) and stearic
acid (SA).The test results show that the phase transition temperature
∫ (34–35 ◦ C) of LA-SA composite is significantly lower than that of LA and
Q̇used dt Qused
ηused = ∫ = (5) SA (45.6◦ C and 56.16◦ C), and the supercooling phenomenon decreases
Q̇released dt Qreleased
with the increase of LA mass. Dong et al. [24] added NH4Cl and KCl into
Exergy efficiency: used for evaluating the quantity of stored and
Table 1
. Several common PCMs [9,15,16].
Compound Mass Ratio Melting Point(◦ C) Latent heat(kJ/kg) Thermal Conductivity W/(m•K) Type
Solid Liquid
Lauric acid — 44 212 0.22 0.15 organic PCMs

Stearic acid — 54 157 0.29 0.17 organic PCMs
Na2SO4•10H2O — 32 180 0.56 0.45 hydrated salt
NaNO3 — 306 172 0.5 0.6 molten salts
Urea-NaNO3 71:29 83 187 0.750 0.590 eutectic compounds.
KNO3–NaNO2 56:44 141 97 0.73 0.57 eutectic compounds.
MgCl2•6H2O — 117 150 0.70 0.58 hydrated salt
LiNO3–NaNO3 49:51 194 362 0.87 0.59 eutectic compounds.
KNO3 — 335 95 0.5 0.48 molten salts
NaNO3–NaOH 86:14 250 160 0.66 0.6 eutectic compounds
3
CaCl2•6H2O to prepare composite PCMs. The experiments prove that the Micro encapsulation of PCM can well solve the problem of delami
heat storage performance of the composite PCMs has been improved. nation [37,38]. Because the material is wrapped in the capsule, the ri
Zhang et al. [25] improved the performance of Na2S2O3•5H2O with poor gidity of the matrix prevents heat convection, and the heat transfer
cycling stability, high supercooling degree and low crystallinity by mainly through heat conduction, which will reduce the heat transfer
added nucleating agents and thickeners. The improved composite PCMs rate. However, since microcapsule encapsulation greatly increases the
has a longer heat release time and good stability. Ma et al. [26] specific surface area of the PCMs, it will also increase the thermal con
impregnated the capric acid-palmitic acid eutectic mixture into ductivity [13]. Xu et al. [39] prepared a new microcapsule PCM with
delignified wood by the vacuum impregnation method to prepare a paraffin as the core and Cu-Cu2O as outer layer. The microcapsule
stable-form composite PCMs. Ma et al. [27] prepared SA-HA composite diameter is 600–900 nanometers, and it has good thermal stability, high
PCMs by mixing 46.2 mol% stearic acid (SA) and 53.8 mol% hex thermal conductivity and good photothermal conversion performance.
anamide (HA). Thermal cycling experiments proved that the material Dao and Jeong [40] prepared SA/graphene composite microcapsules by
has good thermal properties, stability and reliability. Li et al. [28] added the latex method. The graphene shell could effectively suppress the
MgCl2•6H2O with different mass fractions (10, 15, 20 and 25%) into evaporation and thermal decomposition of the SA core. It has good
CaCl2•6H2O to prepared CaCl2•6H2O-MgCl2•6H2O eutectic salt PCM, shape stability and thermal stability, and the thermal conductivity was
then modified the prepared materials by adding nucleating and thick also improved. Wang et al. [41] used aluminum honeycomb panels to
eners agents. The experiments show that when CaCl2•6H2O-25 wt% prepare micro-encapsulated PCMs. They found that the
MgCl2•6H2O was added with 3% SrCl2•6H2O, 1% SrCO3 and 0.5% micro-encapsulated PCMs in the wall panels could effectively dissipate
hydroxyethyl cellulose, the supercooling degree can be reduced to 2◦ C, heat when indoor environment was subjected to forced convection or
the latent heat of phase change is 102.3J/g, and with a good thermal natural convection condition. Schoth et al. [42] presented a
stability. Fernández et al. [29] found that adding LiNO3 to solar salt surfactant-free synthesis of pickering-stabilized submicrometer-sized
NaNO3/KNO3 can improve the thermal stability of PCMs, and adding Ca capsules in inverse miniemulsion. Leng et al. [43] prepared composite
(NO3)2 can reduce the melting point. The heat storage material with low phase change microcapsules using NaCl-KCl binary eutectic salt as PCMs
phase transition temperature can replace the HTF directly. The thermal and using diatomite as encapsulating material. The composite phase
stability of 20%LiNO3 + 28% NaNO3 + 52% KNO3(working tempera change microcapsules with 70wt% PCMs have the best heat storage
ture up to 586.32 ◦ C)is similar to that of 60%NaNO3 + 40%KNO3, and performance, stability and capsule integrity. Nomura et al. [44] pre
the phase transition temperature is 130.15 ◦ C. These properties make it pared Al/Al2O3 phase change microcapsules for high-temperature
is one of the most important materials of the tower concentrated solar LHTES applications with Al as PCMs and Al2O3 as shell. The phase
power (CSP) system. 30%LiNO3 + 10%Ca (NO3)2+60%KNO3 has a large change microcapsules have high melting point, strong heat storage ca
working range (132–571 ◦ C) and a high latent heat (1.395 J/g), which pacity, and low supercooling degree.
also has a potential application value in CSP system.
3.2. Adding high thermal conductivity particles
3.1.2. PCMs encapsulation
PCMs encapsulating can provide a larger specific surface area. The 3.2.1. Carbon materials as additives
HTF flows in the gap between the capsules, which can greatly improve Carbon material is the most common material with high thermal
the heat transfer performance and reduce the volume change caused by conductivity, which is widely used in the field of thermal energy. In
the phase changing. Different methods of PCM integration are available particular, expanded graphite (EG) and carbon fiber (CF) have good
including: direct incorporation, immersion, shape-stabilization, micro- thermochemical properties, and thermal conductivity, heat storage
encapsulation and macro-encapsulation [30]. density and heat transfer uniformity of the PCMs could be significantly
Macro encapsulation is the most common form, which can not only improved by adding them. EG is made by natural flake graphite and CF
increase the heat transfer area to enhance the thermal conductivity, but takes shape only when mixed with the PCM by melting-dispersion
also compensate the volume change in the phase transition process. In method, hot-press method, etc, there is no microstructure of single
addition, encapsulation can avoid the large phase separation of PCMs in carbonfiber [45].
the charging process [31]. Arconada et al. [32] analyzed the mechanics, EG can improve the thermal conductivity of PCM effectively as an
structure and thermal characterizations of macro-encapsulated sodium additive due to its high thermal conductivity and loose porous structure
chloride pellets prepared by sol-gel method, and found that hemicellu [46]. Yu et al. [47] prepared composite PCMs by adding SiO2 nano
lose encapsulated NaCl pellets with dense TiO2 coatings appear the best particles and EG into MgCl2-NaCl-KCl. The results show that, compared
thermal performance. Memon et al. [33] measured the chemical with the pure ternary chloride shows that the composite specific heat
compatibility, thermal performance, thermal stability and reliability of increased up to 1.36 times in solid-state and 1.63 times in liquidstate,
the prepared macro-encapsulated paraffin-lightweight aggregate and the thermal conductivity increased by 23.2 and 9.2 times in the solid
(LWA). The experimental results show that the maximum percentage of and liquid state, respectively. Li et al. [48] prepared composite PCMs by
paraffin absorbed by LWA was 70%, the thermal conductivity was adding EG into SA with different mass fractions (2wt%, 6wt%, 10wt%).
increased by 162% through adding 15% graphite powder, and has The differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermal conductivity
excellent thermal stability and high latent heat value. Fukahori et al. tests proved the thermal conductivity of composite PCM SA/EG6 was 9.6
[34] proposed the use of ceramic containers to encapsulate Al-Si alloy times as high as that of pure SA. The experimental results shown that the
PCMs, which will have excellent corrosion resistance and thermal melting time of SA/EG6 was shorten 63.3% and the heat releasing rate
cycling performance. Zheng et al. [35] selected NaNO3 and eutectic was the highest. Wang et al. [49] mixed lauric acid, stearic acid and EG
NaCl-MgCl2 as PCMs to be encapsulated in cylindrical steel shells. The to prepared organic PCMs. When the mass ratio of lauric acid and stearic
experimental results found that the selected PCMs and encapsulation acid are 70% and 30%, the minimum phase transition temperature of
methods could be effective and the capsule storage capacity has no the mixed acid eutectic point is 31.2 ◦ C. The best mass fraction of
discernible diminishment after many times cycles. Kong et al. [36] expanded graphite is 10%, which could be mixed into acid completely,
prepared a large-sized graphene aerogel with a three-dimensional and has the best performance of solidification, stability and high latent
continuous network by a combination of sol–gel and ultra-high tem heat value. Yu et al. [50] prepared SA/EG composite PCMs by physical
perature graphitization, and further employed to encapsulate paraffin. adsorption. It is found that the composite PCMs prepared with 10% EG
The results show that this materials can effectively solve the problems of has high latent heat value and good thermal stability. Huang et al. [51]
poor thermal conductivity, low energy storage density and leakage of prepared LiNO3/KCl-EG composite PCMs for solar thermal energy
paraffin. storage at high temperature. It is found that the thermal conductivity of
4
the composite is close to that of eutectic LiNO3/KCL and was 1.85–7.56 copper foam in the SAT. The results show that the thermal conductivity
times higher than that of the eutectic LiNO3/KCl. Zhang et al. [52] added of copper foam/SAT composite PCM is about 11 times higher than that
modified hydrophilic EG to magnesium hexahydrate, and found that the of pure SAT. Moreover, the charging time is only 40% of that of the pure
endothermic enthalpy decreased by 0.9%, the exothermic values SAT. The volume thermal energy storage density of copper foam/SAT
increased by 3.8%, and the thermal conductivity increased by 5.17 composite PCM is about 2.2–2.5 times higher than that of traditional
times. Tian et al. [53] prepared binary eutectic chloride (NaCl–CaC water tank. Tian and Zhao [66,67] studied the thermal conductivity
l2)/EG composite PCMs, and revealed that both the specific heat ca performance of PCMs added the metal foam by means of experimental
pacity and latent heat of composite PCMs decreased with the increase of and numerical simulation. The study found that the overall heat transfer
EG content, the thermal conductivities increased linearly with the performance is improved when metal foams are embedded into PCMs.
addition of EG content. Considering comprehensive heat storage prop Chen et al. [68] studied the effect of adding metallic foamed aluminum
erty, the EG content of the composite PCMs was suggested to be 7–10 wt on the thermal conductivity of PCMs.It was found that the addition of
% in the experiments. metal foam has an important effect on the thermal energy transfer in the
CF has high thermal conductivity and is an excellent additive. Jiang charging process of PCMs. Paraffin/nickel foam and paraffin/copper
et al. [54] prepared a Carbon bonded carbon fiber (CBCF) materials, and foam composite PCMs were prepared using a vacuum impregnation
found that the thermal conductivity of the composite PCMs (formed by method in Xiao et al. [69] study. The results indicate that the thermal
filling paraffin in the CBCF block) significantly increases, with the conductivities of the paraffin/nickel foam composite PCMs are nearly
in-plane thermal conductivity increases by 18–57 times and the three times larger than that of pure paraffin, whereas the thermal con
out-plane thermal conductivity increases by 3.7–5.5 times. In addition, ductivities of the paraffin/copper foam composite PCMs are nearly 15
the improvement of thermal conductivity is almost linear with the times larger than that of pure paraffin. Compared with those of pure
content of CF. Nomura et al. [55] prepared the PCMs by adding CF to paraffin, the paraffin/metal foam composite PCMs melting temperature
erythromositol using melt-dispersion method and novel hot-press increased, the freezing temperature decreased and latent heat thermal
method respectively, and measured the effective thermal conductivity energy decreased. A new TES unit was proposed in Yang et al. [70]
of the improved PCMs. Zhang et al. [56] prepared PCMs by adding short study. The results of the study showed that the thermal performance of
carbon fibers (SCFs) to erysipatol with different mass fractions (1, 2, 4, 7 the TES device can be greatly improved by filling the metal foam on the
and 10%). The results show that the SCFs have a smaller effect on the HTF pipe and PCM sides simultaneously. The full melting time for this
melting point of PCMs, and thermal conductivity increases with the case was reduced by 88.548%; meanwhile, temperature response rate,
increase of SCFs content, the latent heat, in contrast, decreases with the heat flux and synthetic thermal conductivity performances was
increase of SCFs. Adding 10 wt% SCFs (9 microns diameter, length to increased by 834.27%, 774.9%, 5186.91%, respectively. Besides,
diameter ratio is 25) to improve thermal conductivity by 407.8%. For embedding metal foam into PCMs can improve the temperature uni
improving the thermal conductivity of form-stable PCMs, Tian et al. [57] formity of PCMs. Zhang et al. [71] prepared paraffin/copper foam
added EG and CF to ethylene-vinyl acetate, and the results show composite PCMs by adding metal foam to paraffin.The results show that
significantly synergistic enhancement. Liu et al. [58] prepared CF/po the composite PCMs which added the copper foam has better thermal
lyethylene glycol /silica composites PCMs with different CF content, and conductivity performance and more uniform internal temperature dis
found that the thermal conductivity increases by more than 50% when tribution. Esapour et al. [72] studied the influence of the charging
the CF content is 3%. Cheng et al. [59] prepared the PCMs by compos process and discharging process of PCMs added the metal foam in a
iting beeswax-tetradecanol/expanded perlite with CF and found that the multi-tube heat exchanger. It was found that inserting metal foam can
thermal performance increased by 174.2%. Samimi et al. [60] filled improve the overall thermal conductivity and it can also diminishes the
PCM around the lithium ion battery cell to absorb the heat generated by thermal stratification and creates uniform temperature distribution. Ren
the battery during discharge. The experimental results show that carbon et al. [73] compared the effect of adding metal foam and nanoparticles
fiber could effectively improve the thermal conductivity, with the on the thermal performance of PCMs. Through the analysis, it is found
minimum and maximum enhancement percentage of 85% and 155% that adding metal foams can improve the PCMs heat transfer capability
respectively. more effective than adding nanoparticles. A generalized geometry cre
ation model is developed by Dinesh and Bhattacharya [74] for studying
3.2.2. Metal materials as additives the thermal effect of copper foam structure on thermal performance of
Metal and metal alloys have very high thermal conductivity. Adding metal foam composite PCMs. Simulations reveal that the rate of thermal
metal materials in PCM or directly using metal matrix PCM can effec energy storage increases with decreasing pore size of the metal foam.
tively solve the problem of low thermal conductivity of PCM. The However, the effect of pore overlap and overall porosity depends on the
common form is to add metal foam framework [61]. energy absorption duration. For shorter duration, lower porosity and
Metal foam has the characteristics of large specific surface area, good pore overlap are preferable while the opposite is true for longer dura
thermal conductivity, low mass and small complex permittivity. How tion. Mahdi and Nsofor [75] proposed a method for enhancement the
ever, the distribution of pore structure of metal foam is random. The thermal performance of the shell-and-tube LHTES by arranging
thermal conduction, convection and radiation of pore structure will cascaded multiple-segment metal foam along the heat flow direction
affect the thermal transfer [13,46,62]. Yousef et al. [63] evaluated the (Fig. 2), and the porosity of the metal foam gradually increases along the
performance of photovoltaic (PV) system without any modifications, PV heat flow direction. The results show that the LHTES using
incorporated with paraffin wax as PCM (PV-PCM), and PV incorporated multiple-segment metal foam can make the temperature distribution
with enhanced PCM comprising aluminum foam (AF) embedded in PCM more uniform, and the heat transfer rate is obviously improved., The
(PV-PCM/AF) from the aspects of exergy efficiency, energy efficiency, performance of thermal energy storage device has been significantly
economic and enviroeconomic. The results show that PV-PCM/AF is the improved, and the more number of cascaded foam metal segment, the
most effective system. Wang et al. [64] studied the thermal properties of more obvious the improvement effect.
copper/paraffin composite PCMs.The results showed that copper foam
can effectively improve the internal heat transfer uniformity of paraffin, 3.2.3. Nanomaterials as additives
reduce the thermal energy storage time of paraffin wax by 40%, and With the rapid development of nanotechnology, it is more and more
improve the relationship between the total phase transition time and the common to add nanomaterials to improve thermal conductivity. Adding
heating boundary temperature. In research of Li et al. [65], the hydrated a small amount of nanomaterials can greatly improve the thermal con
salt of sodium acetate trihydrate (SAT) is firstly modified, and then the ductivity of PCMs. In the preceding chapter, carbon and metal materials
copper foam/hydrated salt composite PCM is prepared by adding the are made into nano-additives, which are more effective.
5
Fig. 2. . Schematic of the LHTES with multiple-segment metal foam.
Carbon nanomaterials have high thermal conductivity and good the thermal conductivity was increased by 20.2%, 26.2%, 26.2% and
thermal performance. Graphene is a single atomic layer structure ma 29.7%, respectively. The change of phase change temperature and latent
terials, which has good thermal conductivity, strong stability and large heat of the PCMs after adding carbon nanotubes was not significant, and
specific surface area. Both of them are suitable additives for improving the thermal stability was good. Qian et al. [85] prepared polyethylene
thermal conductivity of PCMs. Shen et al. [76] added cellulose nano glycol/single-walled carbon nanotube composite PCMs. When the car
fibril and graphene nanoplatelet into SAT to prepare composite PCMs bon nanotubes increase from 2wt% to 10wt%, the improvement rate of
with stable phase, minimal supercooling and improved thermal prop solid thermal conductivity increases from 162 to 1329%, liquid thermal
erties. Liu et al. [77] added graphene nanosheets to the micro conductivity increased from 21 to 533%. Li et al. [86] prepared a carbon
encapsulated TiO2/paraffin composite PCMs and attached it to the nanotube/paraffin/montmorillonite composite PCMs. The thermal
surface of the microcapsule which not only improved the structural conductivity of the composite PCMs is 34% higher than that of paraf
stability and service life of the TiO2/paraffin microcapsules, and fin/montmorillonite, and 65% higher than that of paraffin. Chen et al.
significantly improved its solar heat storage capacity and photocatalytic [87] prepared a stearic acid/carbon nanotube composite PCMs.
activity. Yin et al. [78] prepared a PCMs that can directly absorb solar Compared with the base fluid, the phase change slurry prepared by
energy and convert it into heat by adding graphene nanosheets to dispersing the composite PCMs in water increased the thermal conduc
paraffin. This material has great application potential in solar thermal tivity by 2 times, the specific heat capacity 1.5 times, and the thermal
utilization. Mehrali et al. [79] prepared paraffin wax/graphene oxide performance has also been improved. Putra et al. [88] prepared a
composites by adding graphene oxide to paraffin wax. The thermal form-stable beeswax/multi-walled carbon nanotube composite PCMs
conductivity is significantly improved, and other thermophysical prop with good heat storage performance, high thermal conductivity and
erties and stability are also excellent. Zhong et al. [80] prepared a long-term stable reliability, which is a potential PCMs for buildings. Li
composite PCMs composed of graphene aerogel and stearic acid. The et al. [89] added acid-treated carbon nanotubes to stearic acid to pre
experimental results showed that the material has high thermal con pare a PCMs that could directly convert sunlight into heat energy and
ductivity and energy storage capacity. In addition, graphene can not store it. It has suitable phase change temperature and latent heat,
only increase the thermal conductivity of PCM, but also improve the excellent shape-stabilized property, broad light absorption range and
shape stability of PCMs. Shi et al. [81] compared improvements in the light–heat conversion/storage performance. In order to improve the
thermal conductivity and shape stability of adding exfoliated graphite performance of lithium battery thermal management system, Zou et al.
nanoplatelets and graphene to paraffin PCMs. The experiments show [90] prepared multi-walled carbon nanotubes/PCM, graphene/PCM and
that exfoliated graphite nanoplatelets improve thermal conductivity multi-walled carbon nanotubes/graphene/PCM composite PCMs, and
more significantly, but graphene is more effective maintain PCMs shape studied the amount of graphene and multi-walled carbon nanotubes
stability. Yavari et al. [82] studied the effect of graphene on the thermal added. The experimental results show that when the multi-walled car
performance of stearyl alcohol PCMs. Studies have shown that adding bon nanotubes and graphene quality ratio of 3/7 has the best heat
graphene to stearyl alcohol can effectively increase the thermal con transfer enhancement synergy effect, and its thermal conductivity is
ductivity, and the reduction in phase change enthalpy is small, with a 31.8%, 55.4% and 124% higher than graphene/PCM, multi-walled
140% increase in thermal conductivity and a 15% decrease in phase carbon nanotube/PCM and pure PCMs, respectively.
change enthalpy. Graphene improves organic PCMs better than multi In addition to improving the PCMs side, adding nanomaterials to the
walled carbon nanotubes and silver nanowires. heat transfer fluid to form nanofluids can also improve the heat transfer
Tao et al. [83] added four different carbon nanomaterials (single performance of the heat storage system. Park and Kim [91] prepared
walled carbon nanotubes, multi-walled carbon nanotubes, graphene; graphene nanofluids by adding graphene to distilled water. By
C60) to Li2CO3-K2CO3 binary eutectic salt PCMs to prepare comparing three different graphene nanofluids, they found that gra
Li2CO3-K2CO3 /nano material composite PCMs. The melting point, phene nanofluids with small particle size are better than large particle
phase transition enthalpy, specific heat, thermal conductivity, and total size in heat transfer performance. Graphene oxide nanofluids have
heat storage were characterized. The results show that sheet structure better heat transfer performance than graphene nanofluids. Navarrete
graphene have the most significant effect on increasing the specific heat et al. [92] proposed a self-encapsulated nano-metal particle. Sn is
of the material, the maximum increase is 18.57%, while single walled wrapped by an outer layer of SnOx. Adding this nano-particle to the
carbon nanotubes is the best additive to improve the thermal conduc thermal fluid form a metal nanofluid can enhance the thermal conduc
tivity, and the thermal conductivity can be increased by up to 56.89%. In tivity and thermal tolerance. The metal oxide shell prevents leakage of
addition, the addition of nanomaterials will increase the specific heat of the internal PCMs in the molten state, and the addition of Pb to the Sn
the PCMs, but it will also reduce the phase change enthalpy of the PCMs. core solves the problem of supercooling. Zhang et al. [93] designed and
The addition of nanomaterials has little effect on the overall heat storage synthesized a new and efficient PCMs based on polyethylene glycol and
performance, and the enhancement of thermal conductivity is mainly Ag nanoparticles-graphene nanosheets. The prepared composite PCMs
considered. Zhang et al. [84] prepared palmitic-stearic acid/ carbon has high energy storage density, high energy charging/discharging rate,
nanotube composite PCMs. When the carbon nanotubes were 5wt%, 6 excellent thermal stability and outstanding form-stable properties. The
wt%, 7 wt% and 8 wt% in palmitic -stearic acid binary eutectic PCMs, synergistic effect of Ag nanoparticles and graphene nanosheets improves
6
the thermal conductivity (49.5–95.3%) and photothermal conversion had a higher heat transfer rate.
efficiency (88.7–92.0%) of the composites PCMs. Jana et al. [94] pre The influence of natural convection of liquid PCM is an important
pared suspensions of carbon nanotubes, Cu nanoparticles and Au reason for the change of heat transfer law in its interior. Muhammad and
nanoparticles, and measured them at room temperature 25 ◦ C. The Badr [102] investigated the solidification and melting behavior of PCM
experimental results showed that Cu nanoparticle suspensions have the in finned LHTES systems. It was found that during the charging process
best thermal conductivity, and the thermal conductivity increased by the heat transfer is mainly realized by natural convection and accom
about 74% compared to the original base fluid. Zhu et al. [95] proposed panied by quasi-steady melting process; in the process of discharging,
Au-Ag/ ordered mesoporous carbon(CMK-3) nano-alloy fluid as a heat convective heat transfer only plays a role at the beginning, and heat is
transfer fluid for solar collectors, and found that the nanofluid has high mainly transferred through heat conduction in the middle and later
dispersion, excellent optical absorption and photothermal conversion. stages. By comparing with similar finless heat storage devices, it is found
that the heat flux of heat exchange tube increases by 450%. Fornarelli
3.3. Summary and discussion et al. [103] evaluated the LHTES system of a CSP plant, and found that
the natural convective flow increased the heat flux and reduced the heat
Both the formulation and packaging of the materials and the addition storage time of the regenerator by about 30%; This author [104] also
of high thermal conductivity materials improved the thermal conduc studied shell and tube latent heat storage devices, and described in detail
tivity of PCMs to a certain extent, and also affected the phase transition the flow state of the latent heat thermal material and the influence of the
temperature, latent heat, specific heat capacity and other thermal flow on the heat storage performance of the device. Han et al. [105]
physical parameters, and even worsened some of the parameters. For studied the effect of natural convection on the thermal storage perfor
example, Navarrete et al. [96] added composite PCMs which composite mance of a shell-and-tube LHTES system, comparing six different LHTES
by Al-Cu alloy nanoparticles to nano3-Kno3 (60:40) eutectic salt PCM, it units (Fig. 3). The results show that natural convection leads to inho
was found that the thermal conductivity and enthalpy of phase transi mogeneous distribution of solid-liquid interface, which accelerates the
tion increased greatly with the increase of nanoparticle content, but the melting rate of PCMs, and the melting rate and heat storage rate in the
specific heat capacity and sensible heat storage capacity of PCM horizontal cylinder model are higher than those in horizontal pipe
decrease, and the total heat storage increased by only 17.8%. In addi model. In the pipe model, the vertical model with HTF inlet at the
tion, the phase change heat transfer involves the simultaneous action of bottom had the highest PCM melting rate and charging rate.
heat conduction and convection, the dominant heat transfer mode is The size and number of fins are important factors affecting the
different between the charging stage and the discharging stage, so the strengthening effect. Fornarelli et al. [106] proposed a theoretical model
improvement of heat transfer performance cannot be determined by for the complete melting time of LHTES considering the shell and tube
thermal conductivity alone. For example, in the research by Zhang et al. structure and analyzed it for four structures (Fig. 4).The study reveals
[97], we could be notable that the metal foam has little strengthening that, the charging time of the LHTES of re / ri = 1.5 is 50% less than that
effect on charging process, but it has obvious strengthening effect on of re / ri = 4.375. When re / re is increased to 6, the charging time
discharging process.It is probably because the natural convection effect decreases. Abdi et al. [107] researched the effect of vertical fin length
is restrained by the metal skeleton.Therefore, the influence rule and and number on the thermal conductivity of a LHTES.The results reflect
coupling effect of each parameter on the heat transfer process and per that the vertically oriented fins could Increase the heat transfer area and
formance are studied comprehensively, and the key problems to be does not suppress the natural convection mechanism. Thus, using longer
solved in this field are to predict the properties of materials accurately fins can provide a higher charging rate than increasing the number of
and to put forward the methods of guiding the properties control. fins. Jmal and Baccar [108] found that, the charging rate of LHTES with
fins is faster than that without fins, but there is no obvious strengthening
4. Structural optimization of LHTES effect on PCMs discharging process when the number of fins is too much.
The installation angle of fins also affects the performance of LHTES.
4.1. Optimization of fin and heat exchange tube structure Yuan et al. [109] studied the effect of fin mounting angles (no fins, 0◦ ,
30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , and 90◦ , Fig. 5) on the performance of LHTES.The results
In a latent heat thermal energy system, heat is transferred mainly by show that in the whole charging process, the charging rate of the
convection and conduction, the size and quantity of fins, heat exchange structure with θ = 0◦ is the highest, followed by that of the structure
tubes, and the arrangement of heat storage device will affect the heat with θ = 30 ◦ and the structure with θ = 90◦ has the highest charging rate
transfer performance of heat storage device, many researchers at home in the initial stage of melting. When the Liquid phase ratio reaches 0.7,
and abroad have studied it. It is one of the widely used techniques to the charging rate decreases obviously, and it will keep a relatively low
improve the performance of latent heat thermal energy system, by charging rate until the end of charging. Thus, it is recommended to
adding fins or changing the structure of heat transfer contact surface, the install the fins in the lower part of the LHTES as far as possible. Shei
addition of fins can not only increase the heat transfer area of the latent kholeslami et al. [110] found that both v-fins and nanoparticles can
heat thermal energy system, but also improve the natural convection improve the thermal energy storage efficiency. The length of fin has
state inside the device, and it can improve the thermal performance of inverse relationship with discharging rate and the angle of fin has pos
heat storage device effectively. itive correlation with that. Based on the constructal theory, Joshi and
Riahi et al. [98] designed a plate-fin phase change heat storage de Rathod [111] adjusted the structure, size and position of fins in LHTES.
vice and compared it with a tube-shell heat storage device, it is found The charging rate of adjusted LHTES was increased by 6.34%, the
that when sodium nitrate is used as phase change material, the plate-fin thermal storage capacity was increased by 4.38%, and the volume ratio
heat storage device arranged vertically has a higher heat transfer rate of the fin and PCMs was reduced by half. Seddegh et al. [112] found that
than the countercurrent shell-tube heat storage device, and the heat the charging rate of the upper part of the horizontal LHTES is faster than
transfer rate is more uniform during heat storage and release. Li et al. that of the lower part, while the thermal transfer efficiency of the LHTES
[99] and Rathod and Banerjee [100] found that the addition of fins is almost constant, which proves that the thermal transfer performance
could effectively enhance the melting and solidification time of the of the horizontal LHTES is better than that of the horizontal LHTES, and
PCMs. Khan and Khan [101] conducted an experimental study on a new there is no obvious difference in the thermal performance of the hori
type of heat exchanger, and the results showed that the longitudinal fins zontal and vertical system during the discharging process.
in the heat reservoir could effectively increase the heat transfer area and Furthermore, the shape of fins also determines the thermal transfer
thus improve the thermal conductivity of the device. Moreover, the performance of LHTES. A. Sciacovelli et al. [113] proposed tree-shaped
longitudinal fins would not limit the natural convection, so the device fins to improve the thermal performance of LHTES (Fig. 6) The results
7
Fig. 3. . Different types of shell-and-tube LHTES units.
Fig. 4. . Schematic of the shell-and-tube LHTES with different radii ratio of external and internal(Cas 1 re/ri = 1.5, Cas 2 re/ri = 2,Cas 3 re/ri = 4.375,Cas 4 re/ri
= 6).
show that the optimized system efficiency can be increase of 24%. The
type selection of fins is related to the operation time of the LHTES. The
Y-shaped fins with large angle is suitable for the system with short
operation time, and the Y-shaped fins with small angle is suitable for the
system with long operation time.Response Surface Method is used to
optimize the new fin based on the snowflake crystal structure by Shei
kholeslami et al. [114] and then, the effects of the structure which using
new fins and adding nano particles on the discharging process of PCMs
were compared. The results show that the discharging process by using
the snowflake shaped fins in LHTES completes nearly 8.3 and 2.0 times
faster than without fins and with simple longitudinal fins respectively.
Abdulateef et al. [115] research the thermal performance enhancement
effect of six arrangement modes of longitudinal fins and triangular fins
on a triplex tube heat exchanger. The marked enhancement was
improved using internal, internal-external, and external triangular fins
at 11%, 12%, and 15%, respectively, compared with longitudinal fins. r.
Maruoka et al. [116] have put forward a new LHTES (Fig. 7): A fixed
blade is installed inside the LHTES, and the HTF tube is rotatable. During
the discharging process, the fixed blade can scrape off the solid PCMs
attached to the surface of the rotating HTF tube, and then the dis
charging rate of the LHTES have significant improvement. The research
Fig. 5. . Schematic of fin installation angle. showed that the discharging rate during rotation accelerated by more
than 100 times compared with the rate without rotation.
8
Fig. 6. . Fin configurations(Case 1 single bifurcation, Case 2 double bifurcation).
has good thermal uniformity. Tiari et al. [120] proposed a heat pipe
network assisted LHTES. The embedded heat pipe network consists of a
primary heat pipe and four secondary heat pipes. The primary heat pipe
transfers heat from the heat source to the heat reservoir and the sec
ondary heat pipe transfers excess heat to the PCMs during charging
process or recovers heat from the PCMs during discharging process. Wu
et al. [121] designed a battery thermal management (BTM) system
based on heat pipe assisted PCMs, The research found that using PCM
and HP can effectively alleviate the temperature rise of the battery
during the discharge process, the use of PCM can improve the temper
ature uniformity of the battery module, and the addition of heat pipe to
PCM can extend the time for the battery to reach the predetermined
working temperature (50◦ C). Diao et al. [122] designed a new type of
LHTES of flat miniature heat pipe array (FMHPA) with lauric acid as its
PCM. The heat transfer performance of the LHTES was studied by ex
periments, the results suggests that the heat transfer performance of
LHTES can be significantly improved by using FMHPA.
Numerical simulation of heat pipe assisted latent heat transfer sys
Fig. 7. . Shell-and-tube LHTES with fixed blade.
tem is also an important research method. The heat storage character
istics of a cylindrical Encapsulated Phase Change Material (EPCM)
4.2. Optimization of HP
capsule with embedded heat pipe is investigated for latent heat by Yang
et al. [123]. The results show that embedding heat pipe can considerably
Heat pipe (HP) has strong thermal conductivity, including gravity
influence the locations of liquid/solid interface I and shortens the
heat pipe with core and sieve screen heat pipe without core. HP can
charging process by 11.26%. Tiari and Qiu [124] studied the effect of
reduce heat resistance on PCM side and enhance heat exchange between
heat pipe arrangement and number on the thermal performance of
heat transfer fluid and PCMs.
LHTES.It was found that increasing the quantity of heat pipes can reduce
Numerous experimental studies have been conducted for heat pipe
the thermal resistance between the heating surface and PCM and shorten
assisted phase change latent heat systems. Allen et al. [117] studied the
the melting time. In addition, the optimal arrangement of heat pipes in
solidification and melting processes of PCMs in a cylindrical heat
the system can also enhance the thermal performance of the heat storage
exchanger in different combinations of forms.Experimental results show
device. They [125] also studied the effects of natural convection, heat
that the process of solidification heat transfer is mainly composed of
pipe spacing, fin length and number of fins on the heat transfer perfor
heat conduction, so the effect of dip Angle on solidification rate of PCM
mance of the system were studied. It was found that reducing the heat
system is not obvious, but because of the effect of natural convection in
pipe spacing can accelerate the solidification of PCM and help to
the melting process, for horizontal HP - PCM and Rod - PCM heat
improve the wall temperature at the bottom of the container, making the
exchanger structure, compared with the condition of the vertically,
temperature distribution of PCM more uniform. Sharifi et al. [126]
liquid fraction can be increased by 0.09 and 0.20, respectively. For the
simulated the coupled heat transfer between PCM and heat pipe in three
HP - foil - PCM and HP - foam - PCM structure of heat exchanger, the
working conditions (heat storage only, heat release only and heat stor
liquid rate is slightly higher by 0.03 and 0.05 when placed horizontally.
age and release simultaneously) of PCM in a vertical cylinder vessel. It
Motahar and Khodabandeh [118] researched the influence of heat pipes
came out that the charging and discharging rates are controlled by the
on the solidification and melting process of n-octadecane. The experi
coupled heat transfer effect. For PCM of the same mass, a larger
mental results showed that the melting and solidification rate of PCM
length-width ratio in the container shell is conducive to melting more
could be significantly improved by using heat pipes. Liu et al. [119]
PCM in the process of charging storage and discharging. Mahdavi et al.
proposed a novel gravity-assisted heat-pipe thermal storage unit. The
[127] optimized the location and structure of the primary and secondary
research found that the temperature difference between the PCM at the
heat pipes in the heat pipe network auxiliary LHTES (Fig. 8). The results
top and the bottom of the device and between the PCM particles inside
show that the heat resistance of the main heat pipe is reduced by 14% by
the device and the surrounding steam is very small, and when the
using the conical inlet structure, and the temperature distribution of the
temperature of the whole system is more than 170 ◦ C, the system is
main condenser is more uniform if the secondary heat pipe is placed far
almost isothermal in both charging and discharging stages, so the system
away from the center line. Further multi-strengthening of heat pipe fins
9
Fig. 8. . Heat pipe assisted LHTES.
has also been carried out for heat pipe type heat storage device. Almsater optimization on the led and radiator fins, and the experiment proved
et al. [128] optimized the structure of the heat pipe LHTES and added that their heat dissipation performance was improved.
four axial fins on the surface of the heat pipe. The study showed that the In recent years, some scholars have applied topology optimization in
heat storage device with the addition of fins increased the heat storage heat storage system (TES), their research direction is mainly focused on
by 106% and the heat release by 79%. Lohrasbi et al. [129] optimized charging the fin structure of heat storage devices through topology
the structure of the LHTES by using response surface method. The results optimization to improve the thermal performance of TES. Chen et al.
suggest that adding a fin of suitable configuration to LHTES is more [134] optimized the heat transfer fins in the thermochemical heat
efficient than dispersing nanoparticles into the PCM. storage device using density-based topology optimization method. The
experimental results suggest that the chemical reaction time of the heat
reservoir with topologically optimized fins is 43% shorter than that with
4.3. Topology optimizations conventional longitudinal fins. Lundgaard et al. [135] proposed that
topological optimization could be used to change the distribution of two
Topology optimization is an efficient method for fin structure opti different thermal properties materials in two-dimensional space to
mization, initially, it was used in structural strength enhancement in the improve the performance of TES. It came out that the performance of the
field of mechanics, with the development of more than ten years, it is topology optimized structure is 46% higher than that of the base
gradually applied in the field of heat transfer. Topology optimization structure.
was used to produce many non-regular fins and biomimetic fins. Although more and more scholars began to use topology optimiza
Compared with traditional size optimization and shape optimization, tion to study heat transfer problems, topological optimization of latent
topology optimization has higher design freedom. Generally, it does not heat thermal energy is still relatively rare. Pizzolatto et al. [136]
need more constraints, and can be directly optimized as long as the improved the thermal performance of tube-and-shell TES system
design domain and loading boundary conditions are determined. Size through topological optimization which was used to design the fin
optimization and shape optimization are more dependent on empirical layout (Fig. 9), the structure reduced the melting time of more than 95%
data, and some specific variables are optimized when most of the PCM by 27%. After minor structural modification for the solidification
structure of the optimized object is known. While topology optimization process, the total heat release time of the device was reduced by 11%.
is optimized under the condition of only loading boundary and partial Compared with the heart storage device with longitudinal fins, the time
internal connection, and its optimization process is more like the free of the charging and discharging are shortened by 37% and 15%
growth of the structure. Although topology optimization shows high respectively. They [137] also optimized the layout of heat sinks to
research value and potential in heat transfer enhancement, most fins improve the stability of the PCM output power, increasing the heat
designed by topology optimization are irregular structure, which is release time of PCM by 40% and the stability by 44%. In addition, the
difficult to process and manufacture, and the process cost is high. At authors [138] also adopted topology optimization method to optimize
present, the research on topology optimization is still in the stage of
numerical simulation, and only a few optimized fins have been produced
by 3D metal printing technology for experimental verification, which
still needs some time from industrial production.
Zeng et al. [130] proposed the method of using topology optimiza
tion to design radiator fins. It came out that the optimized finned
structure can interrupt the development of boundary layer, and the
downstream local heat transfer coefficient of the topologically opti
mized radiator is higher than that of the traditional direct channel
radiator. Under the condition that radiator temperature is 44.5◦ C and
heating power is 40 W, the radiator with topology optimization finned
structure can save 54.9% of pump power. Alexandersen et al. [131]
introduced and verified the application of density-based topology opti
mization in the design of radiators and micropumps for natural con Fig. 9. . Topology optimized fins(Case 1 designs optimized for melting, Case 2
vection effects. And the author [132,133] also carried out topological designs optimized for solidification).
10
the finned structure of multi-tube LHTES under different PCMs, different release quantities of the cascaded system are higher than the
flow modes and design constraints, and this work demonstrates the non-cascaded LHTES by 39.51% and 35.74%, and the average charging
manufacturability of the topology optimized structure by using 3D and discharging powers are 38.4 and 27.02% higher than the
printing technology. For the charging/discharging process, Lin et al. non-cascaded LHTES under all working conditions studied. Xu and Zhao
[139] conducted a topology optimization study on a shell-and-tube [146] conducted theoretical research on cascaded LHTES with the
LHTES, and compared and analyzed the results of 7 different struc entransy theory. The analytical solutions for PCM and HTF are obtained,
tural geometric parameters. and the existence conditions and corresponding critical stage numbers of
two optimization schemes were proposed. This thermodynamic opti
5. System optimization mization and solutions can guide the selection of multiple PCMs. Teh
rani et al. [147] analyzed the two-tank storage system and its
5.1. Cascaded LHTES configuration alternatives of a 19.9 MW concentrating solar power plant (located in
Seville, Spain), and compared the thermal performance of single PCM,
Due to the requirement for abundant economic costs and the limi multiple PCMs and multilayered solid-PCM heat storage system. It was
tation of the degree of improvement, the influence of other physical found that only in a well-designed LHTES, the performances of charging
parameters of PCMS on heat transfer performance should be considered. and discharging processes can be balanced, and PCMs selection is more
Bie et al. [140] and Tao and Carey [141] analyzed the coupled effects of important than the number of stages or filler percentages of a cascaded
thermal conductivity and phase change temperature on the heat transfer system. Cheng and Zhai [148] proposed a cold thermal energy storage
characteristics of the charging and discharging processes through nu (CTES)device using multiple PCMs, and analyzed the heat transfer
merical simulations, and conducted experimental verification and dis characteristics during solidification processes. The results show that the
cussed the selection criteria for PCMs. It is examined that the suitable cascaded CTES is advantageous in reducing the charging time and
phase transition temperature can also be matched with the application increasing the average charging rate, the charging time of the 24-stages
temperature of the material to enhance the thermal performance of the CTES is 15.1% less than that of the single-stage CTES. In addition, the
system. Bjurström et al. [142] analyzed the selection criteria of PCM thermal performance of the evenly distributed 3–5 stages system is very
phase transition temperature from the perspective of exergy loss and the close to the 24-stages system, and a three-stage cascaded cold storage
principle of minimum thermal resistance. The cascaded LHTES plays an unit also be designed [149]. The study found that although the cold and
important role in matching the phase change temperature. exergy stored of the cascaded cold storage unit were 2–5% and 4–8%
In the practical application, the temperature of the heat transfer fluid lower than that of the single-stage one, and their cold charging rate and
will gradually decrease/increase when flowing in the heat exchange exergy efficiency increased by 11–35% and 2–4.8%, respectively. Wu
tube, and in the latter part of the heat exchange tube, the temperature et al. [150] researched the heat storage characteristics of three different
difference between the tube and the PCM will decrease, which might LHTES systems. The investigation found that the non-cascaded system
make the heat transfer non-uniform and increase the melting/solidifi has a lower charging rate due to the limitation of phase transition
cation time of the PCM. According to the melting temperature, a number temperature, and the cascaded system, especially the five-cascaded
of PCMs are filled in order to form cascaded LHTES. This structure can system has a higher charging and discharging rate. Solomon and Ozte
ensure the approximately constant temperature difference between the kin [151] conducted energy analysis and exergy analysis on the heat
heat exchange fluid and the PCMs during the melting/solidification storage system based on the second law of thermodynamics, and
process, and then can effectively improve the uniformity of the heat compared the thermal performance of six different heat storage systems.
transfer process, shown in Fig. 10. The research found that the LHTES can store more heat energy and
Narasimhan [143] evaluated the performance of the multiple PCMs exergy than the sensible heat storage system. Compared with the single
based thermal storage system by reviewing the existing literature, and PCM system, the multiple PCMs system has higher charging rate and
found that the use of multiple PCMs configuration instead of the single energy storage density, and the performance of the two-cascaded system
PCM configuration could make the LHTES has a higher charging / dis is the best. Li et al. [152] researched the thermal performance of the
charging rate and better energy/exergy efficiency. Peiro et al. [144] three-cascaded LHTES for solar thermal power generationIt is recom
compared the improvement of the thermal performance of the LHTES by mended that when the optimal inlet temperature of the air is about 1200
using multiple PCMs configuration and the single PCM on pilot plant K, the length ratio of three-multiple configuration PCMs pipe was L1: L2:
scale. The experiments suggest that the temperature difference between L3 = 5:8:11. Wang et al. [153] established a two-dimensional mathe
the inlet and outlet of the LHTES using multiple PCMs configuration matical model of the zigzag configuration cascaded phase change heat
introduces a higher uniformity and higher heat transfer rates in a short exchanger to simulate the charging process. The research showed that
time. Compared with the LHTES using the single PCM configuration, an the use of multiple PCMs configuration enhances the charging process of
average enhancement of 19.36% can also be obtained. Yuan et al. [145] the heat exchanger, and the greater the phase transition temperature
conducted a series of researches on the high-temperature cascaded difference of multiple PCMs, the more obvious the strengthening pro
LHTES with molten salt PCMs. Comparative experiments suggested that cess. Liu and Tao [154] conducted thermodynamic analysis and opti
the use of cascaded LHTES solved the problem of PCM incomplete mization of the multistage PCMs LHTES based on the entransy theory,
melting in non-cascaded LHTES, the overall heat storage and heat and derived the expressions of the multistage phase change temperature
at the inlet temperature of the unsteady heat exchange fluid. By studying
the influence of geometric parameters and unsteady HTF inlet temper
ature on the LHTES, it is found that increasing the number and length of
PCMs can greatly improve the thermal performance of the heat storage
unit, and the increase of stage number can expand the selection range of
PCMs. Increasing the stage length can obtain the approximately uniform
HTF outlet temperature. Ezra et al. [155] conducted the numerical
analysis of the cascaded LHTES. By studying the influence of different
parameters on the melting time of PCMs, an optimized solution for the
shortest melting time of multiple PCMs under given conditions was
determined and the overall theoretical limit for the improvement of
single PCM unit of the same type and size were determined. Xu and Zhao
Fig. 10. . Schematic of cascaded LHTES [37]. [156] conducted an exergy optimization analysis on the cascaded
11
LHTES. It suggested that for smaller stage number, increasing the 6. Conclusions and outlooks
number of PCMs can expand the temperature range of heat utilization,
provide multiple levels of heat energy and reduce the exergy of the This paper presents an extensive review of the heat transfer
export HTF. Therefore, the thermal performance of LHTES will be enhancement by materials, structure and system optimization. Some
improved significantly. conclusions and outlooks for improving the solar LHTES performance
are as follows.
5.2. Research gaps: system matching and comprehensive evaluation
(1) The most defect of LHTES heat storage is poor thermal conduc
It can be summarized that appropriate selections of PCMs can help tivity of PCMs. Enhancing the thermal conductivity has attracted
fully improve the thermal transfer efficiency of LHTES, while optimizing the main attention over the past few decades, and the main
the structures of LHTES will further improve its thermal transfer effi method is to add high thermal conductivity materials, such as
ciency. Fin structure optimization is the most common, which can porous medium with high thermal conductivity and nano mate
effectively improve the charging/discharging power of the LHTES. To rials. However, porous medium can improve the thermal con
pology optimization based on fin is an efficient structural optimization ductivity of PCMs while weakening the effect of natural
method, and its optimized shape has high degree of freedom, which has convection. The dispersion degree of nanomaterials in PCMs has
obvious advantages in optimization effectiveness and saving PCMs a great influence on the thermal conductivity of PCMs, and the
[157]. The results on the thermal transfer law of single charging/di interaction between nanomaterials, PCMs and surfactants is very
scharging is not systematic. Pizzolato et al. [136] found that the results complex. Therefore, for the interaction between porous medium
of structure optimization based on the melting process make the solid and PCMs, the interaction between nanomaterials, PCMs and
ification process slow down, so it is necessary to comprehensively surfactants needs to be further studied.
consider the heat transfer law of charging and discharging process. (2) LHTES structural optimization is mainly aimed at improving the
Palomba et al. [158] connected these two methods (materials optimi number, position and size of fins and heat exchange tubes. In
zation and structure optimization), and the method includes two step. order to facilitate manufacturing, almost all fins optimization is
Firstly, they selected two kinds of PCMs based on latent heat and ma only for the regular shape. Topology optimization results show
terial stability, and then optimized the structure of multi-tube with that irregular fins structure is more conducive to improving the
longitudinal fin based on the evaluation index of unit volume heat heat storage performance of LHTES, and with the development of
storage and maximum discharging power, and then formed the sys 3D printing technology, the difficulty of manufacturing irregular
tematic cases of LHTES optimization. The main thermal transfer mode in fins is gradually decreasing. Therefore, the fins optimization of
charging process are both heat conduction and natural convection while LHTES in the future needs to consider more irregular and asym
discharging process is dominated by heat conduction. Therefore, it is metrical structures.
difficult to achieve the collaborative optimization in the charging/di (3) The system optimization main focuses on the subsystems
scharging process if the system performance is evaluated with a single matching, system operation and control. The cascaded energy
thermodynamic criterion. It is necessary to further establish scientific storage and release as a potential direction, especially coordi
and reasonable evaluation criteria for structure optimization. nating with the solar heat source and actual heat use, could
The designed structure of the LHTES and the PCMs constitute the remarkably improve the energy and exergy utilization efficiency.
hardware foundation for the study of the charging/discharging heat In future work, the study of matching criteria for multiple PCMs is
characteristics of the LHTES, and the thermal boundary conditions is the of great significance for improving the thermal performance of
premise for thermal performance evaluation. In order to obtain more LHTES.
details of heat transfer in LHTES system, numerical simulation method is (4) At present, the improvement of the thermal performance of
generally used. Researchers [158,159] usually focused on the heat LHTES is mainly considered from the material or structure alone.
transfer enhancement by adjusting structure of heat storage tank, PCMs The composite enhanced heat transfer technology combining the
or flow state under the constant cold/heat source temperature. How improvement of the performance of PCMs with structural opti
ever, the boundary between constant temperature and constant heat flux mization can further improve the thermal performance of LHTES.
is really different from the actual heat source of solar collecting. The Therefore, the composite enhanced heat transfer technology is a
thermal boundary conditions need to be considered when the LHTES is field worthy of further exploration in the future research.
only one part of the solar thermal utilization system, and should be (5) At present, the enhanced heat transfer technology of LHTES is
coupling with the heat collection and heat using. For example, Nallu mostly analyzed from the macro perspective, the related internal
samya et al. [160] studied the different responses of the heat storage heat transfer mechanisms are expected to be further studied from
device combining sensible heat and latent heat under the constant and the micro perspective.
variable heat sources. Talmatsky and Kribus [161] analyzed the influ
ence of relevant parameters on the performances of the LHTES and CRediT authorship contribution statement
SHTES in solar hot water systems based on a specific weather (heat
source) and specific exothermic (cold source) conditions. Bie et al. [162] Weiyi Liu: Formal analysis, Writing – original draft. Yu Bie:
investigated the influence of solar collecting on LHTES performance, the Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Funding acquisition. Tao
results show that the heat transfer efficiency under the second type of Xu: Visualization, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. Andrzej
thermal boundary condition is higher than that under the first one which Cichon: Supervision, Data curation, Writing – review & editing. Grze
with the same total heat transfer power. At the initial stage of heat gorz Królczyk: Resources, Software, Writing – review & editing,
storage, the heat accumulation under the first type of thermal boundary Funding acquisition. Zhixiong Li: Resources, Supervision, Writing –
condition is obviously greater than that the second one. The actual heat review & editing, Funding acquisition.
boundary driven by solar heating is closer to the second type of thermal
boundary condition. Thus, exploring accurate dynamic thermal perfor
mance model for solar collecting could be a basic work for solar LHTES Declaration of Competing Interest
optimization.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
12
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Journal of Energy Storage 46 (2022) 103727

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Energy Storage

Heat transfer enhancement of latent heat thermal energy storage in solar

Nomenclature K total heat transfer coefficient

2. PCMs classification and performance evaluation in solar released thermal exergy.

According to the temperature range, solar thermal applications ∫

Lauric acid — 44 212 0.22 0.15 organic PCMs

Fig. 2. . Schematic of the LHTES with multiple-segment metal foam.

Fig. 3. . Different types of shell-and-tube LHTES units.

Fig. 6. . Fin configurations(Case 1 single bifurcation, Case 2 double bifurcation).

Fig. 8. . Heat pipe assisted LHTES.

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