Concept of wireless networking, Wireless standards, Common term used in wireless networking (WLAN,

Wireless, Wireless Access point, cellular, Attenuation, Antenna, Microwave, Jamming, SSID, Bluetooth,
Wi-Fi hotspots)

What is Wi-Fi, Wireless attacks(War Driving, War Walking: War Flying, War Chalking, Blue Jacking) , How
to secure wireless networks

A wireless network is a computer network that uses wireless data connections between network

nodes.[1]
Wireless networking is a method by which homes, telecommunications networks and business
installations avoid the costly process of introducing cables into a building, or as a connection
between various equipment locations.[2] Admin telecommunications networks are generally
implemented and administered using radio communication. This implementation takes place at the
physical level (layer) of the OSI model network structure.[3]
Examples of wireless networks include cell phone networks, wireless local area networks (WLANs),
wireless sensor networks, satellite communication networks, and terrestrial microwave networks

Computer networks that are not connected by cables are called wireless networks. They
generally use radio waves for communication between the network nodes. They allow
devices to be connected to the network while roaming around within the network
coverage.

Types of Wireless Networks

 ● Wireless LANs − Connects two or more network devices using wireless
distribution techniques.
● Wireless MANs − Connects two or more wireless LANs spreading over a
metropolitan area.
● Wireless WANs − Connects large areas comprising LANs, MANs and personal
networks.
Advantages of Wireless Networks
● It provides clutter-free desks due to the absence of wires and cables.
● It increases the mobility of network devices connected to the system since the
devices need not be connected to each other.
● Accessing network devices from any location within the network coverage or
Wi-Fi hotspot becomes convenient since laying out cables is not needed.
● Installation and setup of wireless networks are easier.
● New devices can be easily connected to the existing setup since they needn’t be
wired to the present equipment. Also, the number of equipment that can be
added or removed to the system can vary considerably since they are not limited
by the cable capacity. This makes wireless networks very scalable.
● Wireless networks require very limited or no wires. Thus, it reduces the
equipment and setup costs.
Examples of wireless networks
● Mobile phone networks
● Wireless sensor networks
● Satellite communication networks
● Terrestrial microwave networks

Wireless standards

Type Coverage Performance Standards Applications

Wireless Within reach of a person Moderate Wireless PAN Within reach of a Cable
PAN person Moderate Bluetooth, IEEE replacement
802.15, and IrDa Cable replacement peripherals
for peripherals
Wireless Within a building or campus High IEEE 802.11, Wi-Fi, and HiperLAN Mobile extens
LAN of wi
networks
Wireless Within a city High Proprietary, IEEE 802.16, and WIMAX Fixed wire
MAN between hom
Type Coverage Performance Standards Applications
and busines
and the Intern
Wireless Worldwide Low CDPD and Cellular 2G, 2.5G, and 3G Mobile access
WAN the Internet fr
4G 5G outdoor areas

Wireless LANs refer to LANs (Local Area Networks) that use high frequency radio
waves instead of cables for connecting the devices. It can be conceived as a set of
laptops and other wireless devices communicating by radio signals. Users connected by
WLANs can move around within the area of network coverage. Most WLANs are based
upon the standard IEEE 802.11 or WiFi.

Types of WLAN Protocols

IEEE 802.11 or WiFi has a number of variations, the main among which are −
● 802.11a Protocol− This protocol supports very high transmission speeds of
54Mbps. It has a high frequency of 5GHz range, due to which signals have
difficulty in penetrating walls and other obstructions. It employs Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM).
● 802.11b Protocol − This protocol operates within the frequency range of 2.4GHz
and supports 11Mbps speed. It facilitates path sharing and is less vulnerable to
obstructions. It uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA) with Ethernet protocol.
● 802.11g Protocol − This protocol combines the features of 802.11a and 802.11b
protocols. It supports both the frequency ranges 5GHz (as in 802.11a standard)
and 2.4GHz (as in 802.11b standard). Owing to its dual features, 802.11g is
backward compatible with 802.11b devices. 802.11g provides high speeds,
varying signal range, and resilience to obstruction. However, it is more expensive
for implementation.
● 802.11n Protocol − Popularly known as Wireless N, this is an upgraded version
of 802.11g. It provides very high bandwidth up to 600Mbps and provides signal
coverage. It uses Multiple Input/Multiple Output (MIMO), having multiple
antennas at both the transmitter end and receiver ends. In case of signal
obstructions, alternative routes are used. However, the implementation is highly
expensive.

Common term used in wireless networking

WLAN:

Wireless LANs (WLANs) are wireless computer networks that use high-frequency radio
waves instead of cables for connecting the devices within a limited area forming LAN
(Local Area Network). Users connected by wireless LANs can move around within this
limited area such as home, school, campus, office building, railway platform, etc.
Most WLANs are based upon the standard IEEE 802.11 standard or WiFi.

Components of WLANs
The components of WLAN architecture as laid down in IEEE 802.11 are −
● Stations (STA) − Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that are
connected to the wireless LAN. Each station has a wireless network interface
controller. A station can be of two types −
o Wireless Access Point (WAP or AP)
o Client
● Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations
communicating at the physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories −
o Infrastructure BSS
o Independent BSS
● Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
● Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

Types of WLANS
WLANs, as standardized by IEEE 802.11, operates in two basic modes, infrastructure,
and ad hoc mode.
 ● Infrastructure Mode − Mobile devices or clients connect to an access point (AP)
that in turn connects via a bridge to the LAN or Internet. The client transmits
frames to other clients via the AP.
● Ad Hoc Mode − Clients transmit frames directly to each other in a peer-to-peer
fashion.

Advantages of WLANs
● They provide clutter-free homes, offices and other networked places.
● The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from the
network at greater ease than wired LANs.
● The system is portable within the network coverage. Access to the network is not
bounded by the length of the cables.
● Installation and setup are much easier than wired counterparts.
● The equipment and setup costs are reduced.

Disadvantages of WLANs
● Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with
more interference from nearby systems.
● Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are more prone to
errors. So, they require greater bandwidth than the wired LANs.
● WLANs are slower than wired LANs.

Wireless :
Wireless communication (or just wireless, when the context allows) is the electromagnetic transfer
of information between two or more points that are not connected by an electrical conductor. The
most common wireless technologies use radio waves. With radio waves, intended distances can be
short, such as a few meters for Bluetooth or as far as millions of kilometers for deep-space radio
communications. It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable applications,
including two-way radios, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless
networking. Other examples of applications of radio wireless technology include GPS units, garage
door openers, wireless computer mouse, keyboards and headsets, headphones, radio
receivers, satellite television, broadcast television and cordless telephones. Somewhat less common
methods of achieving wireless communications include the use of other electromagnetic wireless
technologies, such as light, magnetic, or electric fields or the use of sound.

Wireless Access point :

In computer networking, a wireless access point (WAP), or more generally just access point (AP),
is a networking hardware device that allows other Wi-Fi devices to connect to a wired network. The
AP usually connects to a router (via a wired network) as a standalone device, but it can also be an
integral component of the router itself. An AP is differentiated from a hotspot which is a physical
location where Wi-Fi access is available.

Cellular:
A cellular network or mobile network is a communication network where the last link is wireless.
The network is distributed over land areas called "cells", each served by at least one
fixed-location transceiver, but more normally, three cell sites or base transceiver stations. These
base stations provide the cell with the network coverage which can be used for transmission of
voice, data, and other types of content. A cell typically uses a different set of frequencies from
neighbouring cells, to avoid interference and provide guaranteed service quality within each cell.[citation
needed][1]

When joined together, these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This enables
numerous portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, tablets and laptops equipped with mobile
broadband modems, pagers, etc.) to communicate with each other and with fixed transceivers and
telephones anywhere in the network, via base stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving
through more than one cell during transmission.

Attenuation :

Attenuation is the loss of signal strength in networking cables or connections. This typically is
measured in decibels (dB) or voltage and can occur due to a variety of factors. It may cause
signals to become distorted or indiscernible. An example of this is Wi-Fi signal and strength
getting noticeably weaker the further that your device is from the router. 

When measuring attenuation in a wired network, the greater the signal strength over a long
distance, the more effective the cable is. Less efficient cables will struggle with signal
attenuation, and networking administrators may need to adjust the cable or insert amplifiers or
repeaters in order to boost the signal strength. However, the more signal amplifiers applied, the
slower the signal speed will become between endpoints, due to the extra components that
have been added. 

Attenuation can happen with any type of cable or wireless connection, including the following: 

● Copper cables
● Fiber cables
● Satellite
● Radio signals
● Wireless networks

Antenna :
An Antenna is a transducer, which converts electrical power into electromagnetic
waves and vice versa.
An Antenna can be used either as a transmitting antenna or a receiving antenna.
● A transmitting antenna is one, which converts electrical signals into
electromagnetic waves and radiates them.
● A receiving antenna is one, which converts electromagnetic waves from the
received beam into electrical signals.
● In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for both
transmission and reception.
Antenna can also be termed as an Aerial. Plural of it is, antennae or antennas.
Now-adays, antennas have undergone many changes, in accordance with their size
and shape. There are many types of antennas depending upon their wide variety of
applications.

Basic Types of Antennas

Antennas may be divided into various types depending upon −
● The physical structure of the antenna.
● The frequency ranges of operation.
● The mode of applications etc.
Physical structure
Following are the types of antennas according to the physical structure. Wire antennas

● Aperture antennas
● Reflector antennas
● Lens antennas
● Micro strip antennas
● Array antennas
Frequency of operation
Following are the types of antennas according to the frequency of operation.

● Very Low Frequency (VLF)

● Low Frequency (LF)
● Medium Frequency (MF)
● High Frequency (HF)
● Very High Frequency (VHF)
● Ultra High Frequency (UHF)
● Super High Frequency (SHF)
● Micro wave
 ● Radio wave
Mode of Applications
Following are the types of antennas according to the modes of applications −

● Point-to-point communications
● Broadcasting applications
● Radar communications Radio angle detection and ranging
● Satellite communications

Microwave : (1 ghz to 1000 ghz)

The term microwave refers to electromagnetic energy having

a frequency higher than 1 gigahertz (billions of cycles per second),
corresponding to wavelength shorter than 30 centimeters.

Microwave signals propagate in straight lines and are affected very little by the
troposphere. They are not refracted or reflected by ionized regions in the
upper atmosphere. Microwave beams do not readily diffract around barriers
such as hills, mountains, and large human-made structures.
Some attenuation occurs when microwave energy passes through trees and
frame houses. Radio-frequency (RF) energy at longer wavelengths is affected
to a lesser degree by such obstacles.

The microwave band is well suited for wireless transmission of signals having

large bandwidth. This portion of the RF electromagnetic radiation
spectrum encompasses many thousands of megahertz. Compare this with the
so-called shortwave band that extends from 3 MHz to 30 MHz, and whose
total available bandwidth is only 27 MHz. In communications, a large
allowable bandwidth translates into high data speed. The short wavelengths
allow the use of dish antennas having manageable diameters. These
antennas produce high power gain in transmitting applications, and have
excellent sensitivity and directional characteristics for reception of signals.

Jamming :
Radio jamming is the deliberate jamming, blocking or interference with authorized wireless
communications.[1]
In some cases jammers work by the transmission of radio signals that disrupt communications by
decreasing the signal-to-noise ratio.[2]
The concept can be used in wireless data networks to disrupt information flow.[3] It is a common form
of censorship in totalitarian countries, in order to prevent foreign radio stations in border areas from
reaching the country.[2]
Jamming is usually distinguished from interference that can occur due to device malfunctions or
other accidental circumstances. Devices that simply cause interference are regulated differently.
Unintentional "jamming" occurs when an operator transmits on a busy frequency without first
checking whether it is in use, or without being able to hear stations using the frequency. Another
form of unintentional jamming occurs when equipment accidentally radiates a signal, such as a cable
television plant that accidentally emits on an aircraft emergency frequency.

SSID :

SSID stands for “Service Set Identifier”. Under the IEEE 802.11 wireless networking standard, a
“service set” refers to a a collection of wireless networking devices with the same parameters.
So, the SSID is the identifier (name) that tells you which service set (or network) to join.

SSIDs are designed to be a unique name to distinguish between multiple Wi-FI

networks in the area so you can connect to the correct one.

These are used by all types of Wi-Fi access points, including public Wi-Fi networks and
your home Wi-Fi network. Router manufacturers often provide a default SSID like
“Linksys” or “Netgear”, but you can change it to anything you like—if you control the
Wi-Fi network and have administrative access.

An SSID can be up to 32 characters in length. They’re case-sensitive, so

“NetworkName” is a different SSID from “networkname”. Some special characters like
spaces, the underscore, periods, and dashes are also allowed.

The wireless router or other Wi-Fi base station broadcasts its SSID, allowing nearby
devices to display a list of available networks with human-readable names.

If the network is an open network, anyone can connect with just the SSID. However, if
the network is secured with WPA2 or another type of encryption, people will need the
passphrase before they can connect.

Once you’ve connected to a Wi-Fi network with a certain SSID once, your device will
generally try connecting to SSIDs with that name in the future.
Things get more complicated if there are multiple Wi-Fi networks with the same SSID. If
they’re in the same area—for example, two networks named “Home”—some devices
will try to automatically connect to the network with the strongest signal, while some will
try to connect to the first network they see.

Of course, if the two Wi-Fi networks named “Home” have different passphrases, your
device will only be able to successfully connect to one of them. So, if you use the same
SSID as your neighbor, you’ll likely both run into some connection problems until one of
you changes it.

Bluetooth :
Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard used for exchanging data between fixed and mobile
devices over short distances using UHF radio waves in the industrial, scientific and medical radio
bands, from 2.402 GHz to 2.480 GHz, and building personal area networks (PANs). It was originally
conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables.
Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which has more than 35,000
member companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer
electronics. The IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1, but no longer maintains the
standard. The Bluetooth SIG oversees development of the specification, manages the qualification
program, and protects the trademarks.[3] A manufacturer must meet Bluetooth SIG standards to
market it as a Bluetooth device.[4] A network of patents apply to the technology, which are licensed to
individual qualifying devices. 

Wi-Fi

WiFi stands for Wireless Fidelity and is the same thing as saying WLAN which
stands for "Wireless Local Area Network."
WiFi works off of the same principal as other wireless devices - it uses radio
frequencies to send signals between devices.
For WiFi this frequency happens to be 2.4Ghz and 5Ghz. 
On the technical side, the IEEE 802.11 standard defines the protocols that
enable communications with current Wi-Fi-enabled wireless devices, including
wireless routers and wireless access points. 
Wifi Hotspots
A hotspot is a physical location where people may obtain Internet access, typically
using Wi-Fi technology, via a wireless local-area network (WLAN) using a router connected to
an Internet service provider.
Public hotspots may be created by a business for use by customers, such as coffee shops or hotels.
Public hotspots are typically created from wireless access points configured to provide Internet
access, controlled to some degree by the venue. In its simplest form, venues that have broadband
Internet access can create public wireless access by configuring an access point (AP), in
conjunction with a router to connect the AP to the Internet. A single wireless router combining these
functions may suffice.[1]
A private hotspot, often called tethering, may be configured on a smartphone or tablet that has
a network data plan, to allow Internet access to other devices via Bluetooth pairing, or through
the RNDIS protocol over USB, or even when both the hotspot device and the device[s] accessing it
are connected to the same Wi-Fi network but one which does not provide Internet access. Similarly,
a Bluetooth or USB OTG can be used by a mobile device to provide Internet access via Wi-Fi
instead of a mobile network, to a device that itself has neither Wi-Fi nor mobile network capability.