Unit – II Amplifiers and Oscillators

f. Obviously, a signal of only 0.1V applied to the base will give

an output voltage = 2 mA × 5 kΩ = 10V.
Single Stage Transistor Amplifier: g. Thus, the transistor has been able to raise the voltage level of
“When only one transistor with associated circuitry is used for the signal from 0.1V to 10V i.e. voltage amplification or stage
amplifying a weak signal, the circuit is known as single stage gain is 100.
transistor amplifier”.
1. A single stage transistor
amplifier has one transistor, Amplifier Equivalent Circuit:
bias circuit and other
An amplifier can be replaced by an equivalent circuit for the purpose
auxiliary components.
of analysis. Fig.(i) shows the amplifier circuit while Fig. ii) shows its
2. Although a practical
equivalent circuit.
amplifier consists of a
number of stages, yet such a V1 = input signal voltage to the amplifier
complex circuit can be I1 = input signal current
conveniently split up into
Rin = input resistance of the amplifier
separate single stages.
Working A0 = voltage gain of the amplifier when no load is connected
a. Fig. shows a single stage transistor amplifier. When a weak I2 = output current
a.c. signal is given to the base of transistor, a small base
current (which is a.c.) starts flowing. V2 = output voltage across load RL
b. Due to transistor action, larger amount of a.c. current flows Rout = output resistance of the amplifier
through the collector load RC.
RL = load resistance
c. As the value of RC is quite high (usually 4-10 kΩ), therefore, a
large voltage appears across RC. Av = voltage gain when load RL is connected
d. Thus, a weak signal applied in the base circuit appears in
amplified form in the collector circuit. In this way that a
transistor acts as an amplifier.
e. The action of transistor amplifier can be beautifully explained
by referring to Fig. Suppose a change of 0.1V in signal voltage
produces a change of 2 mA in the collector current.
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Equivalent Circuit with Signal Source: Transistor Audio Power Amplifier:
If the signal source of voltage ES and resistance RS is considered, the 1. A transistor amplifier which raises the power level of the
amplifier equivalent circuit will be as shown in Fig. signals that have audio frequency range is known as transistor
audio power amplifier.
2. A transistor that is suitable for power amplification is
generally called a power transistor.
3. It differs from other transistors mostly in size, it is
considerably larger to provide for handling the great amount
of power.
4. Audio power amplifiers are used to deliver a large amount of
𝐸𝑠 power to a low resistance load.
𝐼1 =
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑖𝑛 5. Typical load values range from 300Ω (for transmission
antennas) to8Ω (for loudspeakers).
𝐸𝑠 𝑅𝑖𝑛
𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 6. Although these load values do not cover every possibility,
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑖𝑛 they do illustrate the fact that audio power amplifiers usually
𝐴0 𝑉1 drive low-resistance loads.
𝐼2 = ------------ (1)
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 +𝑅𝐿 7. The typical power output rating of a power amplifier is 1W or
𝐴0 𝐼1 𝑅𝑖𝑛 more.
𝐼2 = --------------- (2)
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 +𝑅𝐿
Classification of Power Amplifiers:
𝐴0 𝑉1 𝑅𝐿
𝑉2 = 𝐼2 𝑅𝐿 = --------- (3) Transistor power amplifiers handle large signals. Many of them are
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 +𝑅𝐿
driven so hard by the input large signal that collector current is either
𝑉2 𝐴 0 𝑅𝐿
Voltage gain 𝐴𝜗 = = cut-off or is in the saturation region during a large portion of the input
𝑉1 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 +𝑅𝐿
cycle. Therefore, such amplifiers are generally classified according to
𝐼2 𝐴0 𝑅𝑖𝑛 their mode of operation i.e. the portion of the input cycle during
Current gain 𝐴𝑖 = =
𝐼1 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 +𝑅𝐿 which the collector current is expected to flow. On this basis, they are
𝐼2 2 𝑅𝐿 (𝐼2 𝑅𝐿 )𝐼2 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑉2 𝐼2 classified as:
Power gain 𝐴𝑝 = 2 = = = = 𝐴𝜗 𝐴𝑖
𝐼1 𝑅𝑖𝑛 (𝐼1 𝑅𝐿 )𝐼1 𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑉1 𝐼1 (i) class A power amplifier (ii) class B power amplifier
(iii) class C power amplifier
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(i) Class A power amplifier:
6. However, they have the disadvantage of low power output and
If the collector current flows at all times during the full cycle of the low collector efficiency (about 35%).
signal, the power amplifier is known as class A power amplifier.
(ii) Class B power amplifier:
If the collector current flows only during the positive half-cycle of the
input signal, it is called a class B power amplifier.
1. In class B operation, the transistor bias is so adjusted that zero
signal collector current is zero i.e. no biasing circuit is needed
at all.
2. During the positive half-cycle of the signal, the input circuit is
forward biased and hence collector current flows.
3. However, during the negative half-cycle of the signal, the
input circuit is reverse biased and no collector current flows.
4. Fig. shows the class B operation in terms of a.c. load line.
1. In this case, the power amplifier must be biased in such a way
Obviously, the operating point Q shall be located at collector
that no part of the signal is cut off.
cut off voltage.
2. Fig. (i) shows circuit of class A power amplifier. Note that
5. It is easy to see that output from a class B amplifier is
collector has a transformer as the load which is most common
amplified half-wave rectification.
for all classes of power amplifiers.
6. In a class B amplifier, the negative half-cycle of the signal is
3. The use of transformer permits impedance matching, resulting
cut off and hence a severe distortion occurs.
in the transference of maximum power to the load e.g.
7. However, class B amplifiers provide higher power output and
loudspeaker.
collector efficiency (50 − 60%). Such amplifiers are mostly
4. Fig. (ii) shows the class A operation in terms of a.c. load line.
used for power amplification in push-pull arrangement.
The operating point Q is so selected that collector current
8. In such an arrangement, 2 transistors are used in class B
flows at all times throughout the full cycle of the applied
operation. One transistor amplifies the positive half cycle of
signal.
the signal while the other amplifies the negative half-cycle.
5. As the output wave shape is exactly similar to the input wave
shape, therefore, such amplifiers have least distortion.

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 Expression for Collector Efficiency:
For comparing power amplifiers, collector efficiency is the main
criterion. The greater the collector efficiency, the better is the power
amplifier.
𝑎.𝑐.𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜
Now, Collector efficiency, 𝜂 = =
𝑑.𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑑𝑐

Where

where Vce is the r.m.s. value of signal output voltage and Ic is the
r.m.s. value of output signal current. In terms of peak-to-peak values
(iii) Class C power amplifier: (which are often convenient values in load-line work), the a.c. power
output can be expressed as :
If the collector current flows for less than half-cycle of the input
signal, it is called class C power amplifier.
In class C amplifier, the base is given some negative bias so that
collector current does not flow just when the positive half-cycle of the
signal starts. Such amplifiers are never used for power amplification.
However, they are used as tuned amplifiers i.e. to amplify a narrow
band of frequencies near the resonant frequency.

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Efficiency of Class A Amplifier:
Fig.(i) shows a class A amplifier. This circuit is seldom used for
power amplification due to its poor collector efficiency. Nevertheless,
it will help the reader to understand the class A operation.

Maximum Efficiency for Class B Power Amplifier:

For class B operation, the Q-point is located at cut-off on both d.c.
and a.c. load lines. For maximum signal operation, the two transistors
in class B amplifier are alternately driven from cut-off to saturation.
This is shown in Fig. (i).

The d.c. load line of the circuit is shown in Fig. (ii). When an ac
signal is applied to the amplifier, the output current and voltage will
vary about the operating point Q.
In order to achieve the maximum symmetrical swing of current and
voltage (to achieve maximum output power),the Q point should be
located at the centre of the dc load line. In that case, operating point is
IC =VCC/2RC and VCE = VCC/2

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 𝑃𝑜(max ) 0.25 VCC IC(sat )
𝜂= = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐶(𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) 𝑋 100 = 0.25 𝜋 𝑋100 = 78.5%
It is clear that a.c. output voltage has a peak value of VCE and a.c. 𝑃𝑑𝑐
𝜋
output current has a peak value of IC (sat). The same information is
Feedback:
also conveyed through the a.c. load line for the circuit [See Fig. (ii)]
The process of injecting a fraction of output energy of some device
Peak a.c output voltage = VCE
back to the input is known as feedback.
𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑉
Peak a.c output current = 𝐼𝐶(𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) = = 2𝑅𝐶𝐶 Feedback is very useful in reducing noise in amplifiers and making
𝑅𝐿 𝐿
amplifier operation stable. Depending upon whether the feedback
Maximum average a.c. output power Po (max) is energy aids or opposes the input signal, there are two basic types of
Po(max) = Product of r.m.s. values of a.c. output voltage and feedback in amplifiers viz positive feedback and negative feedback.

a.c. output current. Positive feedback:

𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝐼𝐶(𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝐼𝐶(𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) 1. When the feedback energy (voltage or current) is in phase
= 𝑋 =
2 2 2 with the input signal and thus aids it, it is called positive
𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝐼𝐶(𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝐼𝐶(𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) feedback.
= 𝑋 =
2 2 4 2. This is illustrated in Fig. Both amplifier and feedback network
Po(max) = 0.25 VCC IC(sat) introduce a phase shift of 180°.
3. The result is a 360° phase shift around the loop, causing the
The input d.c. power from the supply VCC is
feedback voltage Vf to be in phase with the input signal Vin.
Pdc = VCCIdc 4. The positive feedback increases the gain of the amplifier.
Where Idc is the average current drawn from the supply VCC. Since the However, it has the disadvantages of increased distortion and
transistor is on for alternating half-cycles, it effectively acts as a half- instability.
wave rectifier.
𝐼𝐶(𝑠𝑎𝑡 )
𝐼𝑑𝑐 =
𝜋
𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐶(𝑠𝑎𝑡 )
𝑃𝑑𝑐 =
𝜋
Max collector efficiency

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 Principles of Negative Voltage Feedback in Amplifiers
Negative feedback:
1. A feedback amplifier has two parts viz an amplifier and a
1. When the feedback energy (voltage or current) is out of phase feedback circuit.
with the input signal and thus opposes it, it is called negative 2. The feedback circuit usually consists of resistors and returns a
feedback. fraction of output energy back to the input. Fig. shows the
2. This is illustrated in Fig. As you can see, the amplifier principles of negative voltage feedback in an amplifier.
introduces a phase shift of 180° into the circuit while the 3. The gain with feedback is sometimes called closed-loop gain
feedback network is so designed that it introduces no phase while the gain without feedback is called open-loop gain.
shift (i.e., 0° phase shift). 4. Typical values have been assumed to make the treatment more
3. The result is that the feedback voltage Vf is 180° out of phase illustrative. The output of the amplifier is 10 V.
with the input signal Vin. 5. The fraction mv of this output i.e. 100 mV is feedback to the
4. Negative feedback reduces the gain of the amplifier. However, input where it is applied in series with the input signal of 101
the advantages of negative feedback are: reduction in mV.
distortion, stability in gain, increased bandwidth and improved 6. As the feedback is negative, therefore, only 1 mV appears at
input and output impedances. the input terminals of the amplifier

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 Essentials of Transistor Oscillator:

(i) Tank circuit:

It consists of inductance coil (L) connected in parallel with capacitor
Oscillatory Circuit: (C). The frequency of oscillations in the circuit depends upon the
1. A circuit which produces electrical oscillations of any desired values of inductance of the coil and capacitance of the capacitor.
frequency is known as an oscillatory circuit or tank circuit.
(ii) Transistor amplifier:
2. A simple oscillatory circuit consists of a capacitor (C) and
The transistor amplifier receives d.c. power from the battery and
inductance coil (L) in parallel as shown in Fig.
changes it into a.c. power for supplying to the tank circuit. The
oscillations occurring in the tank circuit are applied to the input of the
transistor amplifier. Because of the amplifying properties of the
transistor, we get increased output of these oscillations.

(iii) Feedback circuit:

The feedback circuit supplies a part of collector energy to the tank
circuit in correct phase to aid the oscillations i.e. it provides positive
feedback.
Frequency of oscillations:
The frequency of oscillations in the tank circuit is determined by the Criterion for Oscillations:
constants of the circuit viz L and C. The actual frequency of
Barkhausen criterion is that in order to produce continuous undamped
oscillations is the resonant frequency (or natural frequency) of the
tank circuit given by oscillations at the output of an amplifier, the positive feedback should
𝟏 be such that: mv Av = 1
𝒇𝒓 = Once this condition is set in the positive feedback amplifier,
𝟐𝝅 𝑳𝑪 continuous un damped oscillations can be obtained at the output
immediately after connecting the necessary power supplies.

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Colpitt’s Oscillator:
Construction: Working:
1. Fig. shows a Colpitt's oscillator.
2. It uses two capacitors and placed across a common inductor L 1. When the circuit is turned on, the capacitors C1 and C2 are
3. The centre of the two capacitors is tapped. charged.
4. The tank circuit is made up of C1, C2 and L. The frequency of 2. The capacitors discharge through L, setting up oscillations of
oscillations is determined by the values of C1, C2 and L and is frequency determined by eqn. 1.
given by 3. The output voltage of the amplifier appears across C1 and
feedback voltage is developed across C2.
𝟏
𝒇𝒓 = ------------- (1) 4. The voltage across it is 180° out of phase with the voltage
𝟐𝝅 𝑳𝑪𝑻
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 developed across C1 (Vout) as shown in Fig.
𝑪𝑻 = 5. It is easy to see that voltage feedback (voltage across C2) to the
𝑪𝟏 +𝑪𝟐 transistor provides positive feedback.
6. A phase shift of 180° is produced by the transistor and a further
phase shift of 180° is produced by C1 − C2 voltage divider.
7. In this way, feedback is properly phased to produce continuous un
damped oscillation.

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Hartley Oscillator:
Construction: Working:
1. The Hartley oscillator is similar to Colpitt’s oscillator with
minor modifications. 1. When the circuit is turned on, the capacitor is charged.
2. Instead of using tapped capacitors, two inductors L1 and L2 2. When this capacitor is fully charged, it discharges through
are placed across a common capacitor C coils L1 and L2 setting up oscillations of frequency
3. The centre of the inductors is tapped as shown in Fig. determined by eqn.1
4. The tank circuit is made up of L1, L2 and C. 3. The output voltage of the amplifier appears across L1 and
5. The frequency of oscillations is determined by the values of feedback voltage across L2.
L1, L2 and C and is given by 4. The voltage across L2 is 180° out of phase with the voltage
developed across L1 (Vout) as shown in Fig.
𝟏
𝒇𝒓 = ------------- (1) 5. It is easy to see that voltage feedback (i.e., voltage across L2)
𝟐𝝅 𝑪𝑳𝑻
to the transistor provides positive feedback.
𝑳𝑻 = 𝑳𝟏 +𝑳𝟐 + 𝟐𝑴
6. A phase shift of 180° is produced by the transistor and a
further phase shift of 180° is produced by L1 − L2 voltage
Here M = mutual inductance between L1 and L2 divider.
Note that L1 − L2 − C is also the feedback network that produces a
7. In this way, feedback is properly phased to produce
phase shift of 180°.
continuous undamped oscillations.

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