TOPIC 13.

HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE

TEACHING: FROM THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHODS TO
PRESENT DAY APPROACHES.

0. OUTLINE:
1. INTRODUCTION
2. DIDACTIC FOREIGN LANGUAGE
EVOLUTION: FROM GRAMMAR
TRANSLATION METHODS TO PRESENT
DAY APPROACHES
2.1PRE-TWENTIETH CENTURY TRENDS.
2.2TWENTIETH CENTURY APPROACHES
TO FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING.
3. CONCLUSION
4. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 1. INTRODUCTION.
The increasing need to communicate in a FL within the last two centuries due to economic,
technical and social reasons, has brought about the development of diverse learning theories,
together with different language teaching methods underpinned by those theories. As we shall
see in this topic, these methods have gone through important shifts depending on different
factors like the learning theory they were based on or the social needs in each specific moment of
history; in fact, relevant changes regarding FLT took place during the first part of the 20 th
century (World War I and II).
Along this paper we shall analyse the most outstanding learning theories in the 20th
century, from behaviourism to more cognitive ones. Similarly, attention shall then be paid to the
different methods or approaches to language teaching along history, to end up with the diverse
views within the scope of Communicative Language Teaching. The relevance of this trend is
stressed at state level (RD 126/14), and in our Autonomous Community legislation Decree
198/14 establishing the curriculum for Primary Education, stating that the main objective of the
FL area is the use of the language to understand, speak, read and write; therefore, its use shall be
the starting point of the FL learning process.
However, let us start by analyzing some essential learning theories explaining how people
learn.

2. DIDACTIC FOREIGN LANGUAGE EVOLUTION: FROM GRAMMAR

TRANSLATION METHODS TO PRESENT DAY APPROACHES.

There are three major learning theories in the 20th century including different views about
the nature of learning (how learning occurs) and what knowledge is. Obviously, the answers
depend on the perspective of each researcher. These modern learning theories are:
Behaviourism, Cognitivism and Constructivism.

There is little doubt that foreign language teaching has constantly shifted along history,
giving rise to different approaches or methods. These two terms are normally used
indiscriminately; however, according to Richards and Rodgers (1986), approach refers to “the
theories about the nature of the language and language learning that serve as a source of practice
and principles in language teaching”, that is, how a language is used; whereas a method is the
practical realization of an approach.

3.1 PRE-TWENTIETH-CENTURY TRENDS.

According to Celce-Murcia (2001), before the 20th century, language teaching
methodology underwent between two types of approaches: getting learners to use the language
(i.e., speak and understand) versus getting learners to analyze a language (i.e., learning the
grammatical rules). In this sense, the classical Greek and Medieval Latin periods focused on
teaching how to use a language, since both languages were used as linguas francas in higher
learning in different fields such as philosophy, politics, religion and business. On the other hand,
the mass production of books that the printing press brought about in the Renaissance led to the
formal grammatical study of Greek and Latin, establishing then the differences between classical
grammar and the language used by common people in the case of Latin.

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 COMENIUS´ INDUCTIVE APPROACH.
Parallel to the increasing importance of the European vernaculars, there was a need to learn
the languages of other countries. In accordance, the focus switched from analyzing to using the
language. The Moravian educational reformer John Amos Comenius (1592-1670) is often
considered the father of modern pedagogy; and certainly, this Czech teacher is reputed to be the
most important educator of this period.
Comenius wrote in his Didactics his personal vision of an educational system based on
interactive learning and innovative textbooks containing games, daily life vocabulary and
illustrations. Some of the principles in his teaching techniques can be summarized as follows:
 Teaching a language requires imitation and getting the students to repeat rather than
learning the rules.
 Introduce new language through familiar objects and limited vocabulary initially.
 Students need to be helped to practise reading and speaking.
 Teaching a language through pictures contributes to make it meaningful.
 The acquisition of knowledge should be pleasant instead of a mere task.
The importance of Comenius´ works is to be seen in the explicit incorporation of an
inductive approach in the teaching of a foreign language, in which the main goal is the use of the
language instead of the analysis of the language taught.

THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

This inductive view of foreign language teaching held sway until the beginning of the 19 th
century, when the systematic study of classical Latin and by extension all modern languages,
gained momentum in the schools and universities in Europe. As modern languages entered in the
curriculum in the 18th century, textbooks started to include the basic procedures used for Latin,
such as abstract grammar rules and sentences for translation.
Some of the leading exponents of this method are Karl Plötz, H. S. Ollendorf and Johann
Meidinger, from the German school. Basically, this method was used with the purpose of
getting the students to appreciate foreign language literature and grow intellectually through the
mental exercise of analyzing the language. Similarly, it was thought that the study of the FL
grammar would lead to a better understanding of the native language, since the mother tongue
was the currently used language for instruction.
Thus, the Austrian School developed a view of FL teaching in which the use of specific
vocabulary, not necessarily meaningful and familiar to the students; and the translation to foster
the acquisition of concepts were the core principles. Richards and Rodgers (2001) summarize
the principal features of this method:
 The goal of the foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read its
literature and benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that
result from the language study. Grammar translation is a way of studying a language
that approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its grammar rules,
followed by application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts
into and out of the target language. Stern (1993) points out that the first language is
maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of the foreign language.
 Reading and writing are the major focus; and little or no systematic attention is paid to
speaking and listening.

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  Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading texts used, and words are taught
through bilingual word lists, dictionary study and memorization. In a typical
Grammar-Translation text, the grammar rules are presented and illustrated, a list of
vocabulary items is presented with their translation equivalents, and translation
exercises are prescribed.
 The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Much of the lesson is
devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language as a distinctive
feature.
 Accuracy is emphasized and students are expected to attain high standards in
translation.
 Grammar is taught deductively, that is, by presentation and study of grammar rules,
which are then practised through translation exercises. Thus, a syllabus was followed
for the sequencing of grammar points throughout a text, and there was an attempt to
teach grammar in an organized and systematic way.
 The student´s native language is the medium of instruction. It is used to explain new
items and to enable comparisons to be made between the FL and the student´s native
language.
Certainly, it can be said that the result of this method was the inability of the students to
use the FL to communicate; and of course the distaste of learners towards the tedious experience
of memorizing unusable grammar rules and vocabulary.

THE DIRECT METHOD (NATURAL METHOD).

As a reaction to the Grammar-Translation method and its failure to enable learners to
communicate in the FL, by the end of the 19 th century the trends switched to the ability to use
rather than analyzing the FL; and thus the Direct Method became popular. In the Direct Method
no translation is allowed. In fact, Dyller (1978) points out that this method receives its name
from the fact that meaning is to be conveyed directly in the target language through the use of
demonstrations and visual aids, with no recourses to the students’ native language.
Due to the naturalistic principles of this method, it is sometimes referred to as “natural”. In
the view of supporters of the natural method, the FL can be taught with no translation or use of
the L1, as long as the meaning is conveyed by demonstrating and acting. The German scholar F.
Franke (1884) provided a theoretical justification to the monolingual approach to FLT, stating
that a FL could be taught by using it actively in the classroom, rather than analyzing it and
focusing on grammar rules; and so, teachers should encourage the direct use of the FL in the
classroom for students to induce grammar rules.
The natural principles laid the foundations for the Direct Method, which became very
popular in France and Germany. In the USA it became known due to Sauveur and Maximilian
Berlitz language schools.
Richards and Rodgers (2001) resume the principles and procedures of the direct method
as follows:
 Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.
 Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.

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  Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized
around questions-and-answers exchanges between teachers and students in small,
intensive classes.
 Grammar was taught inductively.
 New teaching points were introduced orally.
 Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract
vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
 Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
 Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.
However, despite the success of the direct method in private language schools, it was
difficult to implement it in public schools since it required teachers who were native speakers or
native-like fluency speakers. Obviously, this dependency on the teacher´s proficiency in the FL
was a great difficulty for its application.

3.2 TWENTIETH-CENTURY APPROACHES TO FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING.

The 20th century witnessed the birth of a great deal of approaches. As a matter of fact, the
foundations for contemporary language teaching are developed in this period; and oftentimes, the
frequent changes and innovations took place as competing language teaching ideologies.
In this point we shall refer to the most outstanding approaches in this century, considering
the main features and the context in which they appear.
THE READING APPROACH.
As we have previously seen, implementing the Direct Approach required high proficiency
in the target language. In the USA, few teachers were fluent enough in the FL as to put the Direct
Approach into practice. In addition, since in the early 20 th century not so many people travelled
abroad, using the FL to communicate was not a need as it is nowadays. These two reasons made
reading the most suitable skill to master in the FL. In this sense, the students were expected to
develop an ability to read in the FL through relevant works of literature produced in that
language.
Celce-Murcia (2001) highlights the most important features of this approach:
 Only the grammar useful for reading comprehension is taught.
 Vocabulary is controlled at first (based on frequency and usefulness) and then
expanded.
 Translation is once more a respectable classroom procedure.
 Reading comprehension is the only language skill emphasized.
 The teacher does not need to have a good oral proficiency in the target language.
THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD.
The Reading Approach was dominant in the USA until the 1940s; but the entry of this
country into World War II had a remarkable impact on language teaching. Obviously, in this
situation the lack of emphasis on oral skills in the Reading Approach took universities to develop
new foreign language programs for military personnel, with the aim to produce fluent speakers in
German, Japanese, French and other languages. The methodology of this “army method” was
based on an intense contact with the target language in which systematic attention to
pronunciation and intensive oral drills focused on patterns implied much of the learners´ tasks.

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Through conditioning, helping learners to respond correctly to stimuli through reinforcement,
students were supposed to acquire sentence patterns in the target language.
The Audio-Lingual method is influenced by the Direct Approach, but also includes
features from the structural linguistics (the view of American linguists in the 1950s in which
language is understood as a system of structurally related elements) and behavioural psychology.
Regarding the learning principles of Audiolingualism, Richards and Rodgers (2001) point
out the following:
 Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation.
 Language skills are learned more effectively if the items are presented in spoken form
before they are seen in written form.
 Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis; therefore,
explanations of rules are not given until students have practiced a pattern.
 The meanings of words can only be learned in a linguistic and cultural context and not
in isolation.
Celce-Murcia (2001) refers to the following features of this approach:
 Lessons begin with dialogues.
 Mimicry and memorization are used, based on the assumption that language is habit
formation.
 Grammatical structures are sequenced and rules are taught inductively.
 Skills are sequenced: listening and speaking – reading and writing postponed.
 Pronunciation is stressed from the beginning.
 Vocabulary is severely limited in initial stages.
 A great effort is made to prevent learner error.
 The teacher must be proficient only in the structures and vocabulary being taught,
since learning activities and materials are carefully controlled.
In accordance with the behaviourist learning theory underlying this approach, the external
manifestations of learning rather than internal processes are observed. In this sense, the learners
play an active role by responding to stimuli provided by the teacher, who clearly plays a
dominant role.
THE ORAL-SITUATIONAL APPROACH.
The same historical reasons that originated the Audio-Lingual method in the USA were
involved in the development of the Situational Approach in Britain.
The linguistic premise of the approach is that language must be used within a context, not
in isolation; therefore, teachers must predict the situations in which learners will find themselves
and create similar conditions. In this sense, the Situational Approach organizes structures around
situations to provide the learner with plenty of opportunities to use the target language.
According to Celce-Murcia (2001), this approach, which became dominant from the
1940s to the 1960s in Britain, involves the following features:
 The spoken language is primary.
 All language material is practised orally before being presented in written form
(reading and writing are taught only after an oral base in lexical and grammatical
forms has been established).
 Only the target language should be used in the classroom.

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  Efforts are made to ensure that the most general and useful lexical items are
presented.
 Grammatical structures are graded from simple to complex.
 New items (lexical and grammatical) are introduced and practised situationally
(i.e. at the post office, at the bank, at the dinner table, etc).
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH.
The cognitive approach arose as a reaction to the behaviourist view in the audio-lingual
approach. The major claim in this approach is that language is a part of cognitive development;
therefore, before learning a word the learner must be able to understand the concept that the
word represents. In this same light, small children unable to understand abstract concepts will
not be able to learn and use abstract vocabulary. In other words, language is considered a mental
process in which rule acquisition rather than habit formation is the central principle.
As Celce-Murcia (2001) suggest, the main features of this approach can be summarized as
follows:
 Instruction is often individualized; learners are responsible for their learning.
 Grammar must be taught but it can be taught deductively (rules first, practice
later) and/or inductively (rules can either be stated after practice or left as implicit
information for the learners to process on their own).
 Pronunciation is de-emphasised; perfection is viewed as unrealistic.
 Reading and writing are once again as important as listening and speaking.
 Vocabulary instruction is important, especially at intermediate and advanced
levels.
 Errors are viewed as inevitable, something that should be used constructively in
the learning process.
 The teacher is expected to have good general proficiency in the target language as
well as an ability to analyse the target language.
THE AFFECTIVE-HUMANISTIC APPROACH.
In the last quarter of the 20th century, the affective-humanistic approach emerges as a
reaction to the lack of affective implications in both audio-lingual and cognitive approaches.
These affective considerations have a direct impact on the importance of the classroom
atmosphere, which becomes more important than the methods or materials implemented.
Celce-Murcia (2001) resumes the main characteristics of this approach as follows:
 Respect is emphasized for the individual and for his/her feelings.
 Communication that is meaningful for the learner is emphasized.
 Instruction involves much work in pairs and small groups.
 Peer support and interaction is needed for learning.
 Learning a FL is viewed as a self-realization experience.
 The teacher is viewed as a counsellor or facilitator.
 The teacher should be proficient in the target language and the student’s native
language since translation may be used heavily in the initial stages to help students
feel at ease; later it is gradually phased out.
THE COMPREHENSION-BASED APPROACH.
This approach refers to several methodologies of language learning that stress the
relevance of understanding a language before being able to speak in that language. In fact, the

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research in first language acquisition during the last quarter of the 20 th century brought about the
assumption that second language learning is similar to first language development. Thus,
listening comprehension is viewed as the basic skill that will lead to the rest of skills (speaking,
reading and writing), that will be developed spontaneously and given the adequate conditions.
However, it is assumed that all methods within this approach share some common
principles that Celce-Murcia (2001) resumes as follows:
 Listening comprehension is very important and is viewed as the basic skill that
will allow speaking, reading, and writing to develop spontaneously over time, given
the right conditions.
 Learners should begin by listening to meaningful speech and by responding
nonverbally in meaningful ways before they produce any language themselves.
 Learners should not speak until they feel ready to do so; this results in better
pronunciation than when the learner is forced to speak immediately.
 Learners progress by being exposed to meaningful input that is just one step
beyond their level of competence.
 Rule learning may help learners monitor (or become aware of) what they do, but it
will not aid their acquisition or spontaneous use of the target language.
 Error correction is seen as unnecessary and perhaps even counterproductive; the
important thing is that learners can understand and can make themselves understood.
 If the teacher is not a native speaker (or near-native), appropriate materials such
as audiotapes and videotapes must be available to provide the appropriate input for the
learners.
THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH.
As it is widely accepted, the central concept in communicative language teaching is
“communicative competence”. The concept of communicative competence was introduced by
Dell Hymes in the 70s to stress that the knowledge and mastery of grammar is not enough to
communicate efficiently; rather, this term refers to the ability to use the language in a social
context and to observe sociolinguistic norms of appropriateness. Thus, as we have already
pointed out in the introduction, providing students with certain degree of communicative
competence implies enabling them to communicate efficiently through oral and written means;
in other words: “What a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a
speech community”.
According to Hymes, two different competences must be distinguished: linguistic
competence that entails producing and understanding correct sentences from a grammatical
viewpoint, and communicative competence that deals with the appropriateness of those
sentences to a particular situation. Seen in this light, communicative competence can be defined
as “the knowledge of rules for understanding and producing both the referential and social
meaning of language”.
On the other hand, Widdowson (1978) understood language not only as the knowledge of
rules and grammar, but also as the ability to use the language to communicate. Thus, knowing a
language implies more than understanding, speaking, reading or writing sentences; a competent
speaker should master how those sentences are used to communicate.

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 The communicative approach is a broad concept embracing different methods, as we shall
see in the next point. Communicative Language Teaching aims to apply the theoretical
principles of the communicative approach:
 The main goal is to favour the individual´s development of communicative
competence, considering that this term makes reference to a complex framework in
which not only linguistic elements participate, as we have already seen.
 Regarding methodological assumptions, the learner must be given opportunities to
practise and internalise not only grammatical structures, but also discourse,
sociocultural or strategic factors. Accordingly, classroom interaction is at the heart of
the FL teaching process together with the need to motivate students through
communicative activities which respond to their needs and their interest and
preferences. However, the use of linguistic rules is also necessary and should be
integrated in contextualized activities. Similarly, variety in activities based on
information the gap principle arousing the students’ interest; role plays or drama to
foster classroom interaction; and activities related to technological advances (e-mail,
on line activities, video-chat, etc) are common techniques in CLT.
 In relation to the language, the learner is encouraged to prioritise meaning over
grammatical form and accuracy. Thus, we must create a “desire” to communicate,
both in oral and written form and in different real-like contexts.
Needless to say that CLT has dramatically changed the role of the teacher and
students, which many times are complementary. According to Breen and Candlin
(1980) the role of the teacher can be divided into three main categories: facilitator of
the communicative process, participant and observer. Regarding students, by
definition, CLT puts the focus on the learner. In this sense, taking into account the
students’ communicative needs and getting them to develop awareness of their own
learning are central in this process.
 Another common feature to different views of CLT is that error is seen as a natural
part of the FL learning process and as a proof of evolution towards certain degree of
communicative competence or interlanguage using Selinker (1992) words. This
implies that the teacher must be careful on what, when and how to correct. As a rule,
errors are treated when they interfere communication and cause breakdowns or if the
learner makes them regularly.
 Finally, the four macroskills must be covered through activities which provide
students with situations where social interaction (pair and group work) is presented.
Obviously, these situations must be close to their age and interest to engage them and
foster participation.
Celce-Murcia (2001) resumes the main principles of the communicative approach as
follows:
 It is assumed that the goal of language teaching is learner ability to communicate
in the target language.
 The content of a language course will include semantic notions and social
functions, not just linguistic structures.

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  Students regularly work in groups or pairs to transfer (and, if necessary,
negotiate) meaning in situations where one person has information that the other(s)
lack.
 Students often engage in role-play or dramatization to adjust their use of the
target language to different social contexts.
 Classroom materials and activities are often authentic to reflect real-life
situations and demands.
 Skills are integrated from the beginning; a given activity might involve reading,
speaking, listening, and perhaps also writing.
 The teacher’s role is primarily to facilitate communication and only secondary to
correct errors.
 The teacher should be able to use the target language fluently and appropriately.

There are several methods based on the communicative principles of foreign language
acquisition; thus focusing on allowing the student to use the FL to communicate. We shall now
refer to some of them.
THE SILENT WAY.
This method, devised by Caleb Categno, looks at language learning from the perspective
of the learner by analyzing the way babies and young children learn. Paradoxically as it may
seem from its name, this method does not consist of learners being silent whilst the teacher
provides oral input. Rather, it starts with the teacher eliciting verbal output from the learners.
Richards and Rodgers (2001) refer to three main principles underlying this method:
 Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and
repeats what is to be learned.
 Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects.
 Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned.
Similarly, it can be stated that the main goal of the Silent Way is to provide learners with
oral and aural facility in basic elements of the target language.
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE.
This method, developed by James Asher in the 70s, is built around the coordination of
speech and action; and attempts to teach the FL through motor activities.
Total Physical Response (TPR) is firstly implemented by getting the students to carry out
single actions following simple commands, to move on to more complex sequences of two or
three actions, sometimes involving imaginary contexts or games (i.e., “Simon Says…”; or “Do
what the puppet says…”). As it can be derived from this assertion, imperative drills to elicit
physical actions are the most common classroom activities; whilst dialogues and conversations
are postponed until basic instruction has been accomplished.
The central processes in this method can be summarized in three points:
 Children develop listening competence before they develop the ability to speak.
 Children´s ability in listening comprehension is acquired because they are required to
respond physically to spoken language in the form of parental commands.
 Once a foundation in listening comprehension has been established, speech evolves
naturally and effortlessly out of it.
THE NATURAL APPROACH.

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 One of the most recognized communicative approaches is the Natural Approach,
developed by Krashen and Terrel. This method attempted to devise a proposal incorporating
the naturalistic principles identified in second language acquisition. Despite the similarities with
the Natural Method from the early 20th century, there are significant differences between both of
them, since the Natural Approach focuses on teaching communicative abilities to communicate
meaning and messages.
The learning theory of this approach is grounded on Krashen´s perspective of language
acquisition which includes the following hypothesis:
The acquisition/learning hypothesis: Acquisition refers to the natural way the first
language is acquired; whilst learning refers to a conscious process which requires teaching and
correction of errors.
The monitor hypothesis: According to it, conscious learning functions as an editor that
corrects the output; so that the learner can call upon learned knowledge for self-correction when
communicating.
The natural order hypothesis: Learners acquire language best through the understanding of
input that is slightly beyond their current level of competence (I + 1). Moreover, the ability to
speak shall emerge once the acquirer has built up linguistic competence by understanding input.
As a consequence, learners need to be provided with sufficient comprehensible input presented
in a context.
The affective filter hypothesis: The learners´ emotional state can influence the necessary
input for the development of the FL. In this sense, Krashen identifies three different variables:
 Motivation. Learners with high motivation generally do better.
 Self-confidence. Learners with self-confidence and a good self-image tend to be more
successful.
 Anxiety. Low personal anxiety and low classroom anxiety are more conducive to
second language acquisition.
According to this hypothesis, learners with a low affective filter receive more input and
interact more confidently.
The methodological implications for the FL classroom stem directly from these
hypotheses:
 Comprehension precedes production; thus the starting point is to help learners
understand the language they receive. In this light, FL teachers must present as much
comprehensible input as possible.
 The FL teacher needs to take advantage of helping devices to facilitate understanding.
 The focus in the FL classroom is on listening and reading; afterwards, speaking and
writing will emerge.
 Lowering the affective filter is important. In this sense, meaningful communication
rather than form must be fostered; similarly, the input presented should be interesting
and attractive to contribute to a relaxed classroom atmosphere.

4. CONCLUSION
After having analyzed the most important learning theories and FL teaching approaches,
it seems reasonable to think that there is not one single approach capable of satisfying all FL

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teachers’ preferences. Similarly, teaching is not an exact science and therefore no approach can
entirely assure success for teachers and learners.
On the other hand, as we have seen along this topic, the trends regarding FLT have
constantly switched from one view to another; and what seems acceptable at one time may
seem counterproductive according to a different approach. In this sense, it is the FL teacher´s
task to take the best of each teaching approach and adapt techniques and strategies to the
particular reality and group of students in which the learning process takes place.
There is no doubt that an “open” and eclectic communicative approach is the dominant
trend nowadays, since FL teachers are aware of the importance of taking the best of each of the
previous methods and blend them to adapt to the specific characteristics of students and teaching
environment. Moreover, our current educational law (Organic Law 3/2020, December 29th) and
RD 126/14 stress that learning the different skills to enable the learner to communicate
effectively is the main goal of the FL area; and therefore, the use of the guidelines in a modern
communicative approach seem the right direction to be followed in order to produce competent
users of the FL.

5. BIBLIOGRAPHY
- BREEN, M. and CANDLIN, C. “The Essentials of a Communicative Curriculum in
Language Teaching”. Applied Linguistics. 1980.
- CELCE-MURCIA, M. “Language teaching approaches: An overview” in “Teaching
English as a second or foreign language” Third Edition. Ed. Heinle and Heinle. 2001.
- LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. “Techniques and principles in language teaching” Oxford
U.P. 2000.
- LITTLEWOOD, W. “Communicative Language Teaching. An Introduction” Cambridge
University Press. 1981.
- MERRILL, M. D. “constructivism and instructional design”. Educational Technology.
1991.
- NUNAN, D. “Designing tasks for the communicative classroom” Ed. Cambridge U.P.
1989.
- OXFORD, R. “Language learning strategies. What every teacher should know”
Newbury house. 1990.
- RICHARDS, J. and RODGERS, T. “Approaches and methods in language teaching”
Ed. Cambridge U.P. 2001.
- SAVIGNON, S. “Interpreting Communicative Language Teaching” Yale University
Press. 2002.
- WETSWOOD, P. “What teachers need to know about teaching methods”. ACER Press.
2008.

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