Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Alarcón Et Al2022
Alarcón Et Al2022
SUMMARY
The migration of millions of Venezuelans to South American countries in the last two or three decades is one of
the most significant social phenomena in the continent’s history. This article presents a brief historical account
of the process and describes a variety of dramatic aspects of the migrants’ experiences throughout the long road
towards Colombia, Ecuador, Perú and other countries. The main socio-demographic characteristics of the migrant
population (numbers, population types, geographic location in the host country, age, gender and civil status, work and
employment) in the above three countries, are described as a relevant basis of further inquiries on the repercussions
of migration on the mental health of its protagonists. The information covers important aspects of the journey and
the arrival as the initiation of a painful and uncertain process of acculturation and adaptation.
RESUMEN
La migración de millones de venezolanos a países sudamericanos en las últimas dos o tres décadas constituye uno
de los fenómenos sociales más significativos en la historia del continente. El presente artículo formula un breve
recuento histórico del proceso y describe odiseas de diversa naturaleza, experimentadas por los migrantes en el
extenso recorrido hacia Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y otros países. Como base relevante de futuras investigaciones
en torno a repercusiones de la migración en la salud mental de sus protagonistas, se examinan las principales
características socio-demográficas (cifras, tipos de población, ubicación geográfica en el país receptor, edad, género
y estado civil, trabajos y empleos) de los migrantes en Colombia, Ecuador y Perú. La información cubre aspectos
importantes de la travesía y el arribo que generan un doloroso e incierto proceso de aculturación y adaptación.
particularly in the second half of the past century, as one The first phase of this migratory process had the
of the planet’s richest owed to its abundant petroleum United States and Europe as its principal points of
resources) and the subsequent scarcity of jobs, massive destiny; the second, Colombia, Panamá. Dominican
poverty and collective malnutrition. The Venezuelan Republic and other Caribbean countries, whereas the
Migration (MV) was initially mainly oriented, as two most recent phases, named “the migrations of
expected, to the neighboring countries in the Northern desperation” went towards Colombia, Ecuador, Peru
part of the subcontinent (Colombia and Ecuador), and and Chile, in addition to those that attempted to reach
has continued down towards the central, Southern countries outside South America, mainly Central
and Eastern areas, reaching currently Perú, Chile, America and the Caribbean region (Trinidad Tobago,
Bolivia, Argentina and Brazil. This article is the first Aruba, and Curaçao) (20). The VM is, therefore, a
of a series of four that will include specific inquiries humanitarian crisis, a regional emergency that has
into the MV’s impact on mental health, effects of the generated numerous international pronouncements,
COVID-19 pandemic and migrant women’s response response and management actions of diverse order.
to the experience. Its main purpose is to examine the Eleven countries of the region have dictated more
history and the evolvement of the VM, fundamentally rigid measures to allow the admission of potential
in three of the host countries: Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuelan migrants (21) which has produced, as
Perú. From this perspective, it will incorporate as far expected, a significant increment of illegal migrants.
as possible, reliable figures, socio-demographic and
economic characteristics of both, migrant and host ODYSSEYS
populations.
Almost five of the almost seven million people that
A BRIEF HISTORY constituted the “fourth wave” (with an acme between
2017 and 2019), opted to seek residency in the three
A study, conducted in Colombia, identifies four Andean countries mentioned above: Colombia,
migratory waves coming from Venezuela in the last 20 Ecuador and Perú. The journey of the great majority of
years: the first three, slow and of small numbers and these migrants has been the nuclear factor of numerous
the latest, on the other hand, going beyond the most odysseys. It is not only the dramatic decision to
serious predictions (16, 17). In February 1999, Hugo abandon their native country, break social groups and
Chavez Frias was elected President of Venezuela, and family ties or face the unpredictable risks of cultural
gradually started a process of radical political changes uprooting, but also the frontal confrontation with an
that, in turn, generated significant economic variations uncertain fate as they were lacking in the most minimal
in all the population segments. Venezuela is, today, resources. The different migrant groups, small or big
one of the ten countries around the world with extreme and coming from different points, could coincide in
nutritional precariousness, scarcity of public services, purposes and even in designing the route to follow,
low general quality of life and very low levels of but as they did not previously know each other, could
health (18,19). also constitute potential sources of heterogeneity,
discrimination, tensions, conflicts and distress.
This process resulted in a sort of “selective
migration” with a first wave, between 1999 and 2005, In Latin America, the great majority of Venezuelan
mainly composed of members of high entrepreneurial migrants displaced themselves by foot throughout
sectors, leaders and militants of opposing political a good part of the route, carried their children and
parties; the second, between 2005 and 2009, by very few belongings and, many times, their only
entrepreneurs, professionals and midline employees of source of food and sustainability was the charity of
the petroleum industry as a result of the massive firing inhabitants of cities and towns along the way. Under
from the state enterprise; the third, between 2010 and these conditions, the nutritional level of the migrant
2014 (Chavez died in 2013 and was succeeded by population decreases significantly, their sleep pattern
Nicolas Maduro), constituted by professionals and is disarticulated, discouragement gets bigger, and the
students of different disciplines and more middle tensions are accentuated. At the climax, the physical
class people; and finally, the fourth wave, from and mental health of these migrants suffer enormous
2015 up to now, an authentic diaspora, made out, in consequences (22, 23).
its great majority by members of deprived and poor
communities, vulnerable people in desperate search of As an example, the route from Venezuela to Perú
surviving possibilities (17). covers about 4,500 kilometers. According to a study
from the Migration Policy Institute of the United States, implementation of rules that would allow a formal
the journey lasts between one and 22 months, with an access to the system (18).
average of 2 1/2 months (24). It is estimated that only
a 10% of those that cross the Rumichaca bridge, in the On its side, Ecuador shares with Venezuela a
province of Nariño at the Colombo-Ecuadorian border, series of historical and socio- cultural characteristics
remain in Ecuador; the remaining continue towards within the so-called “Bolivarian Spirit”. Except for
Tumbes in the Ecuador-Perú frontier before entering two diplomatic conflicts (in 1928 and 1955), the
the latter and, eventually, go on towards countries relationship between these two countries has been
in the Southern Cone of South America. Those who very cordial. Since 2010, the flux of migrants became
decide to go to Brazil cross Colombia in successive more pronounced and was even more intense at the
North- South and West-East segments passing forests beginning of the 2015-2016 biennium. In the first six
and rivers through the aggressive Amazonia (25). months of 2018, approximately 4,000 people were
daily entering the country, and the total number of
That is why several of the initial components of migrants was 954,217, 69% of whom entered Ecuador
the experience in the host country constitute intense with passport, and 30% with another personal identity
challenges including, for instance, procedures document. From the population in transit, the majority
of formal registration, personal documentation, between 18 and 35 years of age, 56% were men, 43%
place and condition (temporary or definitive) of women, and less than 1% LGBTQ people (30).
permanence, working possibilities, individual and
collective security, familiarization with public places, The economic situation of Ecuador, with the fall
socialization elements, linkage options, etc. (26, 27). of the petroleum price, adjustments and a 3% growth
In the following pages, the main socio-demographic of public expenditures have made it difficult an
characteristics of the VM process in Colombia, adequate response of acceptance and protection to the
Ecuador and Peru are examined on the basis of carefully Venezuelan migrants, thus aggravating their problems
obtained and systematically evaluated information of mobility and their fight against discrimination and
from scientific publications and documents of public xenophobia (31).
and private agencies and offices. These characteristics
shape up the socio-cultural and emotional impact of Occupying the second place after Colombia as
the process, which is the main objective of ongoing the final destiny chosen by the migrants, Perú has not
inquiries and future publications of our research team. been away from the type of social commotion that
the VM has produced in the continent. It is estimated
SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC ASPECTS in almost 2 million, 92.6% of whom declared at the
time of entry that they were planning to reside in the
General characteristics country, whereas 5.3% said that they would continue
their way down to Chile, 1.2% to Argentina, and 0.6%
In 2020, Colombia kept on being the host country to Bolivia. It is interesting that these figures, taken at
with the highest number of Venezuelan migrants and the time of entry through the border zone of Tumbes,
refugees, having accepted about 1,8 million, almost change when compared with the analyses from, for
one third of the total (28). The numbers may not example, the International Organization for Migrations
be exact due to the fact that not all the migrants are OIM, sigla in Spanish) which in 2018 reported a 23%
registered and many, in fact, enter illegally into the of migrants going through Peru in route to other
countries. In fact, it is estimated that in 2015 there were countries, particularly Chile (19%) and Argentina
approximately 200,000 Venezuelans in Colombia, but, (3%) (32). During 2019, an average of 1,235 migrants
towards the third trimester of 2019, shortly before were daily crossing the Ecuadorian- Peruvian border.
the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of In February 2020, 60% were traveling with members
migrants had reached almost two million (29). of their families and 35.6% did so, alone; 70.6% were
men and 29.4%, women, whereas 3.8% were part of
The Colombian government guarantees to the non-family groups composed by neighbors and/or
migrants, independently of their status, the same rights friends (33). On the other hand, the May 2021 report
of access to health services (mental health included) indicated that at the place of destiny, 83% of the
that applies to the country’s citizens. Currently, migrants were counting on family support, 15% had
however, only 10% of the migrants do have an active the support of friends, and 3% had a job offer (34).
health insurance in Colombia due to difficulties in the
After the establishment of the humanitarian visa in 17% of women travelling alone, 18% of lactation-
June 2019, the migratory flux descended considerably. providing women, 13% of families with children
In 2020, there were 1,043,000 Venezuelan migrants younger than 12, 5% of children separated from their
established in Peru, 500,000 of whom had requested parents, 4% of pregnant women, and 3% of physically
asylum. Although the displacements through regular disabled people (34).
ways went down, the irregular mobilizations increased
since March 15, 2020, with the border closing, Geographic location of Venezuelan migrants
mobility restrictions and the declaration of emergency
status due to the COVID-19 pandemic (28). The entry of Venezuelan migrants in Colombia takes
place in seven legally established points. According
Types of migrant populations to the World Bank, the migrants converge in border
zones (North of Santander, Araca and La Guajira)
The Venezuelan migrant population in Colombia (35). Later on, most migrants locate themselves in
is formed by those that remain in the country, those cities and urban zones, somehow similar to those
“in transit”, the “returned Colombians”, the children of their native country. A 65% of migrants reside in
of Venezuelan mothers born in Colombia and, last the 32 departmental capitals, and the remaining in
but not least, the so-called “pendular population” of different municipalities across the country. About
Venezuelans that have a special permit, getting in and 1/3 reside in the capital city of Bogotá, followed by
out on a daily basis by crossing points of the 2,219 Cúcuta, Barranquilla and Medellin (36). According to
kilometers long Colombo-Venezuelan frontier to buy, the 2018 census, Bogotá and 22 close municipalities
work or study and returning then to their housing harbor 425,120 Venezuelan migrants, a 4.8% of the
quarters in Venezuela. In 2019, it was estimated that near 9 million inhabitants of the capital.
the total number of this population was 4’880,529
persons. The Bogotá municipality and Migration Colombia
report that 79% of Venezuelans in the capital city live
The “returned Colombians” that had migrated to in low socio-economic areas (Levels 2 and 3, with 6
Venezuela during the period of violence in their country, as the highest), peripheric zones, “neighborhood of
coinciding with the petroleum-based prosperity of invasion” and temporary hosting places with scarce
the latter, had double nationality and summed about public services infrastructure. The dynamics is similar
500,000 between 2015 and 2020. In the first waves of to that of the internally displaced local population:
the VN, many returned quickly, constituting then up migrants can mobilize more or less constantly within
to 75% of the migrants, whereas in 2019 they were the city but also express a clear willingness and
only 10% (35). On their side, up to February 2020, the determination to stay (29, 36, 37).
number of Colombian-born children of Venezuelan
mothers was calculated in 43,540. According to a From an approximate total of 360,000 Venezuelan
study of the Banco de la República, these children migrants in Ecuador, approximately 120,000 do have
were given the Colombian nationality in order not to a regular residency. Quito, the capital city, Guayaquil,
be left out as stateless (“apátrida”) and to have due Manta and Cuenca are the main localities where they
access to health services (35). have chosen to reside, even though many of those who
have arrived recently look for smaller cities in search
Even though it was initially thought that the of labor and housing opportunities (31).
majority of migrants arriving in Ecuador would decide
to stay in the country, less than 25% have done so in the Lima, the capital of Perú, was chosen as place
last two years, and Ecuador has, then, been considered of permanent residency by 66% of the Venezuelan
more as a “passing by territory” towards Peru, Chile, migrants, according to a survey of 1,235 persons
Argentina and other countries. Three fourths of the in 2019. This is basically explained by a greater
migrants use the Colombo-Ecuadorian border point of availability of jobs, transportation and public
Rumichaca, and a close 72% the Huaquillas passing resources. It is understandable, on the other hand, that
towards Perú. more than 25% decided to stay in five departments
North from Lima and, therefore, closer to the border
The monitorization of the Venezuelan migrant flux with Ecuador: La Libertad, (9.2%), Lambayeque
towards Peru, through the city of Tumbes, conducted (4.6%), Tumbes (4.2%), Ancash. (4.2%) and Piura
by the OIM in May 2021, identified 38% of men and (4%.). Less than the remaining 5% went to three cities
in the South: Ica (2.3%), Arequipa. (1.3%) and Cusco followed by adults (30 to 44 years) that represent
(1% ) (32). According to data from the OIM, towards 29.8% of the total. Eight percent are full adults from
2020, an 80.6% of Venezuelan migrants were residing 45 to 59 years and 1.6%, elderly adults. Children and
in relatively deprived zones of several capital districts, adolescents represent 18.7%; from them, 7.9% belong
and a minority in similar areas of the neighboring port to the first infancy, 6.3% are between 6 and 11 years of
city of Callao (38). age, and 4.5% are adolescents from 12 to 17 years (40,
41). About gender, 55.2% are women and 44.8%, men
Age, gender and civil status (32). In turn, 51.8% are married or living together,
45.2% single, and 2.8%, widowed or divorced.
Distribution by age groups is similar in Colombia
and Venezuela. As it happens in many migratory Jobs and employment
processes, the Venezuelan migrant population is mostly
formed by healthy, strong, capable and determined In 2018, approximately 84.2% of Venezuelan
young people; it would also seem that in the face of migrants that arrived in Colombia during the preceding
risks and the uncertain fate awaiting for them, a good five years, were of working age; in 2019, 79.6% of
number of migrants are self-selected, so that those them were already laboring, even though the largest
with more possibilities of success are, almost always, part (53.5%) were doing it in the informal commercial
the first ones to leave their country. sector, restaurants, hotels and services; the remainder
were in the manufacturing industry, construction,
That is why the structure of the Venezuelan migrant agriculture, transportation, and real estate agencies.
population in Colombia was showing the following Their income levels were much lower than the
characteristics around 2019: minimum salary of Colombian workers, a reason for
which it was estimated that 90% of the migrants did
- Twenty-six per cent were young adults between 20 not qualify for healthcare coverage (35).
and 29 years of age, a proportion greater than in the
Colombian population that had only 16.7% Labor and employment offer in Ecuador were,
occupying this rank. in general, similar to those in Colombia. In spite of
- Children younger than 9 years of age constituted several measures dictated by Government offices, the
23.8% of the migrant population vs. 16.7% in migrants do not seem to be sufficiently informed about
Colombia; on the other hand, those older than 65 them or were not determined to take the necessary
were only 1.5% among the migrants vs. 8.9% steps.
among Colombians.
- The proportion of men compared with women was In Perú, during the year 2020, 76.5% of Venezuelan
major in the first migrant waves but, towards 2019, migrants (the majority, young people between 20 and
they were practically similar. 39 years of age) had a job, but almost 40% of them
were in precarious positions (38); they were not
Two years later, the Quality of Life and Integration adequately inserted in the work market due, in many
Survey of Venezuelan migrants in Colombia, cases, to irregularities in their entry process and/or
performed by the Migra Venezuela project and subsequent lack of formal work permits. Moreover,
published in March of 2021 (39), showed that these the fear of Peruvian workers to be substituted by the
tendencies remained. The percentage of elderly people migrants exposed the latter to being victims of eventual
is low and most of the migrants are active. About rejecting behaviors (33). This resulted in a high number
gender, however, the percentage of women became of migrants involved in modest and unstable street
slightly higher: 51 versus 48.4% of men. commercial activities (i.e., food selling) while hoping
to obtain a temporal permit of permanence (33,40).
In general terms, the distribution by age groups and Other lines of labor included transportation (i.e., truck
gender of the Venezuelan migrants in Ecuador does helpers), restaurant services, casinos, bakeries, fast
not significantly differ from that of their compatriots food chains, car washing, etc. (32, 41). Those making
in Colombia. a regular salary were receiving a monthly average
equivalent to U.S. $ 270 U.S.; professionals, $ 500;
In Perú, 42% of the residing Venezuelan migrants business, $150, and street vendors, approximately 8 to
are young adults between 18 and 29 years of age, 10 U.S. dollars daily.
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Recibido: 07/02/2022
140.
Aceptado: 25/04/2022