ARTÍCULO DE REVISIÓN / REVIEW ARTICLE

Rev Neuropsiquiatr. 2022; 85(2): 107-116

Esta obra está bajo
DOI: https://doi.org/10.20453/rnp.v85i2.4228 una Licencia Creative Commons
Atribución 4.0 Internacional.

Venezuelan Migration in Latin America: History

and sociodemographic aspects.
Migración Venezolana en América Latina: Historia y Aspectos Socio-Demográficos.

Renato D. Alarcón 1,2, a, Antonio Lozano-Vargas 1,3,b

, Elvia Velásquez , Silvia Gaviria
4,c 4,d
, José Ordoñez-
Mancheno 5,6,e , Miriam Lucio 5,f, Alina Uribe 7,8,g

SUMMARY

The migration of millions of Venezuelans to South American countries in the last two or three decades is one of
the most significant social phenomena in the continent’s history. This article presents a brief historical account
of the process and describes a variety of dramatic aspects of the migrants’ experiences throughout the long road
towards Colombia, Ecuador, Perú and other countries. The main socio-demographic characteristics of the migrant
population (numbers, population types, geographic location in the host country, age, gender and civil status, work and
employment) in the above three countries, are described as a relevant basis of further inquiries on the repercussions
of migration on the mental health of its protagonists. The information covers important aspects of the journey and
the arrival as the initiation of a painful and uncertain process of acculturation and adaptation.

KEYWORDS: Migration, demography, host societies, acculturation.

RESUMEN

La migración de millones de venezolanos a países sudamericanos en las últimas dos o tres décadas constituye uno
de los fenómenos sociales más significativos en la historia del continente. El presente artículo formula un breve
recuento histórico del proceso y describe odiseas de diversa naturaleza, experimentadas por los migrantes en el

¹ Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia. Lima, Perú,

² Mayo Clinic School of Medicine. Rochester, MN, USA,
³ Clínica Anglo Americana. Lima, Perú,
4
Universidad de Antioquia. Medellín, Colombia.
5
Universidad de Cuenca. Cuenca, Ecuador.
6
Latino Clínica. Cuenca, Ecuador.
7
Pontificia Universidad Javeriana. Bogotá, Colombia.
8
Clínica de la Mujer. Bogotá, Colombia.
a
Psychiatrist, Master in Public Health. ORCID ID: 0000-0002-7316-1185
b
Psychiatrist. ORCID ID: 0000-0002-5615-2076
c
Psychiatrist. ORCID ID: 0000-0003-1376-4782
d
Psychiatrist, Magister in Higher Education. ORCID ID: 0000-0002-0735-4894
e
Psychiatrist, Magister in Health Research. ORCID ID: 0000-0002-1718-8367
f
Psychologist, Magister in Health Research. ORCID ID: 0000-0002-6497-6518
g
Psychiatrist. ORCID ID: 0000-0002-6617-4121

Rev Neuropsiquiatr. 2022; 85(2): 107-116 107

 Alarcón R, et al.

extenso recorrido hacia Colombia, Ecuador, Perú y otros países. Como base relevante de futuras investigaciones
en torno a repercusiones de la migración en la salud mental de sus protagonistas, se examinan las principales
características socio-demográficas (cifras, tipos de población, ubicación geográfica en el país receptor, edad, género
y estado civil, trabajos y empleos) de los migrantes en Colombia, Ecuador y Perú. La información cubre aspectos
importantes de la travesía y el arribo que generan un doloroso e incierto proceso de aculturación y adaptación.

PALABRAS-CLAVE: Migración, demografía, sociedades anfitrionas, aculturación.

INTRODUCTION (LMICs) and the African continent do have the

highest proportions of refugees (86% of the total).
The 21st Century has undoubtedly accentuated the Furthermore, the persistent conflicts between countries
strength and the multiple impact of Globalization, a of the Middle and Far East generate equally high
process that, essentially, entails a pragmatic erasure figures of displaced and refugees (11).
(or substantial modification) of frontiers and the
opening of ambiguous routes toward concepts like MIGRATIONS IN LATIN AMERICA
“universal citizenship”, “diversity” or “identity” (1,2).
Technology and migrations are, in turn, prominent In Latin America, the migratory phenomenon
epistemological pillars of Globalization (3): the shares in several of the characteristics noticed in other
former, with primarily instrumental bases, supports continents. Throughout a long period, the migration
areas of communication, transportation, geographic from Central American countries and Mexico towards
exploration, and scientific development (4); the latter, the United States has been the most dramatic and
characterized by mobilization and interactions, either intense; currently, it experiences a critical phase of
voluntary or obligated but always massive and intense, overcrowding in both sides of the border, family
of human groups until then distant from each other, separations, abandonment of children, the elderly and
create new demographic, civic, political, economic women, with a background of interminable political
and socio-cultural realities (5). debates about its present and future management (12,
13).
Migrations have taken place from the beginning of
human history. The intense change of vital everyday During the first half of the 20th. century, other
scenarios for migrants provokes intrapersonal and important migratory flows were recorded in Latin
interpersonal disturbances, confrontation with America. Brazil received migrants from Japan and
conflictive realities, and not always favorable outcomes Peru from China, whereas a majority of Italian and
(6, 7). These experiences, lived for by migrants proper, Spanish migrants settled in Argentina. During the
internal and external displaced people and refugees, do 60s, the mutual migration between countries of the
have a critically relevant impact at individual, familial subcontinent did increase (14). As examples, a 12% of
and socio-political levels (3,4,5). Belize’s population comes from Central America and,
on the other hand, Chile provided residency visas to
It is estimated that a little more than 4% of the 275,000 Haitians in the last ten years (15), in addition
world population, approximately 280 million, is made to its continuous reception of immigrants from Peru,
out of migrants, with a marked increase in the last Ecuador and Colombia.
two decades (8). More than half of migrants are men,
almost 10% are refugees and, towards 2018, almost 50 THE VENEZUELAN MIGRATION
million people were exclusively counted as internally
displaced, while the total of those considered displaced From the beginning of this Century, another massive
(internal and external) reached a world level higher migratory wave has triggered in Latin America, with
than 80 million (9,10). Europe is the continent with unique characteristics and a variety of implications,
the highest number of migrants, followed by Asia both for the protagonists and for the inhabitants of
and North America; as far as countries is concerned, the host countries. Millions of Venezuelans have left
United States occupies the first place, followed by their country due to the socio- political uncertainties
Canada, Australia, Sweden, Norway, France, Spain generated by an authoritarian government, a notable
and England. The low and middle income countries economic debacle (in a country considered by decades,

108 Rev Neuropsiquiatr. 2022; 85(2): 107-116

 Venezuelan Migration in Latin America: History and sociodemographic aspects.

particularly in the second half of the past century, as one The first phase of this migratory process had the
of the planet’s richest owed to its abundant petroleum United States and Europe as its principal points of
resources) and the subsequent scarcity of jobs, massive destiny; the second, Colombia, Panamá. Dominican
poverty and collective malnutrition. The Venezuelan Republic and other Caribbean countries, whereas the
Migration (MV) was initially mainly oriented, as two most recent phases, named “the migrations of
expected, to the neighboring countries in the Northern desperation” went towards Colombia, Ecuador, Peru
part of the subcontinent (Colombia and Ecuador), and and Chile, in addition to those that attempted to reach
has continued down towards the central, Southern countries outside South America, mainly Central
and Eastern areas, reaching currently Perú, Chile, America and the Caribbean region (Trinidad Tobago,
Bolivia, Argentina and Brazil. This article is the first Aruba, and Curaçao) (20). The VM is, therefore, a
of a series of four that will include specific inquiries humanitarian crisis, a regional emergency that has
into the MV’s impact on mental health, effects of the generated numerous international pronouncements,
COVID-19 pandemic and migrant women’s response response and management actions of diverse order.
to the experience. Its main purpose is to examine the Eleven countries of the region have dictated more
history and the evolvement of the VM, fundamentally rigid measures to allow the admission of potential
in three of the host countries: Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuelan migrants (21) which has produced, as
Perú. From this perspective, it will incorporate as far expected, a significant increment of illegal migrants.
as possible, reliable figures, socio-demographic and
economic characteristics of both, migrant and host ODYSSEYS
populations.
Almost five of the almost seven million people that
A BRIEF HISTORY constituted the “fourth wave” (with an acme between
2017 and 2019), opted to seek residency in the three
A study, conducted in Colombia, identifies four Andean countries mentioned above: Colombia,
migratory waves coming from Venezuela in the last 20 Ecuador and Perú. The journey of the great majority of
years: the first three, slow and of small numbers and these migrants has been the nuclear factor of numerous
the latest, on the other hand, going beyond the most odysseys. It is not only the dramatic decision to
serious predictions (16, 17). In February 1999, Hugo abandon their native country, break social groups and
Chavez Frias was elected President of Venezuela, and family ties or face the unpredictable risks of cultural
gradually started a process of radical political changes uprooting, but also the frontal confrontation with an
that, in turn, generated significant economic variations uncertain fate as they were lacking in the most minimal
in all the population segments. Venezuela is, today, resources. The different migrant groups, small or big
one of the ten countries around the world with extreme and coming from different points, could coincide in
nutritional precariousness, scarcity of public services, purposes and even in designing the route to follow,
low general quality of life and very low levels of but as they did not previously know each other, could
health (18,19). also constitute potential sources of heterogeneity,
discrimination, tensions, conflicts and distress.
This process resulted in a sort of “selective
migration” with a first wave, between 1999 and 2005, In Latin America, the great majority of Venezuelan
mainly composed of members of high entrepreneurial migrants displaced themselves by foot throughout
sectors, leaders and militants of opposing political a good part of the route, carried their children and
parties; the second, between 2005 and 2009, by very few belongings and, many times, their only
entrepreneurs, professionals and midline employees of source of food and sustainability was the charity of
the petroleum industry as a result of the massive firing inhabitants of cities and towns along the way. Under
from the state enterprise; the third, between 2010 and these conditions, the nutritional level of the migrant
2014 (Chavez died in 2013 and was succeeded by population decreases significantly, their sleep pattern
Nicolas Maduro), constituted by professionals and is disarticulated, discouragement gets bigger, and the
students of different disciplines and more middle tensions are accentuated. At the climax, the physical
class people; and finally, the fourth wave, from and mental health of these migrants suffer enormous
2015 up to now, an authentic diaspora, made out, in consequences (22, 23).
its great majority by members of deprived and poor
communities, vulnerable people in desperate search of As an example, the route from Venezuela to Perú
surviving possibilities (17). covers about 4,500 kilometers. According to a study

Rev Neuropsiquiatr. 2022; 85(2): 107-116 109

 Alarcón R, et al.

from the Migration Policy Institute of the United States, implementation of rules that would allow a formal
the journey lasts between one and 22 months, with an access to the system (18).
average of 2 1/2 months (24). It is estimated that only
a 10% of those that cross the Rumichaca bridge, in the On its side, Ecuador shares with Venezuela a
province of Nariño at the Colombo-Ecuadorian border, series of historical and socio- cultural characteristics
remain in Ecuador; the remaining continue towards within the so-called “Bolivarian Spirit”. Except for
Tumbes in the Ecuador-Perú frontier before entering two diplomatic conflicts (in 1928 and 1955), the
the latter and, eventually, go on towards countries relationship between these two countries has been
in the Southern Cone of South America. Those who very cordial. Since 2010, the flux of migrants became
decide to go to Brazil cross Colombia in successive more pronounced and was even more intense at the
North- South and West-East segments passing forests beginning of the 2015-2016 biennium. In the first six
and rivers through the aggressive Amazonia (25). months of 2018, approximately 4,000 people were
daily entering the country, and the total number of
That is why several of the initial components of migrants was 954,217, 69% of whom entered Ecuador
the experience in the host country constitute intense with passport, and 30% with another personal identity
challenges including, for instance, procedures document. From the population in transit, the majority
of formal registration, personal documentation, between 18 and 35 years of age, 56% were men, 43%
place and condition (temporary or definitive) of women, and less than 1% LGBTQ people (30).
permanence, working possibilities, individual and
collective security, familiarization with public places, The economic situation of Ecuador, with the fall
socialization elements, linkage options, etc. (26, 27). of the petroleum price, adjustments and a 3% growth
In the following pages, the main socio-demographic of public expenditures have made it difficult an
characteristics of the VM process in Colombia, adequate response of acceptance and protection to the
Ecuador and Peru are examined on the basis of carefully Venezuelan migrants, thus aggravating their problems
obtained and systematically evaluated information of mobility and their fight against discrimination and
from scientific publications and documents of public xenophobia (31).
and private agencies and offices. These characteristics
shape up the socio-cultural and emotional impact of Occupying the second place after Colombia as
the process, which is the main objective of ongoing the final destiny chosen by the migrants, Perú has not
inquiries and future publications of our research team. been away from the type of social commotion that
the VM has produced in the continent. It is estimated
SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC ASPECTS in almost 2 million, 92.6% of whom declared at the
time of entry that they were planning to reside in the
General characteristics country, whereas 5.3% said that they would continue
their way down to Chile, 1.2% to Argentina, and 0.6%
In 2020, Colombia kept on being the host country to Bolivia. It is interesting that these figures, taken at
with the highest number of Venezuelan migrants and the time of entry through the border zone of Tumbes,
refugees, having accepted about 1,8 million, almost change when compared with the analyses from, for
one third of the total (28). The numbers may not example, the International Organization for Migrations
be exact due to the fact that not all the migrants are OIM, sigla in Spanish) which in 2018 reported a 23%
registered and many, in fact, enter illegally into the of migrants going through Peru in route to other
countries. In fact, it is estimated that in 2015 there were countries, particularly Chile (19%) and Argentina
approximately 200,000 Venezuelans in Colombia, but, (3%) (32). During 2019, an average of 1,235 migrants
towards the third trimester of 2019, shortly before were daily crossing the Ecuadorian- Peruvian border.
the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the number of In February 2020, 60% were traveling with members
migrants had reached almost two million (29). of their families and 35.6% did so, alone; 70.6% were
men and 29.4%, women, whereas 3.8% were part of
The Colombian government guarantees to the non-family groups composed by neighbors and/or
migrants, independently of their status, the same rights friends (33). On the other hand, the May 2021 report
of access to health services (mental health included) indicated that at the place of destiny, 83% of the
that applies to the country’s citizens. Currently, migrants were counting on family support, 15% had
however, only 10% of the migrants do have an active the support of friends, and 3% had a job offer (34).
health insurance in Colombia due to difficulties in the

110 Rev Neuropsiquiatr. 2022; 85(2): 107-116

 Venezuelan Migration in Latin America: History and sociodemographic aspects.

After the establishment of the humanitarian visa in 17% of women travelling alone, 18% of lactation-
June 2019, the migratory flux descended considerably. providing women, 13% of families with children
In 2020, there were 1,043,000 Venezuelan migrants younger than 12, 5% of children separated from their
established in Peru, 500,000 of whom had requested parents, 4% of pregnant women, and 3% of physically
asylum. Although the displacements through regular disabled people (34).
ways went down, the irregular mobilizations increased
since March 15, 2020, with the border closing, Geographic location of Venezuelan migrants
mobility restrictions and the declaration of emergency
status due to the COVID-19 pandemic (28). The entry of Venezuelan migrants in Colombia takes
place in seven legally established points. According
Types of migrant populations to the World Bank, the migrants converge in border
zones (North of Santander, Araca and La Guajira)
The Venezuelan migrant population in Colombia (35). Later on, most migrants locate themselves in
is formed by those that remain in the country, those cities and urban zones, somehow similar to those
“in transit”, the “returned Colombians”, the children of their native country. A 65% of migrants reside in
of Venezuelan mothers born in Colombia and, last the 32 departmental capitals, and the remaining in
but not least, the so-called “pendular population” of different municipalities across the country. About
Venezuelans that have a special permit, getting in and 1/3 reside in the capital city of Bogotá, followed by
out on a daily basis by crossing points of the 2,219 Cúcuta, Barranquilla and Medellin (36). According to
kilometers long Colombo-Venezuelan frontier to buy, the 2018 census, Bogotá and 22 close municipalities
work or study and returning then to their housing harbor 425,120 Venezuelan migrants, a 4.8% of the
quarters in Venezuela. In 2019, it was estimated that near 9 million inhabitants of the capital.
the total number of this population was 4’880,529
persons. The Bogotá municipality and Migration Colombia
report that 79% of Venezuelans in the capital city live
The “returned Colombians” that had migrated to in low socio-economic areas (Levels 2 and 3, with 6
Venezuela during the period of violence in their country, as the highest), peripheric zones, “neighborhood of
coinciding with the petroleum-based prosperity of invasion” and temporary hosting places with scarce
the latter, had double nationality and summed about public services infrastructure. The dynamics is similar
500,000 between 2015 and 2020. In the first waves of to that of the internally displaced local population:
the VN, many returned quickly, constituting then up migrants can mobilize more or less constantly within
to 75% of the migrants, whereas in 2019 they were the city but also express a clear willingness and
only 10% (35). On their side, up to February 2020, the determination to stay (29, 36, 37).
number of Colombian-born children of Venezuelan
mothers was calculated in 43,540. According to a From an approximate total of 360,000 Venezuelan
study of the Banco de la República, these children migrants in Ecuador, approximately 120,000 do have
were given the Colombian nationality in order not to a regular residency. Quito, the capital city, Guayaquil,
be left out as stateless (“apátrida”) and to have due Manta and Cuenca are the main localities where they
access to health services (35). have chosen to reside, even though many of those who
have arrived recently look for smaller cities in search
Even though it was initially thought that the of labor and housing opportunities (31).
majority of migrants arriving in Ecuador would decide
to stay in the country, less than 25% have done so in the Lima, the capital of Perú, was chosen as place
last two years, and Ecuador has, then, been considered of permanent residency by 66% of the Venezuelan
more as a “passing by territory” towards Peru, Chile, migrants, according to a survey of 1,235 persons
Argentina and other countries. Three fourths of the in 2019. This is basically explained by a greater
migrants use the Colombo-Ecuadorian border point of availability of jobs, transportation and public
Rumichaca, and a close 72% the Huaquillas passing resources. It is understandable, on the other hand, that
towards Perú. more than 25% decided to stay in five departments
North from Lima and, therefore, closer to the border
The monitorization of the Venezuelan migrant flux with Ecuador: La Libertad, (9.2%), Lambayeque
towards Peru, through the city of Tumbes, conducted (4.6%), Tumbes (4.2%), Ancash. (4.2%) and Piura
by the OIM in May 2021, identified 38% of men and (4%.). Less than the remaining 5% went to three cities

Rev Neuropsiquiatr. 2022; 85(2): 107-116 111

 Alarcón R, et al.

in the South: Ica (2.3%), Arequipa. (1.3%) and Cusco followed by adults (30 to 44 years) that represent
(1% ) (32). According to data from the OIM, towards 29.8% of the total. Eight percent are full adults from
2020, an 80.6% of Venezuelan migrants were residing 45 to 59 years and 1.6%, elderly adults. Children and
in relatively deprived zones of several capital districts, adolescents represent 18.7%; from them, 7.9% belong
and a minority in similar areas of the neighboring port to the first infancy, 6.3% are between 6 and 11 years of
city of Callao (38). age, and 4.5% are adolescents from 12 to 17 years (40,
41). About gender, 55.2% are women and 44.8%, men
Age, gender and civil status (32). In turn, 51.8% are married or living together,
45.2% single, and 2.8%, widowed or divorced.
Distribution by age groups is similar in Colombia
and Venezuela. As it happens in many migratory Jobs and employment
processes, the Venezuelan migrant population is mostly
formed by healthy, strong, capable and determined In 2018, approximately 84.2% of Venezuelan
young people; it would also seem that in the face of migrants that arrived in Colombia during the preceding
risks and the uncertain fate awaiting for them, a good five years, were of working age; in 2019, 79.6% of
number of migrants are self-selected, so that those them were already laboring, even though the largest
with more possibilities of success are, almost always, part (53.5%) were doing it in the informal commercial
the first ones to leave their country. sector, restaurants, hotels and services; the remainder
were in the manufacturing industry, construction,
That is why the structure of the Venezuelan migrant agriculture, transportation, and real estate agencies.
population in Colombia was showing the following Their income levels were much lower than the
characteristics around 2019: minimum salary of Colombian workers, a reason for
which it was estimated that 90% of the migrants did
- Twenty-six per cent were young adults between 20 not qualify for healthcare coverage (35).
and 29 years of age, a proportion greater than in the
Colombian population that had only 16.7% Labor and employment offer in Ecuador were,
occupying this rank. in general, similar to those in Colombia. In spite of
- Children younger than 9 years of age constituted several measures dictated by Government offices, the
23.8% of the migrant population vs. 16.7% in migrants do not seem to be sufficiently informed about
Colombia; on the other hand, those older than 65 them or were not determined to take the necessary
were only 1.5% among the migrants vs. 8.9% steps.
among Colombians.
- The proportion of men compared with women was In Perú, during the year 2020, 76.5% of Venezuelan
major in the first migrant waves but, towards 2019, migrants (the majority, young people between 20 and
they were practically similar. 39 years of age) had a job, but almost 40% of them
were in precarious positions (38); they were not
Two years later, the Quality of Life and Integration adequately inserted in the work market due, in many
Survey of Venezuelan migrants in Colombia, cases, to irregularities in their entry process and/or
performed by the Migra Venezuela project and subsequent lack of formal work permits. Moreover,
published in March of 2021 (39), showed that these the fear of Peruvian workers to be substituted by the
tendencies remained. The percentage of elderly people migrants exposed the latter to being victims of eventual
is low and most of the migrants are active. About rejecting behaviors (33). This resulted in a high number
gender, however, the percentage of women became of migrants involved in modest and unstable street
slightly higher: 51 versus 48.4% of men. commercial activities (i.e., food selling) while hoping
to obtain a temporal permit of permanence (33,40).
In general terms, the distribution by age groups and Other lines of labor included transportation (i.e., truck
gender of the Venezuelan migrants in Ecuador does helpers), restaurant services, casinos, bakeries, fast
not significantly differ from that of their compatriots food chains, car washing, etc. (32, 41). Those making
in Colombia. a regular salary were receiving a monthly average
equivalent to U.S. $ 270 U.S.; professionals, $ 500;
In Perú, 42% of the residing Venezuelan migrants business, $150, and street vendors, approximately 8 to
are young adults between 18 and 29 years of age, 10 U.S. dollars daily.

112 Rev Neuropsiquiatr. 2022; 85(2): 107-116

 Venezuelan Migration in Latin America: History and sociodemographic aspects.

DISCUSSION uncertain, when not conflictive or costly, in economic

and, essentially, in the human terms of the so-called
The massive, continuous and disorganized “social capital” (46, 47).
displacement of large groups of men, women, elderly
and children, and the changes of every type that such For a profound study of these themes and their
situation induces among the migrants themselves eventual impact on the individual and collective
and in the host communities, are of a considerable mental health, it is indispensable to examine in detail
magnitude. Intracontinental migrations such as the the process and the journey, as well as basic socio-
VM in Latin America, are even more disturbing, demographic, occupational and economic information.
because they shake the socio-cultural and politico- Every migration implies a series of processes that put
economic structure of the neighboring and, for the to a test the convictions, decision-making capabilities,
same reason, similar countries, making such negative temperamental traits, and moral principles of all
impact much more immediately direct and devastating participants. These perspectives will also focus on two
(2, 41, 42). The misfortunes of a Venezuelan migrant additional points to be matter if further publications by
in Perú affect Peruvians much more than those of a this group: the impact of COVID-19 on the Venezuelan
Somali migrant do to their occasional hosts in the migrants and the particular experience of women
United States. It can be said that the migration opens migrants having their strengths and vulnerabilities
up curtains of denial or ignorance on the side of the confronted by the displacement process.
receiving communities vis-a-vis themselves; it creates
a “new reality” that can be, however, as old as their CONCLUSIONS
own history; it generates changes and sequelae whose
evidence was only intuited before. The Venezuelan Migration to Latin American
countries is probably one of the social phenomena of
In the matter of Human Rights, the United Nations the greatest impact in the continent since, at least, the
Organization has adopted seven conventions that second half of the last century. The complex variety
include the elimination of every form of racial or of circumstances, amalgamated in a socio-political
gender discrimination, international agreements on and economic reality unsustainable for millions
civil, political, economic and socio-cultural rights, of Venezuelans, resulted in their decision and the
conventions against torture and other cruel, inhuman onset of a massive migration towards mainly three
or degrading practices, protection and rights for Andean countries (Colombia, Ecuador and Perú).
children, migrant workers and their families. These The impact of this process in the migrant population
declarations imply, first, a complete registry of reliable as well as in the host communities has been intense
socio- demographic information including data about and multiform. It has put to a test personal, family
life and work conditions, prevention of degrading and and group strategies of adaptation and resilience, as
inhuman management, freedom of thought, expression well as levels of tolerance, possibilities of empathy
and religious affiliation, maintenance of their own and acceptance, potential and/or declared forms of
cultural values, prevention of disproportionate rejection or discrimination, and national systems of
punishments, among them, expulsion, and facilities medical attention, physical and mental health, and
of access to education, health and social and financial social coexistence. A clear description of the socio-
services (43, 44). demographic characteristics of the migrant population
offers not only substantial basis for an analysis of
The history and evolvement of the VM in Latin this process and its impact on the mental health of
America have original traits even though they touch the affected communities, but also a constructive
on many of the above mentioned areas (45). The approach to the future, based on the reinforcement of
number of migrants is probably the highest in the the socio- cultural integration of the continent, and on
history of the subcontinent, and the political origin of cogent policies of reception, acceptance, solidarity
the process has been much more intense than the one and preservation of inalienable principles and rights.
of previous displacements. Likewise, the processes
of acculturation, educational and labor adaptation Correspondence:
and social integration have been more painful than Renato D. Alarcón.
those expected among populations, communities Av. Camino Real No. 961, Dpto. 2402, San Isidro,
or countries with a common historical origin; lastly, Lima 18, Perú.
their current status and their outcome are even more E-mail: [email protected]

Rev Neuropsiquiatr. 2022; 85(2): 107-116 113

 Alarcón R, et al.

Authors’ contributions: RDA and EV conceived 9. United Nations Department of Economic and Social
the original idea of the study and designed the plan Affairs, Population Division. International Migration
of systematic search of pertinent information. All Report 2017: Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/404. New
the authors participated in the search of articles and York, NY: United Nations; 2017.
documents carrying research data of their original 10. Popp K. Global refugee settlement: What do the
countries. RDA and AL wrote the preliminary statistics tell us. 2018. (Accessed: March 12th 2022).
manuscript version whose final text was revised and Available from: migrationdataportal.org
approved by all the authors. Likewise, all assume 11. United Nations Economic and Social Council. Trends
and drivers of international migration in Asia and the
responsibility for the article’s content.
Pacific. United Nations Economic and Social Council;
2017.
Financial sources: There have not been financial
12. Spencer D. Clandestine crossings: Migrants and
sources for the study. Coyotes on the Texas-Mexico border. New York, NY:
Cornell University Press; 2009.
Conflicts of interest: The authors declare not to 13. Martínez O, Ugaz SM, Washington J, Goldman F.
have conflicts of interest. The Beast: Riding the rails and dodging narcos on the
migrant trail. Turtleback; 2014.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 14. Rodríguez J, Busso G. Migración interna y desarrollo
en América Latina. Lima: CEPAL; 2009. (Accessed:
1. Rodrik D. The Globalization Paradox. Democracy March 12th 2022). Available from: https://core.ac.uk/
and the future of the World economy. New York, NY: download/pdf/38671586.pdf.
WWW Norton and Co.; 2011. 15. Alden E, Tippett A. Why are Haitian migrants
2. Gutiérrez J, Romero J, Arias S, Briones X. Migración gathering at the U.S. border? Council on Foreign
contexto, impacto y desafío. Una reflexión teórica. Relations, 100. The World this week; 2021.
Revista de Ciencias Sociales. 2020; 26 (2): 299-313. 16. Colombia sin fronteras. Las oleadas de la migración
(Accessed: March 12th 2022). Available from: https:// venezolana. Bogota: Colombia sin fronteras; 2020
dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=7500760. (Accessed: March 12th 2022). Available from: http://
3. Held D. Global Transformations: Politics, Economics colombiasinfronteras.com/las-oleadas-de-la-
and Culture. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press; migracion-venezolana/
1999. 17. Universidad del Rosario. Observatorio de Venezuela.
4. Naruja R. Globalization and Technology: Retos y Oportunidades. Migración venezolana.
Interdependence, innovation systems and industrial Fundacion Konrad Adenauer. Bogotá: Universidad del
policy. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press; 2003. Rosario; 2018. (Accessed: March 12th 2022).Available
5. McAuliff M, Bauloz C, Nguyen M and Quponer S. from: https://www.kas.de/documents/287914/2879
Capítulo 2 Migración y Migrantes. Panorama 63/Retos-y-oportunidades-de-la-movilidad-humana-
Mundial. En: OIM, Informe sobre las Migraciones en venezolana-en-la-construccion-de-una-politica-
el Mundo. Geneva, Switzerland: OIM; 2020. migratoria-colombiana.pdf/bcee4a33-9677-4405-
(Accessed: March 12th 2022). Available from: bc16-b10dc4565937.
https://publications.iom.int/books/informe-sobre-las- 18. Universidad Católica Andrés Bello. Venezuela:
migraciones-en-el-mundo-2020-capitulo-2. Encuesta Nacional de Condiciones de Vida, ENCOVI
6. Martin S.F. International migration: Unilateral 2019/20. Proyectoencovi.com.Cracas; Universidad
policies are bound to fail. Governance. 2016; 29 (1): Católica Andrés Bello; 2020. (Accessed: March 12th
5-7. 2022). Available from: https://www.proyectoencovi.
7. Organización Internacional para las Migraciones. com/informe-interactivo-2019.
Novedades en la gobernanza mundial de la migración. 19. Food Security Information Network. Global Report on
En: Informe sobre las Migraciones en el Mundo, Cap. Food Crisis. Food Security Information Network;
11. Geneva, Switzerland: Organización Internacional 2020. (Accessed: March 12th 2022). Available
para las Migraciones; 2020. (Accessed: March 12th from: https://www.fsinplatform.org/sites/default/files/
2022). Available from: https://publications.iom.int/ resources/files/GRFC_2020_ONLINE_200420.
system/files/pdf/wmr_2020.pdf. 20. World Bank. Venezuelan migration: The
8. Organización Internacional para las Migraciones 4,500-kilometer gap between desperation and
(OIM). Informe sobre las Migraciones en el Mundo. opportunity. Washington DC: World Bank; 2019.
Geneva, Switzerland: Organización Internacional Worldbank.org. (Accessed: March 12th 2022).
para las Migraciones; 2020. (Accessed: March 12th Available from: https://www.worldbank.org/en/
2022). Available from: https://publications.iom.int/ news/feature/2019/11/26/migracion-venezolana-
system/files/pdf/wmr_2020.pdf. 4500-kilometros-entre-el-abandono-y-la-

114 Rev Neuropsiquiatr. 2022; 85(2): 107-116

 Venezuelan Migration in Latin America: History and sociodemographic aspects.

oportunidad. co/index.php/estadisticas-por-tema/mercado-laboral/
21. Tres J, Rodríguez-Chatruc M. Migrantes y COVID-19: geih-modulo-de-migracion.
¿Qué están haciendo los países de América Latina con 30. Blouin C. Después de la llegada: realidades de la
más migrantes para apoyarlos durante la migración venezolana. Lima: Pontificia Universidad
pandemia?New York: Inter-American Development Católica del Perú, Instituto de Democracia y Derechos
Bank; 2021. (Accessed: March 12th 2022). Available Humanos (IDEHPUCP) THEMIS; 2019. (Accessed:
from: https://blogs.iadb.org/migracion/es/migrantes- March 12th 2022). Available from: http://repositorio.
y-covid-19-que-estan-haciendo-los-paises-de- pucp.edu.pe/index/handle/123456789/170254.
america-latina-con-mas-migrantes-para-apoyarlos- 31. Ripoll S, Navas-Alemán L. Xenofobia y
durante-la-pandemia. Discriminación Hacia Refugiados y Migrantes
22. Garcías MF, RestrepoJE. Aproximación al proceso Venezolanos en Ecuador y Lecciones Aprendidas
migratorio venezolano en el siglo XXI. Hallazgos. para la Promoción de la Inclusión Social. London:
2019;16(32): 63-82. doi: 10.15332/2422409X.5000 IDS and UNICEF; 2018. (Accessed: March 12th
23. Koechlin J, Eguren J. (Eds.) El éxodo venezolano: 2022). Available from: https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/
Entre el exilio y la emigración. Lima, Perú: opendocs/handle/20.500.12413/14130.
Universidad Antonio Ruiz de Montoya Instituto de 32. Organización Internacional para las Migraciones.
Ética y Desarrollo; 2018. (Accessed: March 12th Monitoreo de flujo de la población venezolana en el
2022). Available from: https://dialogopolitico. Perú. Matriz de seguimiento de desplazamiento -
o rg / w p - c o n t e n t / u p l o a d s / 2 0 1 8 / 11 / E g u r e n - y - DTM Reporte N° 7. Organización Internacional para
Koechlin.-Libro.-2018.-El-%C3%A9xodo- las Migraciones; 2020.
venezolano-entre-el-exilio-y-la-emigraci%C3%B3n. 33. Valdiglesias J. Efectos de corto plazo de la inmigración
pdf. venezolana en el Perú. Pensamiento Crítico. 2018;
24. Chaves-González D, Echeverría-Estrada C. Un perfil 23(2): 73-96.
regional de los migrantes y refugiados venezolanos 34. Organización Internacional para las Migraciones.
en América Latina y el Caribe. UNHCR/ACNUR y Monitoreo de flujo de la población venezolana en el
MPI, Migration Police Institute, Washington DC: Perú. Matriz de seguimiento de desplazamiento -
Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para DTM Reporte N° 9. Organización Internacional para
los Refugiados; 2020. (Accessed: March 12th 2022). las Migraciones; 2021.
Available from:: https://data2.unhcr.org/en/ 35. Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Proyecto 2020.
documents/details/78708. Bogota: Universidad Nacional de Colombia; 2020.
25. Saccone V, France, Raulais L. “Operación Acogida”: 36. Human Rights Watch. World Report 2021. New
Brasil es el país latino que más refugia y regulariza York: Human Rights Watch; 2021. (Accessed: March
la migración venezolana. Bogota: France24; 2020. 12th 2022). Available from: https://www.hrw.
(Accessed: March 12th 2022). Available from: https:// org/sites/default/files/media_2021/01/hrw_world_
w w w. f r a n c e 2 4 . c o m / e s / p r o g r a m a s / report_2021.pdf
reporteros/20201206-reporteros-brasil-crisis- 37. Tribín-Uribe AM, Adhvaryu A, Anzola-Bravo
humanitaria-migracion-venezolana-refugiados. C, Ávila-Montealegre O, Bonilla-Mejía L, Castro-
26. Kleinman A, Kleinman J. Th appeal of experience, the Fernández JC. et al. Migración desde Venezuela en
dismay of images: Cultural appropriations of suffering Colombia: caracterización del fenómeno y análisis
in our times. En: Kleinman A, Das V, Lock M, (Eds.) de los efectos macroeconómicos. Ensayos
Social Suffering. Berkeley, CA: University of sobre Política Económica (ESPE). 2020; 97: 1-76.
California Press; 1997. doi:10.32468/espe.97
27. Lamanna F, Lenormand M, Salas-Olmedo MH, 38. Superintendencia Nacional de Migraciones.
Romanillos G, Goncalves B, Ramasco JJ. Immigrant Características sociodemográficas de la migración
community integration in world cities, PLos venezolana en el Perú. Lima: Superintendencia
One. 2018; 13(3): t-0191612. doi: 10.1371/journal. Nacional de Migraciones; 2020.
pone.0191612 39. USAID. Observatorio de Venezuela y Fundación
28. Plataforma de Coordinación Interagencial para Konrad Adenauer KAS. Colombia. Retos y
refugiados y migrantes de Venezuela. Plan de oportunidades de integración migratoria: análisis
Respuesta Regional. Lima: Plataforma de y recomendaciones para Bogotá DC. Bogota: USAID;
Coordinación Interagencial para refugiados y agosto 2020. (Accessed: March 12th 2022). Available
migrantes de Venezuela; 2021. from: https://www.kas.de/documents/287914/0/Ret
29. DANE. Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares. os+y+oportunidaades+de+la+integraci%
Publicación del módulo de migración: resultados C3%B3n+migratoria+en+Bogot%C3%A1+%28F%
y análisis del módulo. DANE; 2019.(Accessed: March 29.pdf/1453da53-8711-7b17-ebb1-125bd385
12th 2022). Available from: https://www.dane.gov. ee40?t=1606147278960.

Rev Neuropsiquiatr. 2022; 85(2): 107-116 115

 Alarcón R, et al.

40. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. 45. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
Condiciones de vida de la población venezolana Protection monitoring Venezuela situation update
que reside en Perú. Resultados de la Encuesta dirigida 1. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees;
a la población venezolana que reside en el país. Lima: July 19, 2019. (Accessed: March 12th 2022).
ENPOVE; 2018. Available from: https://reliefweb.int/report/Ecuador/
41. Cámara de Comercio de Lima. Una ola migratoria protection-monitoring-venezuela-situation-update-1-
venezolana en Perú: ¿Qué implica esto? Lima: Cámara january-june-2019.
de Comercio de Lima; 2021. (Accessed: March 12th 46. Acosta D, Blouin C, Fline Freirer L. La emigración
2022). Available from: https://apps.camaralima.org.pe venezolana: respuestas latinoamericanas. Documentos
/repositorioaps/0/0/par/r789_2/informeeconomico de trabajo. 2019; 3 (2): 1-28. (Accessed: March
%20789.pdf. 12th 2022). Available from: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/
42. Mendoza W, Miranda JJ. La inmigración venezolana servlet/articulo?codigo=7097487#:~:text=%20
en el Perú: desafíos y oportunidades desde la La%20emigraci%C3%B3n%20
perspectiva de la salud. Rev Peru Med Exp Salud venezolana%3Arespuestas%20latinoamericanas%20
Publica. 2019; 36(3): 497-503. %201%20Diego,bien%20los%20datos%20no%20
43. Izcara-Palacios S. Redes migratorias versus demanda son%20siempre...%20More%20.
laboral: los elementos que moldean los procesos 47. Halpern D. Social Capital. Cambridge, UK: Polity
migratorios. Convergencia. 2011; 18(57):39-59. Press; 2005.
44. Arce C. Migraciones, derechos humanos y
Vulnerabilidad. Fomento Social. 2018; 73 (1): 115-
Recibido: 07/02/2022
140.
Aceptado: 25/04/2022

116 Rev Neuropsiquiatr. 2022; 85(2): 107-116