International Business Review 25 (2016) 15–27

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Business Review

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ibusrev

A 22 year review of strategic alliance research in the leading

management journals
Emanuel Gomes a,b,*, Bradley R. Barnes a,1, Tehmina Mahmood a,2
a
The University of Sheffield, Sheffield University Management School, Conduit Road, Sheffield S10 1FL, United Kingdom
b
Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Nova School of Business and Economics, Campus de Campolide, 1099-032 Lisboa, Portugal

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: This study contributes to the strategic alliance literature by providing a comprehensive review of over
Available online 13 April 2014 800 articles that have appeared in 22 leading management journals over a 22 year period. Our study
reveals that (a) there has been an upward trend to publish articles on this subject over time; (b) a large
Keywords: proportion of these articles are empirical in nature, with a growing number of them reporting on
Interfirm collaboration statistical studies that consider variable association and causality; (c) in terms of their methodological
Interfirm partnerships rigour we have witnessed relatively larger sized samples, higher response rates and more frequent use of
Inter-organisational encounters probability sampling; and (d) although the majority of articles were written by authors within the same
Joint ventures country and these tended to report on alliances involving North American businesses, we find that a
Network alliances
variety of thematic areas have emerged, with cross cultural management and other human related facets
Review
receiving greater attention in recent times. Finally, we highlight the study’s limitations and based on our
Strategic alliances
review, outline several avenues where future research could be undertaken.
ß 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction (Brouthers & Bamossy, 2006; Buckley, Glaister, Klijn, & Tan, 2009;
Christoffersen, 2013; Lee, Kim, & Seo, 2013; Luo, 2001; Reuer, Zollo,
The increasing number of strategic alliances and their dismal & Singh, 2002; Slater, 2012).
failure record has fuelled growing interest and concern among Some studies have also focused on topical areas such as
scholars on this topic (Gomes, Weber, Brown, & Tarba, 2011). Over franchising or licensing (Combs, Ketchen, Shook, & Short, 2011;
the last few decades, researchers from a diversity of theoretical, Combs & Ketchen, 2003; Jiang, 2012; Shane, 1998; Xia, 2011),
methodological and contextual backgrounds have explored a wide strategic alliances and organisational strategy (Datta, Musteen, &
range of alliance themes (Christoffersen, 2013; Culpan, 2009; Herrmann, 2009; Nielsen & Gudergan, 2012; Poulis, Yamin, &
Parkhe, 1993a). Most of the earlier studies tended to focus on the Poulis, 2012; Ripollés, Blesa, & Monferrer, 2012; Yu, Subramaniam,
pre-agreement phase, including broad aspects such as motives for & Cannella, 2013), the relationship between internal and external
collaboration, joint ventures (JVs) as strategic choices, partner cooperation (Hillebrand & Biemans, 2003; Mudambi & Tallman,
selection and negotiations and contract (Doz, 1996; Doz, Olk, & 2010; Stettner & Lavie, 2013), small business alliances and
Ring, 2000; Glaister & Buckley, 1996; Parkhe, 1993b). More recent networks (Gulati, Nohria, & Zaheer, 2000; Koka & Prescott,
research has increasingly shifted attention to aspects related to the 2008; Lee, Abosag, & Kwak, 2012; Min & Mitsuhashi, 2012),
post-agreement phase, such as the effective management of knowledge and learning (Dussauge, Garrette, & Mitchell, 2000;
alliances, cross cultural understanding and company performance Inkpen, 2000; Kale & Singh, 2007; Park & Lee, 2012), and the impact
of governance on alliance effectiveness (Albers, Wohlgezogen, &
Zajac, 2013; Barkema, Shenkar, Vermeulen, & Bell, 1997; Lui & Ngo,
* Corresponding author at: The University of Sheffield, Sheffield University
2012; Park & Lee, 2012).
Management School, Conduit Road, Sheffield S10 1FL, United Kingdom. Recently, several emerging aspects including the temporal
Tel.: +44 114 222 3361; fax: +44 114 222 3348. dimension (Shi, Sun, & Prescott, 2011), managing alliance
E-mail addresses: e.gomes@sheffield.ac.uk (E. Gomes), portfolios (Das & Teng, 2002; Vapola, Paukku, & Gabrielsson,
b.r.barnes@sheffield.ac.uk (B.R. Barnes), [email protected]
2010; Wassmer, 2010), risk, trust and control (Anderson, Christ,
(T. Mahmood).
1
Tel.: +44 114 222 3453; fax: +44 114 222 3348. Dekker, & Sedatole, 2013; Costa e Silva, Bradley, & Sousa, 2012; Das
2
Tel.: +44 114 222 3361; fax: +44 114 222 3348. & Teng, 2001; Inkpen & Currall, 2004; Liu, 2012; Roy, 2012),

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2014.03.005
0969-5931/ß 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
16 E. Gomes et al. / International Business Review 25 (2016) 15–27

knowledge management (Dyer & Hatch, 2006; Inkpen, 2008; involvement of the mainstream management journals as sources
Inkpen & Beamish, 1997; Kale, Singh, & Perlmutter, 2000; Meier, for publishing research that focuses on this area. Second, it
2011; Shenkar & Li, 1999; Simonin, 2004), organisational justice identifies the characteristics of scholars that publish strategic
(Luo, 2005, 2008), and cultural understanding have begun to alliance articles in such journals, which may help them to become
receive more research attention. As a result, the subject area has more aware of work in the domain and foster potential future
evolved in a fairly fragmented approach where its collective impact collaboration with other contributors. Third, it assesses the
has been difficult to recognise (Shi et al., 2011). methodology of such articles, hence, making the most of the
Given the diversity and complexity of the phenomenon and in merits and preventing drawbacks associated with the extant
an attempt to organise and structure the existing body of strategic alliance literature. Fourth, the study will aim to establish
knowledge, some scholars have undertaken systematic reviews trends concerning thematic developments in the strategic alliance
of the alliance literature. This has resulted in attempts to identify arena from the perspective of leading mainstream management
the theories used in previous studies in order to understand the journals, thus generating knowledge that can be used as a
rationale for forming inter-organisational relationships (Parkhe, reference for future research.
1993b), alliance portfolios, knowledge management and the The remainder of this manuscript is organised as follows: The
behavioural aspects and effectiveness of international strategic next section explains and justifies the research approach used in
alliances (ISA) (Combs et al., 2011; Meier, 2011; Parmigiani & this study. This is followed by a presentation of the findings
Rivera-Santos, 2011; Wassmer, 2010). As a result, resource scarcity corresponding to the objectives along with subsequent discussion.
and agency theories were found to appropriately address specific Finally a conclusion is reached, before the limitations of the study
alliance forms such as franchising (Combs & Ketchen, 2003; Combs, are acknowledged and avenues for future research suggested.
Michael, & Castrogiovanni, 2004; Combs et al., 2011). Other
theories underpinning research on strategic alliances, include
2. The research approach
transaction cost economics (TCE), the resource based view (RBV),
knowledge based view (KBV), agency theory, social network
The objectives of this study are somewhat exploratory in nature
theory, organisational learning, dynamic capabilities, agency
and the approach attempts to bring to light the role and
theory, contingency theory, contract theory and resource depen-
involvement of the leading management journals as a source for
dency theory (Parmigiani & Rivera-Santos, 2011).
publishing research on the subject of strategic alliances. Specifi-
Some review articles have outlined the methodology employed
cally, the manuscript intends to provide further understanding
in detail by specifying a review timeframe, outlining the key search
regarding the characteristics of scholars that have published
words used (Robson, Skarmeas, & Spyropoulou, 2006; Shi et al.,
strategic alliance articles in such journals. It will assess the
2011) and explaining the criteria for inclusion and exclusion of
methodology used in such research and establish trends concern-
articles reviewed (Meier, 2011; Wassmer, 2010). Other articles,
ing the thematic development in the strategic alliance arena. This
however did not disclose these aspects (e.g. Combs et al., 2004;
type of study has not been undertaken previously. Therefore, it
Lyons, 1991). One characteristic which was found to be common in
should provide some fresh insights into the phenomenon
most studies was the formation of a coding framework or adoption
surrounding strategic alliances.
of frameworks proposed by other authors (Parmigiani & Rivera-
The sampling frame in the current study consists of leading
Santos, 2011; Robson et al., 2006; Shi et al., 2011; Street &
management journals in the areas of international business,
Cameron, 2007).
marketing, general management, organisation studies, strategy
Although such reviews have provided an invaluable contribu-
and operation research management over a 22 year period, from
tion to the existing body of knowledge, several shortcomings have
1990 to 2012. The journals selected include Academy of Manage-
been identified. Most examined the strategic alliance literature at
ment Review; Academy of Management Journal; Administrative
different points in time, as a result, very little attention has been
Science Quarterly; Journal of Management; Journal of Management
given to address the key themes surrounding such research and
Studies; Harvard Business Review; British Journal of Management;
how it has evolved over time. Also, many of these studies have only
Human Resource Management; Industrial Relations: A Journal of
tended to superficially address issues relating to the characteristics
Economy and Society; British Journal of Industrial Relations; Work,
of authors and concluded very little on the methodological issues
Employment and Society; Journal of International Business Studies;
applied in researching the topic. For example, previous studies
International Business Review; Journal of Marketing; Journal of
have neglected longitudinal research designs capable of portraying
Marketing Research; Journal of Consumer Research; Marketing
dynamic processes.
Science; Journal of Retailing; International Marketing Review;
The aim of this present study is to assess the contribution of the
Organisation Science; Organisation Studies; Leadership Quarterly;
leading mainstream management journals in terms of publishing
Human Relations; Strategic Management Journal and Management
research on strategic alliances over a twenty-two year period
Science.
(1990–2012). Our decision to focus on the leading management
The unit of analysis in this study was each article on the topic of
journals is justified due to their rigorous review processes and that
strategic alliances that appeared in print in these journals (Babbie,
they only publish manuscripts of the highest quality in the
2012). Instead of using keywords to search for articles (as most
management domain. The fact that these journals have been
review papers do), two trained researchers3 were tasked with
operational over a sustained period of time and they have
searching each volume and issue. The titles, abstracts and
significant impact, are further arguments to support our choice
keywords for each article were therefore initially screened and
for their inclusion. The fact that we use leading journals from
after a more careful examination of each, a total number of 805
various management areas, including international business,
articles were selected for inclusion in this study. The papers
marketing, organisation studies, strategy, operation research
collected were divided into three time periods: 1990–1997 (174
management and general management enables us to obtain a
articles), 1998–2005 (335 articles), and 2006–2012 (296 articles).
comprehensive, systematic and multidisciplinary view of the
strategic alliance literature in assessing the contribution from 3
The two researchers were briefed by a Professor who had previously
various perspectives and methodological stances. undertaken and published similar review articles in the management discipline.
In summary, this study contributes to the strategic alliance One of the team was an author and the other was a research assistant tasked with
literature in several ways. First, it brings to light the actual helping on this project.
 E. Gomes et al. / International Business Review 25 (2016) 15–27 17

Considering that data collection took place mid-way through 2012 Descriptive studies are rigid and involve answering who, what
and assuming that the second half of the year would result in a and where questions, while causal studies are fundamentally
similar level of publications on the topic, it appears that the concerned with explaining relationships between variables
number of articles on strategic alliances has been growing, (Emory & Cooper, 1985; Marschan-Piekkari & Welch, 2004).
therefore reflecting an increasing interest in the topic. The content dimension of the alliance literature was char-
Every selected article was content analysed by two trained acterised into four broad areas that reflected the pertinent
researchers under the supervision of an experienced specialist on literature published over the last twenty-two years. During this
the topic. Content analysis is a widely used method in social period scholars have explored a number of topics ranging from
science research (Krippendorff, 2004). It provides researchers with different theoretical and methodological approaches and as a
the opportunity to analyse data over long time periods (Wolf, result, several research streams have emerged that provide an
2008). This seemed particularly suitable for this study as the time understanding of the phenomenon from different angles and has
period covered was 22 years. In line with Klenke (2008) and Babbie led to a somewhat fragmented body of knowledge on the subject
(2012), a coding schedule was developed with emphasis on (Christoffersen, 2013; Culpan, 2009; Shi et al., 2011). In an attempt
undertaking a systematic and replicable investigation of text and to manage the review, and in-line with Parkhe (1993b) and Gomes,
documents with the objective of quantifying content using preset Angwin, Weber, & Tarba (2013), we initially classified data based
categories. Similar to the study undertaken by Leonidou, Barnes, on the pre and post-agreement phases. This enabled us to capture
Spyropoulou, & Katsikeas (2010), data from each journal article the contribution from most of the earlier reviews focusing on pre-
were collected on six key areas: agreement issues, such as the impact of internal and external
factors on strategic alliances, motives for collaboration, negotia-
1. Source and nature of articles: journal name; nature of article, tion and choice of partner, etc.
publication year (period). More contemporary review articles have increasingly focused
2. Characteristics of authors: number of authors; number of their attention on the post-agreement phase, including knowledge,
countries; number of universities; number of disciplines. risk and alliance management, culture, managing opportunistic
3. Research design: problem crystallisation, research study, topical behaviour, trust, control mechanisms, failure or alliance exit and
scope, time dimension, communication mode, control of performance. Though this was a very laborious, complex and
variables, variable relationship. interactive process involving various discussions and consultation
4. Scope of research: type of study, focus country, number of with experts, the actual initial theme identification was conducted
countries, type of market, nature of country, unit of analysis. individually and separately. A database was created to assist with
5. Study methodology: sample size, response rate, sample design, the organisation of this process and after the initial screening;
data collection, data analysis, analytical technique. results obtained by each researcher seemed to be reasonably
6. Thematic area: strategic aspects, alliance management, shape consistent. However, the topics covered in some articles seemed to
and design, specialised areas. overlap across different thematic areas, while other topics that
were not directly classifiable into the pre or post-alliance phase,
Various subcategories, i.e. degree of problem crystallisation, started to emerge.
research study, topical scope, time dimension, communication It was noted at this stage that significant research attention
mode, control of variables and variable relationship were clearly had focused on particular issues such as small business alliances
defined to reduce any chance of confusion for the coders. This was and network research, managing alliance portfolios and their
important as the research design should clearly specify the outcomes, organisational justice, knowledge management,
procedure relating to the acquisition of data (Emory & Cooper, learning and other emerging themes. The use of previous
1985). Degree of problem crystallisation refers to the type of study review papers on the topic also proved useful in assisting with
– either formalised or exploratory. With formalised studies, a well- the process (see Appendix A). After subsequent readings and
defined structure is in place that has predetermined hypotheses. several discussions, we ended up being able to reduce our initial
Exploratory studies meanwhile have loose structures and do not classification to four broad areas and nineteen subthemes that
have preset hypotheses. The research study dimension comprises better reflected the existing body of knowledge and its various
of field and laboratory studies. Field studies relate to the actual strands.
environment where the study was conducted. Laboratory studies To ensure the validity and reliability of the content analysis
meanwhile are carried out in a simulated environment (Emory & undertaken, we followed the procedures recommended by Cohen,
Cooper, 1985). The topical scope consists of statistical studies and Manion, and Morrison (2011). In terms of validity, each dimension
case studies. Statistical studies are commonly concerned with and its respective subcategories were carefully identified and
observing and managing numerical data relating to a particular defined. Furthermore, to improve reliability, the approach taken by
sample. Case studies meanwhile involve gaining in-depth insights Holsti (1969) was followed, whereby two coders initially analysed
relating to one or multiple cases and aim to answer why, what and the articles separately and then cross checked each other’s work to
how questions (Emory & Cooper, 1985). verify consistency of the coding for each dimension and their
The time dimension includes longitudinal and cross sectional corresponding categories. The resulting inter-coder agreement
studies; cross-sectional studies provide a snapshot picture at a was found to be robust enough, showing overall agreement around
given time, while longitudinal studies normally involve repeated 85%, with the outstanding discrepancies being resolved through
research over different time intervals (McNabb, 2012). Communi- discussion.
cation mode consists of observation and survey. Observation
entails analysing the behaviour of a sample. In contrast, surveys are 3. Findings
used to collect relatively larger amounts of data (Emory & Cooper,
1985). Two classifications are used for the control of variables, i.e. This section reports the findings of the content analysis and it
ex post facto or experiment. In ex post facto empirical inquiries, the should be noted that these findings are strictly limited to the
researcher cannot manipulate variables as they have occurred bibliographical assessment of these 22 management journals in
previously, but in experiments, the researcher is readily able to question. The findings are divided into six sub-sections; source and
control variables (Chandra & Sharma, 2004). In terms of variable nature of articles, authorship characteristics, research design,
relationships, data can be classed as descriptive or causal. scope of research, study methodology and thematic areas.
18 E. Gomes et al. / International Business Review 25 (2016) 15–27

Table 1
Share of leading management journals in the publication of strategic alliance-related articles.

Management journals Time period Article type

Total 1990–1997 1998–2005 2006–2012 Conceptual Methodological Empirical Other

(n = 805) (n1 = 174) (n2 = 335) (n3 = 296) (n1 = 168) (n2 = 63) (n3 = 428) (n4 = 146)
% % % % % % % %

Academy of Management Review 2.7 3.5 2.7 2.3 8.4 0.9 0 0

Academy of Management Journal 5.5 5.8 6.6 3.9 8. 4 5.8 1.4 1.4
Administrative Science Quarterly 2.2 0.6 2.4 2.7 2.4 1.6 4.2 4.2
Journal of Management 3.1 0 4.8 3 2.9 1.6 2.1 2.1
Journal of Management Studies 9.2 11.1 7.2 10.3 12.5 8.4 7.7 7.7
Harvard Business Review 1.2 5.3 0 0.3 0 0 7 7
British Journal of Management 3.4 4.7 1.5 4.7 1.8 3.5 5.6 5.6
Industrial Relations: A Journal of 0.4 0 0.6 0.3 0 0.2 1.4 1.4
Economy and Society
British Journal of Industrial Relations 0.1 0 0 0.3 0 0.2 0 0
Work, Employment and Society 0.1 0.6 0 0 0.6 0 0 0
Management Science 5.2 8.2 2.4 6.6 7.2 4.2 5.6 5.6
Journal of International Business Studies 8.6 13.5 7.8 6.6 10.2 10.5 1.4 1.4
International Business Review 13 8.8 16.5 12 7.2 17.3 4.2 4.2
Journal of Marketing 2.2 0 2.1 3.7 2.9 2.3 0 0
Journal of Marketing Research 1.4 2.3 1.2 1 0 1.9 2.1 2.1
Marketing Science 1 2.3 0.6 0.7 2.4 0.7 0.7 0.7
Journal of Retailing 1.9 1.8 0.3 3.7 0.6 2.3 1.4 1.4
International Marketing Review 5.3 5.8 5.1 5.3 1.8 6.8 6.3 6.3
Organisation Science 6 0 8.7 6.3 10.2 5.6 2.1 2.1
Organisation Studies 5.2 5.3 6.3 3.9 7.8 4.2 7.7 7.7
Leadership Quarterly 0.5 1.2 0 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.7
Human Relations 1.7 2.9 2.1 0.6 1.2 2.1 1.4 1.4
Human Resource Management 0.4 0 0.6 0.3 1.8 0 0 0
Strategic Management Journal 19.6 16.4 20.4 21 8.9 19 36.6 36.6

3.1. Source and nature of articles articles, respectively. The top three sources for empirical articles on
strategic alliances were the Strategic Management Journal (36.6%),
Assessment of the journals revealed that the Strategic Manage- Journal of Management Studies (7.7%) and Harvard Business Review
ment Journal was the main source of strategic alliance articles (7%). The journals providing most conceptual articles were the
(19.6%), and over time, it displayed an upward trend to publish Journal of Management Studies (12.5%), Journal of International
more work in this area (Table 1). This seems reasonable, bearing in Business Studies (10.2%) and Organisation Science (10.2%). As for
mind that strategic alliances are a core aspect of corporate methodological papers, International Business Review and Journal of
governance and strategy. The journals which followed were International Business Studies were at the forefront with contribu-
International Business Review (13%), Journal of Management Studies tions of 17.3% and 10.5%, respectively.
(9.2%), and Journal of International Business Studies (8.6%). The
international dimension surrounding strategic alliances might 3.2. Characteristics of authors
explain the high level of engagement by International Business
Review and the Journal of International Business Studies to publish As expected, single authorship articles were least published –
work in this area. The journals which followed were Organisation representing just 22.6%. Approximately half of the articles (47.2%)
Science (6%), Academy of Management Journal (5.5%), International were written by two authors and almost a third (30.2%) were
Marketing Review (5.3%), Organisational Studies (5.2%), Management written by three or more people. There was a sharp dip in the
Science (5.2%), British Journal of Management (3.4%), Journal of number of articles written by two authors during period 2 (1998–
Management (3.1%), Academy of Management Review (2.7%), 2005), but it rose again in period 3 (2006–2012). The number of
Administrative Science Quarterly (2.2%), Journal of Marketing articles written by people from a single country clearly out-
(2.2%), Journal of Retailing (1.9%), Human Relations (1.7%), Journal numbered those written by authors situated in three or more
of Marketing Research (1.4%), Harvard Business Review (1.2%) and countries (67.7% vs. 2.9%). More than two fifths (44.8%) of articles
Marketing Science (1%). The journals revealing lower levels of were produced by authors from two institutions and articles
engagement with the alliance literature, each contributing less written by people from the same institution represented over a
than 1% included: Leadership Quarterly (0.5%), Industrial Relations third (36.1%). Authors publishing in the strategic alliance area tend
(0.4%), Human Resource Management (0.4%), British Journal of to be in the same discipline (43.1%), although almost the same
Industrial Relations (0.1%) and Work Employment and Society (0.1%). number of articles (42.1%) was written by authors in two
The very low level of engagement among these five journals is disciplines of management (Table 2).
intriguing, given the importance of human aspects, including
managing diverse cultures and emotions associated with govern- 3.3. Research design
ing strategic alliances.
Slightly above half of all the strategic alliance articles were Over half the articles (54.2%) were formalised in nature, i.e. they
empirical in nature, i.e. they presented quantitative or qualitative had hypotheses that were developed from the literature, with
data using primary or secondary sources (53.2%). Conceptual approximately a third (28.9%) being exploratory, i.e. they had a
articles dedicated solely to formulating theories, ideas and somewhat loose structure, without pre-determined objectives.
methodological papers concentrating on developing distinct These remained somewhat static over time with a gradual
investigation methods were reported in around 21% and 7.5% of decrease. Articles which required the use of field work to collect
 E. Gomes et al. / International Business Review 25 (2016) 15–27 19

Table 2
Authorship characteristics of strategic alliances-related articles.

Authorship characteristics Time period Trend directiona

Total 1990–1997 1998–2005 2006–2012

(n = 805) (n1 = 171) (n2 = 333) (n3 = 301)
% % % %

Number of authors
One 22.6 31.5 13.1 17.2 n
Two 47.2 49.2 29.4 43.9 n
Three or more 30.2 18.1 57.6 38.8 ^
Number of countries
One 67.7 76.4 65.7 65.3 #
Two 29.4 22.4 31.9 30.9 ^
Three or more 2.9 1.1 2.4 3.7 n
Number of institutions
One 36.1 31 40.6 34.1 ^
Two 44.8 50 42.7 44.3 n
Three or more 19 18.9 16.7 21.6 n
Number of disciplines
One 43.1 32.2 45.9 46.2 "
Two 42.1 48.8 38.8 41.8 n
Three or more 14.8 18.9 15.2 11.8 #
a
(") increasing, (#) decreasing, (^) increasing and then decreasing, (n) decreasing and then increasing.

data represented 42.5% and studies undertaken in simulated lab in period three. Ex-post facto control of variables were used
type settings were rare (1.5%). Over half strategic alliance articles in slightly over half (53.7%) of the studies, with a further 7%
(52%) were statistically analysed and these tended to rise over using experiments. There is an increasing pattern surrounding
time. In comparison, case study articles were published less often the usage of ex-post facto variable control. In terms of variable
(8.7%). Almost half of the work reviewed examined cross-sectional association, causal relationships were examined in slightly
data (46.6%), and about a quarter (25.6%) presented longitudinal over 40% of studies. Descriptive statistics meanwhile appeared
data. Around two fifths (42.7%) used surveys and observational in approximately a quarter of all studies (23.1%) however
studies represented only 7% of the articles. this represented a decreasing trend, with a preference among
Over time, observational studies fluctuated in terms of their editors to publish studies examining causal relationships
frequency, with a decline in period two, followed by an increase (Table 3).

Table 3
Research design of strategic alliance articles.

Research design Time period Trend directiona

Total 1990–1997 1998–2005 2006–2012

(n = 805) (n1 = 174) (n2 = 335) (n3 = 296)
% % % %

Problem crystallisation
Exploratory 28.9 31 31.1 25.3 ^
Formalised 54.3 50 48.8 62.8 n
Others 16.8 18.9 20 11.8 ^
Research environment
Field 45.2 33.9 51.5 44.9 ^
Laboratory 1.5 1.1 0.9 2.4 n
Others 53.3 64.9 47.6 52.7 n
Topical scope
Statistical study 52.0 36.2 51.8 61.8 "
Case study 8.7 8.04 8.4 9.1 "
Others 39.3 55.7 39.8 29 #
Time dimension
Cross-sectional 46.6 44.3 47.5 47 "
Longitudinal 25.6 20.1 25.7 28.7 "
Others 27.8 35.6 26.9 24.3 #
Communication mode
Survey 42.7 32.7 50.5 40 ^
Observational 7.0 5.7 5.1 9.7 n
Others 50.3 61.4 44.4 50.2 n
Control variables
Ex-post facto 53.7 35.6 55.7 62.1 "
Experiment 7.0 12.6 6.6 4.1 #
Others 39.4 52 38 33.7 #
Variable association
Descriptive 23.2 37 21.8 16.6 #
Causal 40.5 21 39.8 53.2 "
Others 36.3 42.5 38.2 30.2 #
a
(") increasing, (#) decreasing, (^) increasing and then decreasing, (n) decreasing and then increasing.
20 E. Gomes et al. / International Business Review 25 (2016) 15–27

3.4. Scope of research use of telephone surveys were the least common method adopted
with just 4.3%.
Almost half the articles reviewed (42.6%) were conducted in a Quantitative methods for analysing data were used in a large
single country context, and they predominantly focused on North portion of studies (48.7%) and over time we have experienced an
America. Notably, single-country studies sharply grew over time increasing trend. This method was frequently used in conjunction
(from 28% to 45%), which was largely due to the fact that China has with studies using existing databases, as well as mail surveys. The
become a key focus for scholars. Articles undertaken in cross- use of qualitative data analysis was less common (15%). The
cultural settings were infrequent (8.9%), as were articles that analytical techniques used to analyse data were mostly multivari-
reported on four or more countries (8%). Interestingly, approxi- ate, adopting MANOVA, multiple regression and factor analysis.
mately two-fifths (39.5%) of empirical articles did not focus on any Univariate and bivariate analyses, including Chi square tests and
particular country, demonstrating that future research on cross- simple regression were also commonly adopted in studies (16.8%).
cultural management is warranted. The use of descriptive, univariate/bivariate and multivariate
About one-third (29.7%) of the studies reviewed were analyses have all increased over time (Table 5).
undertaken in North America, particularly the U.S., while research
undertaken in Europe and Asia was also popular (19.1% and 21.5%, 3.6. Thematic areas
respectively). Notably, articles reporting on research conducted in
both Europe and Asia peaked in period two (1998–2005), i.e. 21% As earlier highlighted, the content dimension of the alliance
and 24.5%, respectively, with North American studies remaining literature was characterised into four broad areas that reflected the
fairly consistent over the three periods. Studies associated with pertinent literature published over the last twenty-two years, i.e.
South America have marginally increased over time (from 0.6% to strategic aspects, alliance management, shape and design, and
1.7%) – but they do not represent a significant amount of research. specialised areas (see Table 6).
Africa is another region of the world where little research has been
published (0.6%). Almost 43% of the articles concentrated on 3.6.1. Strategic aspects
developed countries, mostly North America, Japan and Europe, Four research topics are included in this category, i.e. influential
while the remaining focused on emerging or developing nations – factors on SAs, choice and evaluation of strategic partners, the
most of these relating to China. The number of articles on choice between M&As and alliances, and alliance rationale.
developing nations has increased considerably over the time Influential factors on SAs have been extensively investigated in
periods covered in this study. There is also an upward trend on around 15% of the articles and many of the major issues related to
research in strategic alliances involving socialist and newly- macro environmental factors, such as the impact of the host
industrialised countries. country’s governmental and economic policy on alliances.
The industrial sector was in the spotlight for much empirical Meanwhile at the micro level, studies have focused on firm age,
research (35.7%), twice the number of articles compared with the collaborative opportunities and institutional governance. Topics
service sector and five times more than research focusing on relating to the choice and evaluation of partners represented about
consumer markets. Industrial sector studies have experienced a 4% of articles and included topics relating to partners’ status, their
significant increase over time (from 26% to 39%), with these resource complementarity and social ties. Interest in these areas
focusing mostly on semi-conductors, automobiles, pharmaceuti- has steadily increased over time.
cals, bio-technology and electrical goods. The service sector Choice between M&As and alliances was examined in almost 6%
represented less than a fifth (17%) of the empirical articles in of articles, with a particular focus on uncertainty, capabilities and
total, however, the percentage of research published in this area diversity. The number of articles on this subject has however
has increased over time. declined over the years. Topics included under alliance rationale
Around a third (30.2%) of the empirical articles used strategic have also experienced a steady decline over time, with resource
alliances as their unit of analysis, followed by joint ventures (24%). seeking, international expansion, synergy and cost reduction being
Multinational corporations as well as their subsidiaries contribut- among those most investigated in journals. Studies related to
ed to the unit of analysis in approximately 14% of the studies. synergy have provided insights on knowledge transfer, new
Networks and franchising provided a further 13% (7% and 6%, technology development, as well as the achievement of economies
respectively). Of the remainder, 5.6% used the relationship as a unit of scale and scope. In terms of internationalisation, particular
of analysis, with articles on the subject of licensing being published attention has been devoted to strategic alliances as a mode of
the least (1.6%) (Table 4). market entry, with specific emphasis on international expansion
and the influence of transaction costs. The international expansion
3.5. Study methodology of franchising has been a popular topic and so has that of Chinese
firms in recent times. This strand of the literature has also provided
In almost a quarter (21.7%) of the studies, the sample size some attention to cost reduction and investment sharing, with a
ranged between 100 and 249. The sample size that was least used focus on product development and innovation.
ranged from 500 to 999. In recent times the number of published
studies with samples less than 99 has decreased, whereas the use 3.6.2. Alliance management
of large samples in excess of 1000 has increased. Over 17.5% of the Alliance management consists of six areas: managing commu-
studies had a response rate exceeding 40%. In terms of sampling, nication; managing risk and opportunistic behaviour; trust, control
the method predominantly reported was probability sampling and confidence; contract and negotiation; commitment; and
(43.7%) and more than two fifths (44.5%) of the articles did not cultural issues. Of these, the issue of trust, control and confidence
mention the sampling design employed. However, non-probabil- were given more emphasis than others (8.9%) and have gained
ity sampling was used in approximately 12% of articles. Mail attention over time. The focal issues included the impact of trust on
surveys represented the most frequently used method of data knowledge transfer, trust as a substitute for contracts, gaining
collection (26.3%), followed by data mining in conjunction with partner’s confidence through trust, control in franchising, as well
the use of existing databases (21.4%) and personal interviews as firm strategy and control. The management of risk and
(15%). Secondary data was used in 10% of the articles and this opportunistic behaviour was the second most popular alliance
approach remained stable over the three periods. Moreover, the management topic (3.9%) and seems to be gaining attention over
 E. Gomes et al. / International Business Review 25 (2016) 15–27 21

Table 4
Scope of research for strategic alliance articles.

Scope of research Time period Trend directiona

Total 1990–1997 1998–2005 2006–2012

(n = 805) (n1 = 174) (n2 = 335) (n3 = 296)
% % % %

Types of study
Single country 42.6 28 45 49 "
Cross-cultural 8.9 15.5 7.8 6.4 #
Comparative 1.5 1.7 2 0.7 #
Others 6.2 6.9 7.5 4.4 ^
None 39.5 47.1 38 36.8 #
Focus country
North America 29.7 32.1 29 29.1 n
South America 1.2 0.6 1.2 1.7 "
Europe 19.1 16.1 21 19 ^
Asia 21.5 19 24.5 20 ^
Africa 0.6 0 0.9 0.3 ^
Others 4 6.3 2.7 4.1 n
None 39.6 44.8 38.2 37.8 #
No. of countries
One 43.6 28.2 11.4 50 n
Two 7.1 10.3 3.4 4.1 n
Three 1.2 2.3 1 1 #
Four or more 8 10.3 0.3 7.1 n
None 40.1 49 0.1 37.5 n
Types of market
Consumer 7.3 7.5 7.5 7.1 $
Industrial 35.7 26 38.2 39 "
Services 17 13 15.8 21 "
Others 5.7 9.2 5 4.4 #
None 46.6 42.3 45.6 44.3 ^
Types of country
Developed 42.9 42.5 44 41.9 ^
Newly-industrialised 1 0.6 0.9 1.4 "
Developing 16.9 10.3 18.2 19.3 "
Socialist 6.5 4 6.3 8.1 "
Others 2.7 4 1.9 2 n
None 40.4 48.3 37.6 39 n
Unit of analysis
Multinational HQ 10.9 11 10.7 11 $
Subsidiary 2.9 2.3 4.5 1.4 #
Strategic Alliances 30.2 24.1 33 30.4 ^
Joint Venture 24 27 28.4 10.3 ^
Franchising 6 5.2 3.6 9.1 n
Licensing 1.6 0.6 1.5 2.4 "
Networks 7 9.8 6.9 5.4 #
Relationships 5.6 5.2 3 8.8 n
Others 7.5 5.7 5.9 10 "
None 6.8 9.8 5.3 6.8 n
a
(") increasing, (#) decreasing, (^) increasing and then decreasing, (n) decreasing and then increasing, and ($) stable, HQ, headquarter.

time. Topics of interest in opportunistic behaviour included relationship between decision control and commitment, commit-
protecting propriety assets, the impact of opportunism on ment increasing partner attractiveness and contractual commit-
performance, opportunism in precarious environments, influential ment as a management mechanism.
factors on partner’s opportunistic behaviour, as well as forms, The subject of culture appeared in slightly over 3.1% of articles
outcomes and solutions for opportunism. Furthermore, in terms of and these primarily reported on cultural differences associated
risk and conflict management, there has been an emphasis on with managing international joint ventures. The influence of
managerial views of risk in foreign entry, relational risk and cultural distance, culture perceived risk and long vs. short term
performance risk, conflict due to incompatibility and performance cultural orientation have all been reported on. It is noteworthy that
risks relating to alliance objectives. organisational culture received relatively less attention compared
Managing communication was another topic that emerged in with national culture. Negotiation and contractual issues empha-
the alliance management literature strand (2.5%), although the sised negotiating payment in contracts, length of contracts,
number of articles on this topic registered a decline in the last resource specificity and contract complexity, exclusive contracts,
period of analysis. Managing communication mainly dealt with negotiation costs, bargaining power and contractual renegotiation.
the issue of links between communication and commitment, the Collectively these represented slightly less than 4% of all SA
relationship between communication and coordination, the articles.
allocation of communication resources and the effect of collabo-
rative communication on performance. Commitment meanwhile 3.6.3. Shape and design of SA
has received very little attention from scholars as only 1.1% of Shape and design consists of four themes, i.e. types of alliance;
articles covered this topic. However, interest in this area seems to alliance portfolio, ownership and formation; alliance structures
have gained momentum in recent times. Its focus has been on the and network relationships. Around 5% of the articles reported on
22 E. Gomes et al. / International Business Review 25 (2016) 15–27

Table 5
Study methodology of strategic alliance articles.

Study methodology Time period Trend directiona

Total 1990–1997 1998–2005 2006–2012

(n = 805) (n1 = 174) (n2 = 335) (n3 = 296)
% % % %

Sample size
99 or less 17.8 18.4 20.9 13.9 ^
100–249 21.7 21.9 22.4 20.8 ^
250–499 12.3 10.3 12.8 12.9 "
500–999 7.7 6.4 5.9 10.5 n
1000 or more 9.1 5.7 7.5 12.8 "
None 31.4 37.3 30.4 29.1 #
Response rate
19% or less 4.2 1.1 3 7.4 n
20–29% 6.5 6.3 6.3 6.8 $
30–39% 7.7 7.5 9.9 5.4 ^
40% or more 17.5 19.5 20 13.5 ^
None 64.1 65.5 60.9 66.9 $
Sampling design
Probability 43.7 40.2 46.2 43 ^
Non-probability 11.8 13.2 10.2 12.8 n
None 44.5 46.6 43.6 44.2 $
Data collection
Secondary info 10.1 9.8 10.1 10.1 $
Existing database 21.4 15.5 21.5 25 "
Mail survey 26.3 23.1 28.4 26 ^
Telephone survey 4.3 6.9 3.3 4.1 n
Personal interview 15 10.3 17.6 14.9 ^
Other 8.3 8 7.2 9.8 n
None 25 9.8 23.9 21 ^
Data analysis
Qualitative 15 12.1 17.9 14 ^
Quantitative 48.7 42 49 52.4 "
Modelling (formula) 10.2 11 9.3 10.8 n
Other 5.7 4 6 6.4 "
None 25.1 31.6 24.5 22 #
Analytical technique
Descriptive 22.2 17 23.6 24 "
Uni-/bivariate 16.8 13 17.3 18.6 "
Multivariate 36 34 36 37.2 "
Other 8.4 7.5 9 8.4 n
None 28.9 38 28.7 24 #
a
(") increasing, (#) decreasing, (^) increasing and then decreasing, (n) decreasing and then increasing, and ($) stable.

various types of alliances. Such studies mostly focused on equity articles, with these having a particular emphasis on the differences
and non-equity alliances, affiliate and non-affiliate franchising, as between IJVs and IAs, piggy backing in franchising, the adoption of
well as vertical and retailer alliances. The interest on alliance co-marketing in strategic alliances and online partnerships.
portfolio ownership and formation meanwhile has declined over
time, from 12% to around 7% of articles. The number of studies 3.6.4. Specialised areas
reporting on alliance portfolios appeared reasonably high at the This category consisted of five themes: alliance performance,
outset, but these dropped sharply during the second period, HRM issues, organisational justice, leadership and decision
though the number of articles on the subject increased again in the making, knowledge transfer and learning experience. A vast
third period. The prominent topics included portfolio alliance amount of research has been devoted to analysing the antecedents
management, partner attributes in managing alliance portfolios, as and implications of alliance performance (11.3% in total), and the
well as diversity in alliance portfolio and its link to performance. interest on this topic appears to be growing over time (see
The determinants of alliance ownership were researched to a lesser Christoffersen, 2013, for a detailed review on the topic). Most of the
extent and its popularity has declined over the time period. Its papers looked at performance as a dependent variable, while other
prime focus had been on the determinants of ownership choice, articles devoted attention to failure and the instability of SAs.
ownership strategy related to location and organisational advan- The number of articles treating performance as a dependent
tage, equity ownership based on cultural distance, as well as the variable has risen considerably over time and major issues
patterns of ownership and control. influencing performance were key employee appointment, strate-
In terms of alliance formation, the main issues of interest have gy, trust, absorption capacity, product diversification and compet-
revolved around the impact of post-formation processes on IJV itive rivalry. The main issues discussed under alliance instability
performance, the impact of mid-level managers on alliance included conflict, bargaining power and instability surrounding
formation, joint venture and alliance consortia and forming IJVs. The focus of alliance failures consisted of their planned and
alliance processes. Network relationships have also been exten- unplanned termination, the reasons for such termination, failure
sively examined in the existing alliance literature (8.6%). The main due to internal politics, effects of national culture, organisation
focus lies on maintaining alliance formations based on networks, similarity and economic motivation on strategic alliance dissolu-
the role of business networks and external relations through tion. Knowledge transfer, learning and experience were some of
networks. Finally, alliance structures appeared in 4.6% of the the sub-themes receiving high levels of research attention among
 E. Gomes et al. / International Business Review 25 (2016) 15–27 23

Table 6
Thematic areas of strategic alliance-related articles published in top management journals.

Thematic area Time period Trend directiona

Total 1990–1997 1998–2005 2006–2012

(n = 805) (n1 = 174) (n2 = 335) (n3 = 296)
% % % %

Strategic aspects
Influential factors on S.A. 14.9 12.1 16 15.9 n
Choice and evaluation of strategic partner 4 2.9 4.2 4.4 "
Choice between M&A and Alliance 5.7 6.3 5.7 5.4 #
Alliance rationale 6.0 13.8 5.4 2.4 #
Alliance management
Managing communication 2.5 1.1 3.9 1.7 ^
Managing risk & opportunism 3.9 2.8 4.2 4 ^
Trust, control and confidence 8.9 6.9 9.3 9.8 "
Contract & negotiation 3.7 1.7 6.0 2.4 ^
Commitment 1.1 1.7 0.6 1.4 n
Cultural issues 3.1 5.2 1.8 3.4 n
Shape and design
Types of alliance 5.1 5.7 4.5 5.4 n
Alliance portfolio, ownership, and formation 6.5 12 6 6.8 n
Alliance structures 4.6 3.4 4.2 3.7 ^
Network relationships 8.6 9.8 8.1 8.4 n
Specialised areas
Alliance performance 11.3 8 10.7 13.9 "
HRM issues 2.4 1.1 2.4 3 "
Organisational justice 1 1.1 1.2 0.7 $
Leadership and decision making 1.1 0.6 1.2 1.4 "
Knowledge transfer, learning and experience 9.4 5.7 10.8 10.1 ^
a
(") increasing, (#) decreasing, (^) increasing and then decreasing, (n) decreasing and then increasing, and ($) stable, S.A.: strategic alliances, HRM: human resource
management.

scholars – representing about 10% of publications over the last 15 alliance area, as well as providing a pool of knowledge that can be
years. Knowledge transfer appears to be a topical area of research used as a small contribution to future research.
with particular focus regarding its effect on subsidiaries, local Earlier reviews have tended to focus on specific aspects of
alliances, the internationalisation process and employees’ learning strategic alliances and employed a wide variety of theories such as
capabilities. Learning and experience dealt primarily with issues agency theory, knowledge-based theory and transaction cost
related to the internationalisation process, experience and theory to explain certain topics. Despite their usefulness, these
franchising decisions, the impact of firm experience on governance extant reviews have several limitations. For example they covered
changes and the influence of experience in foreign market entry. relatively short time periods, thus did not identify particular
Organisational justice was the focus of around 1% of all articles. trends. They also disclosed very little about the methodological
Topics covered in this area included interactional justice in aspects of such studies and failed to analyse authorship
different cultures, the impact of procedural fairness on cooperation characteristics, research design and the scope of such studies. In
and the effect of parent control on conflict. Leadership and decision filling this gap, this article adopted a longitudinal design to analyse
making was also reported in around 1% of articles. Issues covered journals over a long period in order to establish trends.
were managerial discretion and decision making autonomy in IJVs, Our findings demonstrate that the leading management
as well as different types of leadership. Human resource journals have been instrumental in generating and disseminating
management issues were discussed in over 2% of articles, and knowledge on strategic alliances. They have introduced important
its popularity has been growing steadily over time – with the theories and ideas; moreover, the journals vary in terms of how
number of articles trebling during the last two decades. This is not they view the subject. A vital conclusion that can be drawn from
surprising given the significance of HR issues surrounding the the assessment of strategic alliance articles published in these
management of international strategic alliances. Key points leading journals is the pivotal role played by them in shifting
considered in this area relate to job security and the recruitment emphasis from exploratory towards formalised research. The high
and retention of key employees. standards associated with such journals have contributed to a
gradual improvement in terms of the sophistication of studies in
4. Discussion and conclusions the discipline over time. The fact that a large amount of strategic
alliance articles appearing in these journals are of an empirical
This study has offered a systematic, thorough and updated nature, demonstrates that there has been inclination to improve
assessment of the strategic alliance literature published in the subject’s scientific status (Leong, 1985). Conceptual studies
mainstream management journals over a 22-year period. In this have been crucial in constructing models, suggesting theoretical
context, it has been helpful in discovering the positioning of these paradigms and developing research questions. However, the
journals as to their role in progressing strategic alliance research. testing of systematic frameworks adds more value to the subject.
The findings provide valuable insights for understanding the Our findings reveal that multiple country authorship has
advancement of strategic alliance research over time, especially witnessed a downward trend. This is intriguing since the topic
concentrating on articles published in the leading management revolves around inter-organisational collaboration. There is
journals. The research also offers cues with regards to conceptual, however a need for joint effort to advance our understanding on
methodological and empirical trends developed in the strategic the subject. The majority of research papers predominantly involve
24 E. Gomes et al. / International Business Review 25 (2016) 15–27

authors from a single country, which indicates a trend towards and network research (Street & Cameron, 2007), the role and
approaching strategic alliance phenomena primarily from single impact of directors on international joint ventures (IJV) (Petrovic,
country perspectives. To realise a comprehensive, cross-cultural Kakabadse, & Kakabadse, 2006), knowledge management (Kale
knowledge of the subject, it is imperative to call for more synergy et al., 2000; Lane, Salk, & Lyles, 2001; Meier, 2011; Simonin, 2004),
among scholars from different corners of the world. A considerable alliance process management and alliance outcomes (Christoffer-
amount of articles were interdisciplinary in nature which is a sen, 2013; Ren, Gray, & Kim, 2009; Robson et al., 2006), alliance
positive development as it allows for the cross-fertilisation of portfolios (Wassmer, 2010), and the temporal dimension of
ideas. However, the difference in the number of articles written by alliances (Shi et al., 2011), our review provides a broad and
authors from the same discipline and from two different holistic view of the state of the alliance literature covered by
disciplines was marginal. leading mainstream management journals. The articles investi-
The research design of strategic alliance articles has become gated in this review covered a wide range of topics, with some
gradually more systematic in nature, as evident in the increasing areas appearing more frequently than others. Three broad themes
use of formalised processes and causal variable association. One did however tend to emerge from the literature, these namely
issue of concern may possibly relate to heavy emphasis on cross- related to strategic aspects, alliance management and the shape
sectional studies. The low use of longitudinal designs can be and design of alliances. There was also a host of work that appeared
attributed to time and resource constraints. However, by employ- to relate to more specialised areas.
ing case studies and longitudinal designs, researchers can gain in- Our review has identified several differences relating to the
depth knowledge and are more able to track trends. Surveys were evolution of themes with some areas showing a clear increase in
the most commonly used data collection method, while collecting their popularity over time and others experiencing a decline. For
data by means of observation was restricted to a low number of example, in terms of strategic aspects, topics related to alliance
articles. The high emphasis on surveys clearly indicates a rationale have experienced a steady decline over time. This is
preference in gaining more pragmatic knowledge of strategic reflected in the fact that the main review focused on this particular
alliance activity by studying firms in realistic as opposed to topic was undertaken around two decades ago by Lyons (1991). In
simulated contexts. contrast, the choice and evaluation of strategic partners appears to
Overall, the scope of strategic alliance research published in the play a significant role in contemporary research, particularly due to
mainstream management journals is mixed. For example, there the growing importance associated with partner selection in
was sufficient coverage of single country studies, opposed to cross- strategic alliance activities. The contribution of these leading
cultural and comparative studies. Consequently, this single journals to some aspects related to alliance management such as
country focus limits our understanding of strategic alliances in trust, confidence and control has been particularly significant and
cross-cultural settings. The geographical focus has predominantly growing over time. The focal issues have included the impact of
been North America and Asia. However, the scope could be trust on knowledge transfer and trust as a substitute for contracts.
broadened to other emerging BRICS economies such as Russia, Intriguingly, with the exception of the reviews by Combs and
India, Brazil and South Africa. The majority of articles have Ketchen (2003) and Robson et al. (2006), which provide some
concentrated on developed countries, however, the number of insights on gaining partner’s confidence through trust and control
articles on developing nations has increased significantly over in franchising, no other reviews have dedicated particular
time, which is consistent with the growing importance of such attention to these topics. The contribution of these leading
economies in the international business arena (Luo, Shenkar, & journals to an understanding of the management of cultural
Nyaw, 2001). There was an upward trend in research on strategic differences in international strategic alliances has been significant
alliance activity in socialist and newly industrialised countries. over the years, particularly in terms of an understanding of the
This might reflect to some extent, the adoption of free market influence of distance, perceived risk and long vs. short term
economies in the early 1990s among socialist countries. The cultural orientation. However, it is at least intriguing that no
industrial sector has been heavily researched compared with previous review has devoted total attention to this topic.
service and consumer market studies. To some extent this reflects In terms of specialised topics, these journals have demonstrated
the heavy involvement of companies manufacturing industrial a growing interest in alliance performance, an aspect that is likely
goods in an international context, which might be ascribed to the to remain topical due to fierce competition and high failure rates.
fact that most studies were undertaken in developed nations. It This is in-line with a previous review of 165 cross-sectional
would be beneficial to extensively study strategic alliances in the alliance studies by Christoffersen (2013) who identified the main
services sector. The unit of analysis ranged from multinational HQs antecedents of performance in international strategic alliances
to subsidiaries, strategic alliances, joint ventures, franchising, (ISAs). In addition, Ren et al. (2009) not only reviewed the
licensing, networks and relationships. Licensing as a unit of influential factors of alliance performance, but also provided an
analysis was the least explored, suggesting there is a need to understanding of how such factors interact. Knowledge manage-
conduct more research in this area. ment has also become a key research area within the alliance
Methodologically, the strategic alliance literature could be literature (Kale et al., 2000; Lane et al., 2001; Meier, 2011; Simonin,
depicted as undergoing systematic improvement. This is evident 2004), with the most comprehensive review being undertaken by
from the use of robust sample sizes, high response rates and Meier (2011), who developed a comprehensive framework
probability sampling. All these have contributed to us gaining pertaining to the structure of knowledge management.
representative, reliable and valuable findings on strategic alliance In contrast, and in terms of relatively neglected areas,
issues. Nevertheless, there is still room for further improvement in negotiation has been under researched and will continue to play
terms of the use of sophisticated statistical methods as well as the a crucial role in the success of strategic alliances at the pre and post
modification of measurement scales to suit individual countries. agreement phase. Similarly, organisational justice, including
While previous reviews have tended to focus on specific aspects aspects related to interactional justice and its emotional aspects
of strategic alliances, hence providing a deeper understanding of has been somewhat under researched and this is surprising
each focal area, e.g. alliance rationale, choice of alliance type, and bearing in mind that a lack of this can lead to low commitment and
partner selection (Combs & Ketchen, 2003; Combs et al., 2004; performance in alliance relationships. Also, as previous research
Parkhe, 1993b), the relationship between internal and external has revealed the significance between cultural differences and
cooperation (Hillebrand & Biemans, 2003), small business alliances justice perception, future research should be channelled towards
 E. Gomes et al. / International Business Review 25 (2016) 15–27 25

providing us with further insights of these key, but under limitations associated with it. First, the research was restricted to
researched areas relating to strategic alliances. Other emerging twenty-two leading management journals and we therefore
themes such as leadership, decision making and HRM also warrant acknowledge that several other excellent management journals
greater research attention from scholars. Given the human have also made important contributions to the field of strategic
dimension associated with SAs, it is not surprising that the alliances. Given the importance of the human aspect associated
number of articles related to HRM issues has trebled over the last with strategic alliances and the relatively limited contribution of
two decades. Nevertheless, research in this area is scant, human related journals in this area, it may prove fruitful for such
suggesting that more studies need to be undertaken here. Though journals to further consider advancing knowledge in this area.
previous reviews have provided fresh insights into the various Perhaps further special issues relating to the human side of
facets of strategic alliances, many important topics have not been alliances, particularly on managing culture and individuals’
covered in such reviews. This study therefore provides some useful emotions that are vital for contributing to the longevity of SAs
insights that can provide the basis for further investigations into could be considered by the managing editors of these journals.
strategic alliances in a more systematic, thorough and effective Second, although our findings are of particular importance for
manner. scholars involved in the theoretical development of the subject,
Interestingly, research on pure theory development has they are likely to be of less relevance to practitioners. Further
gradually lost its popularity over time. Despite a general review articles could therefore aim to consider the wider practical
understanding that theory is useful for structuring knowledge in implications of such studies and likewise provide a thematic
a systematic way, there remains a constant need to focus on theory review relating to published manuscripts and how they may
advancement which plays a crucial role in sowing the seeds for the impact practitioners. Third, since we did not intend to undertake a
subject to develop further. Although there have been a few review bibliometric exercise, future reviews on the subject could consider
articles on the subject of strategic alliances, there is a need for using citation analysis to assess the impact of scholars and papers
more, particularly periodic assessment, as undertaken in this on the existing body of knowledge in the area of strategic alliances.
study, in order to provide a platform for future research to evolve. Such research in these areas has the potential to provide additional
Despite the various contributions of this study to the existing insights that will make an incremental contribution to the subject
body of knowledge on strategic alliances, there are also several further.

Appendix A. Previous reviews of the strategic alliance literature

Author(s) Year Source Title Methodology Theory

Christoffersen 2013 International Journal A review of antecedents of international Systematic review Transaction cost theory
of Management strategic alliance performance: Resource based theory
Reviews Synthesised evidence and new
directions for core constructs
Shi, Sun, and 2011 Journal of A temporal perspective of merger and Systematic review Organisation theory
Prescott Management acquisition and strategic alliance Transaction cost theory
initiatives: Review and future direction Real options theory
Meier 2011 International Journal Knowledge management in strategic Systematic review Knowledge base theory
of Management alliances: A review of empirical Agency theory
Reviews evidence
Parmigiani and 2011 Journal of Clearing a path through the forest: A Meta-review Organisation theory
Santos Management meta review of interorganisational Agency theory
relationships
Wassmer 2010 Journal of Alliance portfolios: A review and Conceptual Social network theory
Management research agenda Resource based theory
Culpan 2009 International Journal A fresh look at strategic alliances: Systematic review
of Strategic Business Research issues and future directions
Alliances
Ren, Gray, and Kim 2009 Journal of Performance of international joint Systematic framework Power-dependence theory
Management ventures: What factors really make a Real options theory
difference and how?
Street and Cameron 2007 Journal of Small External relationships and small Meta-analysis Resource based theory
Business Management business: A review of small business Power-dependence theory
alliances and network research
Nippa, Beechler, 2007 Management & Success factors for managing Theory-based framework N/A
and Klossek Organisation Review international joint ventures: A review
and an integrative framework
Robson, Skarmeas, 2006 International Behavioural attributes and performance Theory-based framework Agency theory
and Spyropoulou Marketing Review in international strategic alliances
review and future direction
Petrovic, Kakabadse, 2005 Management Decision International joint venture (IJV) Theory-based framework N/A
and Kadabadse directors’ contribution to board
effectiveness: Learning from the
literature
Combs, Michael, and 2004 Journal of Franchising: A review and avenues to Meta-review Resource scarcity,
Castrogiovanni Management greater theoretical diversity agency theory
Combs and Ketchen 2003 Journal of Why do firms use franchising as an Meta-analysis Resource scarcity,
Management entrepreneurial strategy? A meta- agency theory
analysis
Hillebrand and 2003 Journal of Business The relationship between internal and Theory-based framework Exploration/exploitation
Biermans Research external cooperation: Literature review framework
and propositions
26 E. Gomes et al. / International Business Review 25 (2016) 15–27

Appendix A (Continued )

Author(s) Year Source Title Methodology Theory

Robson, Leonidou, 2002 Management Factors influencing international joint Systematic review N/A
and Katsikeas International Review venture performance: Theoretical
perspectives, assessment, and future
directions
Parkhe 1993 Academy of Messy’ research, methodological
Management Review predispositions, and theory
development in international joint
ventures
Lyons 1991 Long Range Planning Joint-ventures as strategic choice – A Theory-based framework N/A
literature review
Note: N/A refers to not available.

connections for improved performance. Thunderbird International Business Review,

Acknowledgement , 13–35.
Gomes, E., Weber, Y., Brown, C., & Tarba, S. Y. (2011). Mergers, acquisitions, and strategic
We would like to thank Jinxing Bao for her collaboration in this alliances: Understanding the process. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Gulati, R., Nohria, N., & Zaheer, A. (2000). Strategic networks. Strategic Management
project.
Journal, 21, 203–215.
Hillebrand, B., & Biemans, W. G. (2003). The relationship between internal and external
cooperation: Literature review and propositions. Journal of Business Research, 56,
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