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Marine and Petroleum Geology xx (0000) xxx–xxx
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www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo
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Petroleum systems of the Upper Magdalena Valley, Colombia 64
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11 L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel* 67
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ECOPETROL, Instituto Colombiano del Petróleo (ICP), km 7 Autopista Piedecuesta, Bucaramanga AA P.B.X. 4185, Colombia
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14 Received 17 March 2003; received in revised form 10 November 2003; accepted 20 November 2003 70
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17 Abstract 73
18 74
In the Upper Magdalena Valley, Colombia, four petroleum systems were identified. Two petroleum systems are located in the
19 75
Girardot sub-basin and the other two in the Neiva sub-basin. Limestones laterally changing to shales of the lower part of the Villeta
20 76

F
Gp, deposited during Albian and Turonian marine flooding events, constitutes the main source rocks of the oil families. These rocks
21 77
contain 1– 4% TOC and type II kerogen. The littoral quartz arenites of the Caballos (Albian) and Monserrate (Maastrichtian) Fms.

O
22 are the main reservoir rocks. Seal rocks are Cretaceous and Paleocene shales. Overburden includes the Cretaceous rocks and the 78
23 Tertiary molasse deposited simultaneously with development of two opposite verging thrust systems during Cenozoic time. These 79
24
25
26
O
deformation events were responsible for trap creation. Except for the Villarrica area, where the source rock reached maturity during
the Paleocene, generation occurred during Miocene. Two oil families are identified, each in both sub-basins: One derived from a
clay-rich source and the second from a carbonate-rich source rock lithofacies of the lower part of Villeta Gp. Geochemical source-
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81
82
PR
27 rock to oil correlations are demonstrated for the three of the petroleum systems. Up-dip lateral migration distances are relatively short 83
28 and faults served as vertical migration pathways. A huge amount of oil was probably degraded at surface, as a result of Miocene 84
29 deformation and erosion. 85
q 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
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31 Keywords: Erosion; Miocene deformation; Upper Magdalena Valley 87

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TE

33 89
34 90
35 1. Introduction of recoverable oil and 91.9 BCF of gas had been 91
36 discovered in more than 30 accumulations and 92
EC

37 The Upper Magdalena Valley (UMV) is a narrow 287.5 MMbbl of oil had been produced. A total of 191 93
38 intermontane basin located along the southern upstream exploration wells and more than 300 appraisal and 94
39 portion of the Magdalena River Valley, between the Central 95
development wells have been drilled in the basin. In
40 and Eastern Cordilleras of the Colombian Andes. Precam- 96
spite of the basins’s petroliferous character, the existing
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41 brian to Jurassic igneous and metamorphic rocks and locally 97

knowledge about the petroleum systems in this basin is
42 Paleozoic sedimentary rocks crop out on the Central and 98
minimal.
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43 Eastern Cordilleras on both sides of the basin. The 99

Buitrago (1994) defined two petroleum systems in the
44 Natagaima structural high, where Triassic and Jurassic 100
southern Neiva subbasin, both related to the same source
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45 economic basement rocks crop out, divides the UMV into 101
rock of the Villeta Gp. Ecopetrol-Icp (1994) and Cordoba
46 the northern Girardot sub-basin and the southern Neiva 102
(1998) have also proposed petroleum systems schemes for
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47 subbasin (Fig. 1). 103

the UMV.
48 The UMV contains a number of commercial accumu- 104
This paper (1) Describes the sedimentary record of the
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49 lations of oil and gas. Between 1962 and 1982 several 105
50
UMV making emphasis on the sedimentary processes 106
oil fields were discovered just north of Neiva in the
controlling distribution and quality of the petroleum system
U

51 uppermost Cretaceous Monserrate Fm. Beginning in 1984 107

52 elements. (2) Discusses a geochemical approach for source 108
oil was discovered along the Dina-San Jacinto fault in
53 rock-oil correlation. (3) Identifies and describes the 109
the Aptian-Albian Caballos Fm. By 1994 542.1 MMbbl
54 petroleum systems of the UMV applying concepts and 110
55 * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 57-674-01-49; fax: þ57-644-5444. terminology discussed by Magoon (1992) and Magoon and 111
56 E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Rangel). Dow (1994). 112

0264-8172/$ - see front matter q 2004 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2003.11.019
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113 central part of the basin (Etayo Serna, 1994; Flórez & 169
114 Carrillo, 1994). Dark gray mudstones of the overlying El 170
115 Ocal Fm. (Source rock) recorded a southward marine 171
116 transgression, which reached its maximum flooding surface 172
117 (MFS) at the beginning of Albian time during deposition of 173
118 organic rich muds (average TOC from 0.5 to 2%) containing 174
119 mixed marine and continental organic matter. 175
120 Sequence 2. Middle Albian-Cenomanian (Fig. 2). A local 176
121 unconformity exists at the bottom of the Caballos Fm. 177
122 (Etayo-Serna, I994, Fig. 2) and was probably caused by a 178
123 slight tectonic uplift of the area. This sequence begins with 179
124 quartzitic sandstone of the Caballos Fm. (Reservoir rock) 180
125 interpreted as fluvial influenced littoral, beach or deltaic 181
126 deposits (Etayo-Serna, 1994; Flórez & Carrillo, 1994). 182
127 Succeeding black shale and limestone facies of the Villeta 183
128 Gp. (seal rock) record marine deposition on a shelf. This 184
129 recorded a new marine flooding event, which was more 185
130 intense toward the north. Maximum water depth was deeper 186
131 than normal weather wave base. Maximum flooding of the 187
132 shelf was reached during deposition of planktonic derived 188

F
133 fine-grained limestones and organic rich muds (TOC 1 – 4%) 189

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134 of the Tetuán Limestone (Source rock). The upper part of 190
135 the sequence, transitional from Tetuán Limestone to 191
Bambuca Shale, records deposition in shallower water and
136
137
138
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an increase of coastal influence with increasing detrital clay
input from the land and bioclastic lime beds deposited
192
193
194
PR
139 Fig. 1. Location map of the Upper Magdalena Valley (UMV), Colombia. during storms. 195
140 Sequence 3. Cenomanian-late Coniacian (Fig. 2). This 196
141 2. History of the Cretaceous and Cenozoic sedimentary sequence is represented in its lower part by the transition 197
142 and deformation processes as controlling mechanisms from gray shale (proximal shelf facies of the Bambuca 198
for petroleum elements distribution and quality Shale) to black fine-grained pelagic limestone (distal shelf
D

143 199
144 facies of the La Luna Limestone) as a deepening upward 200
Triassic and Jurassic sedimentation and volcanism occur trend. The La Luna Limestone (source rock) records water
TE

145 201
146 in a narrow rift, which define economic basement, rock deepening during the end of Cenomanian and beginning of 202
147 (Mojica & Bayer, 1987; Mojica & Dorado, 1987). Turonian. During deposition of La Luna Limestone (Iateral 203
148 The Aptian to Paleocene sedimentary rocks constitutes a equivalent of La Luna Fm.), occurred the Cretaceous 204
EC

149 major dominantly marine megasequence (Fig. 2). This maximum marine flooding event (MFS) occurred over an 205
150 megasequence includes a lower transgressive part that area extending from Venezuela to Peru (Fabre, 1985). This 206
151 records the onset of continental deposition (Yavı́ and planktonic derived micritic limestone unit contains abun- 207
152 Alpujarra Fms.), and transition to marine environments dant marine organic matter (Type II kerogen, average TOC I 208
R

153 (El Ocal and Caballos fms.). A medial portion recorded a to 4%, Fig. 3a and b). After the maximum flooding event 209
154 dominantly muddy to limy oxygen deficient marine shelf there was a water shallowing and a decrease of distance 210
R

155 deposition (Villeta Gp.), and an upper regressive and from the coastline, evident from a relative increase of fine 211
156 progradational part recorded by the change from marine to grained detrital sediment during deposition of the upper- 212
O

157 continental environments (Monserrate and Guaduala Fms., most part of the Villeta Gp. From middle Turonian to late 213
158 Etayo-Serna 1994). Coniacian this gradual progradation and shallowing upward 214
The Aptian Paleocene megasequence was formed by five
C

159 is interpreted to be related to a relative tectono-eustatic sea 215

160 major sequences (Fig. 2). The source rocks and the main level fall (Villamil, 1994). 216
reservoir rocks are part of this megasequence. Sequence 4. late Coniacian-earliest Campanian (Fig. 2).
N

161 217
162 Sequence 1. Aptian-Lower? to Middle? Albian (Fig. 2). During the late Coniacian to Santonian the transition from 218
After a period of non-deposition represented by the Jurassic- the uppermost Villeta Gp., deposited in an inner shelf, to the
U

163 219
164 Aptian unconformity, Aptian sedimentation started with lower chert unit of the Olini Gp, deposited on a deeper 220
165 gravels and red muds of the Yavı́ Fm deposited as alluvial middle shelf (Jaramillo & Yepez, 1994; Ramirez & 221
166 fans coming from the elevated borders of rift grabens. Then Ramirez, 1994), points to a deepening of the basin and a 222
167 the quartzitic sands of the Alpujarra Fm. (Reservoir rock) relative tectono-eustatic level rise (cf Etayo-Serna, 1994). 223
168 were deposited by a fluvial system on a valley along the Maximum flooding was reached during deposition of the 224

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F
245 301

O
246 302
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250
O 304
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306
PR
251 307
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D

255 311
256 312
TE

257 313
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259 315
260 316
EC

261 317
262 318
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264 320
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265 321
266 322
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267 323
Fig. 2. Generalized stratigraphic column of the UMV (modified after Geotec, 1994 and Etayo-Serna, 1994).
268 324
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269 325
270 lower chert unit of the Olini Gp. During Santonian to coarsening upward deposits from terrigenous silt to quartz 326
earliest Campanian, regression and progradation was sand in the upper part of the sequence. The Guaduala Fm.
C

271 327
272 recorded by the middle shale unit of the Olini Gp, mudstones (seal rock) record sea withdrawal, and then 328
Sequence 5. Earliest Campanian-Maastrichtian (Fig. 2). paralic and fluvial sedimentation. (Diaz Poveda, 1994a,b;
N

273 329
274 The lower sequence boundary occurs at the base of the Ramirez & Ramirez, 1994; Etayo-Serna, 1994; Rodriguez 330
middle shale unit of the Olini Gp. and the shallow water El & Castro, l994).
U

275 331
276 Cobre sandstones of Barrio and Coffield (1992) and Villamil The Cenozoic sedimentary record forms the third 332
277 (1994). The upper part of the sequence represented by the megasequence, its understanding is important because it 333
278 Monserrate and La Tabla fms. (Reservoir rock) records recorded (1) sedimentary and tectonic burial responsible 334
279 depositional environments shallowing from marine shelf to for petroleum generation and (2) deformation events 335
280 beach, and a progradation of the coast line as indicated by a responsible for petroleum traps. Its lower boundary is a 336

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337 393
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F
357 413

O
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O 416
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PR
363 419
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366 422
D

367 423
368 424
TE

369 425
370 426
371 427
372 428
EC

373 429
374 430
375 431
Fig. 3. (a). Lithofacies distribution of Tetuán Limestone and the La Luna Limestone (lower part of Villeta Gp.). (b). TOC l, HI and Tmax of the lower part of
376 432
Villeta Gp. (includes Tetuán Limestone, Bambuca Shale and Luna Limestone).
R

377 433
378 434
R

379 435
380 regional unconformity, which represents an Early Eocene transport active during Eocene to Oligocene time, and the 436
hiatus (Fig. 2), probably caused by an uplift of the basinal Eastern Cordillera system, with westward tectonic transport
O

381 437
382 area. During this time in some places (e.g. Natagaima active during the Miocene (Butler & Schamel, 1988). 438
high, Fig. 1) Cretaceous and Paleocene sediments were During the Eocene to Oligocene the basin has been
C

383 439
384 totally or partially eroded (cf. Anderson, 1972; Caicedo & interpreted as a foreland with sediments derived from 440
Roncancio, 1994). Erosion of uplifted fault blocks and uplifted and deformed thrust fault blocks of the paleo-
N

385 441
386 anticline crests occurred during structural deformation Central Cordillera (Cooper et al., 1995). However, there is 442
starting at the end of the Cretaceous and increasing during evidence of local deformation and uplift in the area of the
U

387 443
388 Early Eocene. Eastern Cordillera since the Paleogene (Gómez, 2001; 444
389 The Cenozoic megasequence of the UMV was deposited Sarmiento-Rojas, 2001). During the Miocene sediments 445
390 in dominantly continental environments. Two thrust and were derived from uplifted thrust blocks of both the Central 446
391 fold systems are present in the UMV (Butler & Schamel, and Eastern Cordilleras, and basin became intermontane 447
392 1988): the Central Cordillera system, with eastward tectonic (Sarmiento-Rojas, 2001). 448

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Table 1
Petroleum systems elements and oil reserves in the Upper Magdalena Valley

Petroleum system Main source rock Oil family Main reservoir rock Seal Trap Oil field Reservoir rock Oil in situ Reserves Oil produced
(MMbbl) (MMbbl) (MMbbl)

Villeta-Tertiary Lower Villeta Oil Family I Honda- Tertiary Estructural Toqui-Toqui Doima 29.0 5.8 1.0
Girardot Sub-basin
U Monserrate Claystones Pulı́ Monserrate 29.0 5.8 0.0
N Pacandé Caballos 6.0 1.2 0.4
C Totare Honda 29.0 0.6 0.2
Subtotal 93.0 13.4 1.6
Villeta-Caballos Lower Villeta Oil Family II Caballos Villeta Fm. Estructural Chenche Monserrate 5.0 1.0

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology xx (0000) xxx–xxx

Girardot Sub-basin O Ortega-Tetuan Caballos 155.1 31.2 12.3

Toy Caballos 38.1 7.6 0.2

R Toldado Caballos 50.0 10.0 3.8

ARTICLE IN PRESS
R Quimbaya Caballos 17.0 3.4 0.3
Pauta Caballos 9.0 0.3 0.0
Rı́o Saldana Caballos 27.9 2.1 0.0
EC Purificación Monserrate 57.0 11.4 1.6
Montañuelo Monserrate 28.0 5.6 1.9
Olini Caballos 5.0 1.0 0.0
Monserrate Monserrate 1.0 0.2
Revancha Monserrate 14.0 5.0
TE Venganza Monserrate 51.0 9.0
Subtotal 458.1 87.8 20.1
Villeta-Caballos Lower Villeta Oil Family I Caballos Villeta Fm. Estructural Balcón-Colombia Caballos 44.0 8.8 0.9
Neiva Sub-basin Hatonuevo-Loma Larga Caballos 6.8 3.0 1.9

D Tenay
San Francisco
Caballos
Caballos
20.0
675.0
5.1
135.0
5.3
65.7
Andalucı́a Honda 80.0 11.4 8.3
Subtotal PR 825.8 163.3 82.1
Villeta-Monserrate Lower Villeta Oil Family II Monserrate Guaduala Fm. Estructural Dina Terciario Honda 182.5 36.0 33.1
Neiva Sub-basin (4) Dina Cretácico Monserrate 125.0 48.5 40.8

O Cebú Monserrate 126.0 25.0 7.4

Pijao Monserrate 18.0 5.0 4.9
Tello Monserrate 230.0 46.0 51.5
OPalogrande Monserrate 214.5 42.9 30.2
Brisas Monserrate 28.2 7.0 6.1
Gigante Monserrate 175.0 35.0
Los Mangos-Yaguara
F Caballos 100.0 17.5 6.2
La Cañada Monserrate 12.2 2.4 1.3
La Jagua Honda 2.0 0.4 0.4
Santa Clara Caballos 11.8 4.6 3.1
Santa Clara Sur Caballos 5.0 1.0 0.0
Rio Ceibas Honda 42.5 8.5 0.1
Subtotal 1272.7 279.8 185.1
Total 2649.6 544.3 288.9

5
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561 3. Petroleum systems of the Upper Magdalena Valley maps (Fig. 3b) of the lower part of the Villeta Gp. resemble 617
562 paleogeography indicated on the lithofacies maps (Fig. 3a): 618
563 3.1. Petroleum source rock Toward the northwest planktonic derived carbonates are 619
564 present with abundant organic matter, TOC values (between 620
565
The Villeta Gp contains two main source rock strati- 1 and 4%). Hydrogen index values increases in this direction 621
566
graphic intervals responsible for most of the commercial oil reflecting that the distal pelagic part of the basin is 622
567
found in the UMV (Fig. 2, Tables 1 and 2). A minor amount characterized by oxygen deficient condition at the sea 623
568
of oil could have been generated by the EI Ocal Fm. and floor (distal shelf facies, cf. Sarmiento Rojas, 1989). 624
569
possibly from some Lower Cretaceous stratigraphic inter- Eastward there is a decrease of organic matter richness, 625
570
vals in the northeastern part of the basin (evident in the hydrogen index and planktonic carbonate and a relative 626
571
Suarez1 and Villarrica1 wells). increase of clay detritus input suggesting: proximity to a 627
572
Strata deposited during maximum marine flooding littoral zone shallowing water and more oxygen at the sea 628
573
events of the lower part of Villeta Gp. have oil- bottom probably due to bottom and surface water mixing 629
574
generating potential. The lower part of Villeta Gp. is produced by storms (proximal shelf facies; cf. Etayo-Serna, 630
575
305 –518 m (1000 – 1700 ft gross thickness) thick. The 1994; Sarmiento-Rojas, l989). In conclusion, strata depos- 631
576
main source rock intervals within the lower Villeta Gp. ited during maximum flooding events within the lower part 632
577
are the Tetuán Limestone and the La Luna Limestone, of Villeta Gp. (Tetuán Limestone and La Luna Limestone) 633
578
which are, respectively, 135 and 100 m. Thick. They are rich in marine organic matter (kerogen type ll.). In the 634
579
contain on average of 1 –4% TOC, and its hydrogen UMV, organic rich strata tend to be deposited close to 635
580 maximum flooding events (e.g. Curiale, 1992; Pasley, 636

F
index varies between 100 and 650 mg HC/gC. with most
581
values exceding 200 mg. HC/gC. They contain mixed Gregory, & Hart, 1991). 637

O
582 638
kerogen with a predominance of algal marine organic
583 639
matter over terrigenous organic matter. Maximum TOC 3.2. Crude oil geochemistry
584
585
586
and hydrogen index values occur in the distal calcareous
pelagic rocks of the western part of the area (Figs. 3b O
Seventy oil samples from different reservoirs of the basin
640
641
642
PR
and 4). (Table 3), were characterized The API gravity of these oils
587 643
Lithofacies maps of Tetuán Limestone and La Luna ranges from 19.1 to 36.48, the heavier of them showing
588 644
Limestone (Fig. 3a) are similar, they show a predominance partial removal of n-alkanes and isoprenoids but absence or
589 645
of pelagic micritic limestone (western distal shelf facies) scarce presence of 25-norhopane (norhopane/hopane ratio
590 646
and some detrital clays recording sediment input from an , 0.05), indicative of moderate biodegradation, generally
D

591 647
eastward detrital source area (eastern proximal shelf facies). toward the western part of the basin.
592 648
Near to the San Francisco1 well there is a clayrich lobe The sulfur varies from 0.31 to 2.81%. The sulfur content
TE

593 649
probably pro-deltaic in origin and in the northwest part of is commonly used to support oil– oil correlation. According
594 650
the Girardot sub-basin a smaller clay or sand rich lobe to Peters and Moldowan (1993), many high sulfur kerogen
595 651
recording turbidities deposition. TOC and hydrogen index and oils originate from clay poor marine rocks (e.g.
596 652
EC

597 Table 2 653

598 Average source rock data for Lower Villeta Formation (Tetuan and The La Luna Limestone) 654
599 655
Petroleum system Main source rock Studied well Average TOC Average Tmax Average HI Average S1 Average S2
600 (%) (8C) (mgHC/gC) (mgHC/gR) (mgHC/gR) 656
R

601 657
602 Villeta-Tertiary Lower Villeta Rosita-1 2.2 429 374 0.73 8.4 658
R

603 Girardot Sub-basin Pacandé-1 3.1 424 531 0.99 16.6 659
604 Suarez-1 1.8 465 100 1.10 2.0 660
Villeta-Caballos Lower Villeta Chenche-1 1.6 426 495 0.62 8.1
O

605 661
Girardot Sub-basin Toy-1 3.1 416 652 1.42 20.4
606 Toldado-1 3.0 421 547 1.56 16.5 662
C

607 Pauta-1 3.2 418 538 1.54 17.4 663

608 Olini-1 3.7 419 563 1.27 20.6 664
Boreal-1 3.2 424 441 0.67 13.9
N

609 665
Tolima-1 2.9 420 566 0.60 16.0
610 666
Coyaima-1 3.5 427 581 1.72 20.2
U

611 Villeta-Caballos Lower Villeta Balcón-1 2.5 428 437 0.85 10.9 667
612 Neiva Sub-basin San Francisco-1 2.1 425 419 0.77 8.7 668
613 Villeta-Monserrate Lower Villeta Los Mangos-1 2.1 425 434 0.51 9.0 669
614 Neiva Sub-basin Nilo-1 2.0 432 436 0.49 8.6 670
Santa Clara Sur-1 1.9 430 392 0.28 7.4
615 671
Tarqui-1 1.2 432 200 0.15 2.5
616 672

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673 729
674 730
675 731
676 732
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680 736
681 737
682 738
683 739
684 740
685 741
686 742
687 743
688 744
689 745
690 746
691 747
692 748

F
693 749

O
694 750
695 751
696
697
698
O 752
753
754
PR
699 755
700 Fig. 4. Pyrolysis geochemical well profiles (a) Coyaima-1, (b) San Francisco-1, (c) Cambulos-1. 756
701 757
702 758
carbonates) deposited under highly reducing conditions. constructed using source related biomarker ratio averages
D

703 759
Conversely in marine siliclastics rock, metals may out- converted to indexes (Table 2). According to the cluster
704 760
compete organic matter for reduced sulfur, leading to low- analyses (Fig. 5a), two oil families were identified. The oil
TE

705 761
sulfur kerogen and oil. Family I constituted by the oils from the Andalucı́a-1,
706 762
Certain biomarker ratios of UMV oils are characteristic Balcón-1, Providencia-1, Hato Nuevo-1, Pacandé-1, Totaré-
707 763
of VSM oils (Table 3). For example, hopanes predominate 7 and San Francisco 114 wells; and the oil Family II
708 764
over tricyclic terpanes, signifying according to Ourisson composed by the oils from the Chenche-1, Purificación-2,
EC

709 765
et al. (1982) an important bacterial input on the kerogen. Dina K-15, La Jagua-1, Toldado-1, Santa Clara-1, Dina T-
710 766
The gammacerane/C30 hopane ratios reach values up to 12, Los Mangos-1, La Cañada-6 and Gigante-1 wells and
711 767
712
0.25, indicating a marine-saline depositional environment the oil seep La Cañada. Fig. 5b shows the oil family II as 768
(Moldowan et al., 1985). Oleanane, an Upper Cretaceous/
R

713 derived from a source rock deposited in more marine-anoxic 769

714
Tertiary indicator derived from upper plants (Peters & conditions than the oil Family I. 770
Moldowan, 1993; Ten Haven et al., 1988), is present in very
R

715 Oil Family I is characterized by a higher pristane/phytane 771

716
low concentration (oleanane/hopane ratio less than 0.02). ratio (1.17 to 2.4), lower content of sulfur (0.31 –0.83%), 772
The C34/35 hopane ratios are higher than 0.5 and the
O

717 relatively more abundant diasteranes (diasteranes/steranes 773

718
diasterane/regular sterane ratios lower than 1.25. Both ratio from 0.81 to 1.25), presence of diahopane and low 774
biomarker ratio values indicate a depositional environment C29/C30 hopane ratio. This oil family originated from a
C

719 775
720
with carbonate input/and anoxic conditions (Peters and source rock largely argillaceous with some minor carbonate, 776
Moldowan, 1991; Mello et al., 1988; Peters and Moldowan, deposited in a dysoxic marine environment. Crude oils of
N

721 777
722
1993 and Moldowan et al., 1992). this family are located on areas where source rock intervals 778
of the Villeta Gp. are clay-rich (Figs. 3 and 7).
U

723 779
724 3.2.1. Oil families Oil Family II has a rather lower pristane/phytane ratio 780
725 An approach to the grouping of oils was achieved by (less than 1.7), higher content of sulfur (0.63 –2.81%), 781
726 statistical methods of hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), relatively lower diasteranes/steranes ratio (0.41 – 0.74), 782
727 crossplots (Fig. 5), GC fingerprint, hopane and sterane higher steranes/hopane ratios and more amounts of 783
728 fragmentograms (Fig. 6). The HCA dendogram was gammacerane and bisnorhopane than oil Family I. These 784

JMPG 692—8/2/2004—05:36—SIVABAL—93442— MODEL 5

 840
839
838
837
836
835
834
833
832
831
830
829
828
827
826
825
824
823
822
821
820
819
818
817
816
815
814
813
812
811
810
809
808
807
806
805
804
803
802
801
800
799
798
797
796
795
794
793
792
791
790
789
788
787
786
785
JMPG 692—8/2/2004—05:37—SIVABAL—93442— MODEL 5

8
U
Table 3
N
Bulk geochemical parameters and some biomarker ratios and indexes for oils

Well/seepage Interval
C Formation 8API Sulphur Pristane/ Diasterane/ Tm/Tm C28Bisnor-
gravity (%) Phytane Esterane þ Ts hopane/
Oleanane/ Gamma- C35/C35 C23Tricyclic/ C29S/S C29aa/aa C25
Olea þ C30 cerane/Gam þ C34 C23Tri þ C30 þ R þ bb Norhopane/
O C28Bis þ C30 Hopane þ C30

L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology xx (0000) xxx–xxx

Hopanes Hopane C30Hopane
Hopane Hopane

Andalucı́a-34 1806-1829 Doima

R 33 0.38 2.4 1.12 0.64 0.03 0.01 0.10 0.36 0.21 0.33 0.32 0.01

ARTICLE IN PRESS
Balcón-1 9631-9716 Caballos Sr. 33.7
R 0.34 1.7 1.25 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.09 0.36 0.25 0.37 0.31 0.01
Hato Nuevo-1 6204-6691 Caballos 36.4 0.31 2.19 1.06 0.42 0.02 0.01 0.09 0.33 0.17 0.32 0.34 0.01
Pacandé-1 5930-6490 Villeta 27.9 0.86 1.17 1.18 0.52 0.08 0.01 0.08 0.40 0.29 0.39 0.36 0.01
Providencia-1 5380-5700 Villeta- 28 EC 0.42 1.66 0.91 0.44 0.02 0.02 0.10 0.30 0.28 0.3 0.35 0.01
Caballos
San Francisco 1835-1845 Tetuan 26.6 0.51 1.63 0.81 0.49 0.03 0.01 0.09 0.34 0.23 nd nd 0.01
114
Totare-7 Honda 21.9 0.83 1.59 1.21 0.49 0.07 0.02 0.07 0.38 0.32 0.39 0.32 0.04
Chenche-1 4557-4678 Doima 32.1 0.75 1.16 0.41 0.55 0.15 0.03 0.14 0.43 0.29 0.32 0.29 0.03
Dina K-15 6000-6405 Monserrate 21.3 1.07 1.17
TE 0.6 0.58 0.05 0.02 0.11 0.43 0.31 0.32 0.31 0.05
Dina T-12 1890-2568 Honda Ir. 20.3 1.8 1.2 0.55 0.62 0.07 0.03 0.12 0.44 0.42 0.32 0.31 0.05
Gigante-1 13140-13306 Monserrate 23.5 1.32 1.36 nd 0.59 0.09 0.04 0.12 0.46 0.46 0.36 0.35 nd
La Cañada-6 Mezcla Caballos 21 2.22 1.1 0.59 D 0.66 0.13 0.02 0.11 0.45 0.46 0.3 0.32 nd
La Jagua-1 5262-5320 HONDA 21.2 0.82 1.7 0.68 0.58 0.03 0.01 0.11 0.41 0.30 0.31 0.3 nd
Los Mangos-1 2500-3000 Caballos Ir. 21 1.89 1.1 0.45 0.65 0.09 0.02 0.11 0.46 0.40 0.26 0.3 0.04
Man Bloque Superficie Caballos nd 2.55 Biode. nd 0.57 PR 0.15 0.06 0.06 0.49 0.48 nd nd nd
Colombia
Man Hda El Superficie nd nd 2.51 Biode. nd 0.59 0.08 0.02 0.05 0.45 0.57 nd nd nd
Darién
Man La Cañada Superficie Bas-Villeta nd 1.57 Biode. 0.72 0.49 0.07 0.01 0.20 0.39 0.25 0.3 0.25 nd
Man San Superficie Villeta Ir. nd 0.98 Biode. nd 0.52 0.03 O 0.01 0.09 0.40 0.29 0.32 0.27 nd
Francisco
Purificación-2 Guadalupe 34.2 0.63 1.25 0.36 0.57 0.15 0.03 0.15 0.40 0.34 0.31 0.28 nd
Santa Clara-1 2714-2747 Caballos Sr. 19.1 1.43 1.5 0.68 0.55 0.04 0.03
O 0.14 0.32 0.28 0.32 0.31 0.02
Toldado-1 5360-5789 Caballos 17.4 2.81 1.39 0.74 0.68 0.11 0.01 0.07 0.45 0.32 0.33 0.33 0.01
nd: no data F
896
895
894
893
892
891
890
889
888
887
886
885
884
883
882
881
880
879
878
877
876
875
874
873
872
871
870
869
868
867
866
865
864
863
862
861
860
859
858
857
856
855
854
853
852
851
850
849
848
847
846
845
844
843
842
841
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology xx (0000) xxx–xxx 9

897 953
898 954
899 955
900 956
901 957
902 958
903 959
904 960
905 961
906 962
907 963
908 964
909 965
910 966
911 967
912 968
913 969
914 970
915 971
916 972

F
917 973

O
918 974
919 975
920
921
922
O 976
977
978
PR
923 Fig. 5. Crude oil geochemistry. (a) Cluster analysis for oil families based on biomarker indicators of depositional environment, (b) Oil–oil correlation based on 979
indicators of depositional environment. (c) Oil-source rock correlation based on indicators of depositional environment. (d) Oil to source rock correlation based
924 980
on maturity parameters.
925 981
926 982
D

927 983
928 984
TE

929 985
930 986
931 987
932 988
EC

933 989
934 990
935 991
936 992
R

937 993
938 994
R

939 995
940 996
O

941 997
942 998
C

943 999
944 1000
N

945 1001
946 1002
U

947 1003
948 1004
949 1005
950 1006
951 1007
952 Fig. 6. Gas chromatograms (GC), m=z 191 and m=z 217 mass chromatograms from oils representatives of Family I and Family II. 1008

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 ARTICLE IN PRESS
10 L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology xx (0000) xxx–xxx

1009 1065
1010 1066
1011 1067
1012 1068
1013 1069
1014 1070
1015 1071
1016 1072
1017 1073
1018 1074
1019 1075
1020 1076
1021 1077
1022 1078
1023 1079
1024 1080
1025 1081
1026 1082
1027 1083
1028 1084

F
1029 1085

O
1030 1086
1031 1087
1032
1033
1034
O 1088
1089
1090
PR
1035 1091
1036 1092
1037 1093
1038 1094
D

1039 1095
1040 1096
TE

1041 1097
1042 1098
1043 1099
1044 1100
EC

1045 1101
1046 1102
1047 1103
Fig. 7. Petroleum systems map of the UMV.
1048 1104
R

1049 1105
1050 features suggest an origin from a more calcareous source important to point out that five samples from the Tetuán unit 1106
R

1051 rock than oil Family I, deposited in anoxic marine show the same maturity level as the oils indicating good 1107
1052 environment. correlation in terms of maturity rank. The oils in general 1108
O

1053 appear to be moderately mature, indicating a possible 1109

1054 3.2.2. Source rock to oil correlation correlation with early mature source rock. 1110
The terpane and sterane data (Tables 3 and 4) and Fig. 5c Tetuán unit extracts from the Rosita-1 and Balcon-1
C

1055 1111
1056 indicate a good correlation among the two oil Families and wells correlate with oil family I (Fig. 5c), and show the same 1112
some Tetuán unit extracts. The similarities are associated to maturity level of these oils (Fig. 5d). Tetuán unit extract
N

1057 1113
1058 the lithological character of the source rock, the type of from the Nilo-1 well correlates with oil family II (Fig. 5c) 1114
kerogen and the interpreted depositional environment. A and shows a maturity level close to that of the oils (Fig. 5d)
U

1059 1115
1060 good match is not observed between the data from La Luna 1116
1061 unit bitumens and the identified oil families (Fig. 5c). 3.3. Pods of active source rock and petroleum systems 1117
1062 Regarding the maturity deduced from sterane isomeriza- 1118
1063 tion (Fig. 5d), the bitumens from La Luna and Tetuán have Source rock maturity measurements are on samples 1119
1064 not reached the peak of oil generation (Fig. 5d). However, is recovered from wells drilled on structural highs and 1120

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 ARTICLE IN PRESS
L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology xx (0000) xxx–xxx 11
C29 aa/aa

1121 outcrops, where the Villeta Gp is dominantly immature 1177

1122 (pyrolysis Tmax Iess than 435 8C). Mature source rock is 1178
þ bb

0.16
0.23
0.35
0.20
0.30
0.19
0.35
0.32
0.22
0.35
0.18
0.18
0.21
0.20
0.34
1123 only indicated in a few wells (e.g. Apicala-1, Suarez1, and 1179
1124 Villarrica1) located in the northeastern and eastern part of 1180
C29S/S

1125 the basin toward the Eastern Cordillera. Although in most of 1181
þR

0.15
0.32
0.42
0.12
0.35
0.14
0.41
0.44
0.23
0.42
0.15
0.12
0.30
0.24
0.40
1126 the UMV the source rock intervals are predominantly 1182
1127 immature Tmax data indicate mature samples in local 1183
C23Tri þ C30
C23Tricyclic/

1128 depocenters or below thrust sheets mainly in the lowermost 1184

part of the Villeta Gp. (Fig. 4). These data and maturity
Hopane

1129 1185
0.28
0.34
0.22
0.17
0.14
0.18
0.29
0.33
0.13
0.36
0.24
0.33
0.21
0.27
0.15
1130 modeling using the BASINMOD software suggest that the 1186
1131 UMV oil source rocks reached maturity by Sediment and/or 1187
1132 tectonic burial. 1188
C35/C35 þ C34

1133 1189
Hopanes

1134 1190
3.4. Burial due to normal sediment accumulation
0.48
0.41
0.32
0.53
0.37
0.46
0.38
0.44
0.33
0.47
0.50
0.54
0.42
0.52
0.29

1135 1191
1136 1192
This mechanism was responsible for organic maturation
Gammacerane/

1137 1193
in depocenters where sediment thickness reached a
Gam þ C30

1138 1194
maximum prior to any tectonic burial. We identified the
Hopane

1139 1195
following pods of active source rock in this category (Figs. 7
0.12
0.10
0.04
0.09
0.08
0.09
0.06
0.07
0.09
0.08
0.12
0.07
0.08
0.11
0.07

1140 1196

F
1141
and 8): 1197
(1) Villarrica active source rock pod. (Fig. 7). Located in

O
Olea þ C30

1142 1198
Oleanane/

the most northeastern part of the study area in the present

Hopane

1143 1199
day Eastern Cordillera near the Villarrica1 well, mainly east
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.03

1144
1145
O
of the Magdalena thrust fault. The northern part of this area
was a significant Cretaceous depocenter. Subsidence in this
1200
1201
þ C30Hopane

1146 1202
PR
C28Bisnorho-

part of the basin was driven by Early Cretaceous rifting

pane/C28Bis

1147 1203
1148 (Sarmiento Rojas, 2001). The highest measured maturity 1204
levels on the northern part (468 – 506 8C Tmax values in the
0.33
0.01
0.02
0.16
0.02
0.24
0.01
0.06
0.12
0.05
0.06
0.31
0.01
0.23
0.01

1149 1205
1150 Villarrica-1 well), and lowest porosity values measured on 1206
Lower Cretaceous sandstones, are evidence of a more
Tm/Tm

1151 1207
þ Ts

intense organic and inorganic diagenesis here compared to

0.67
0.57
0.33
0.89
0.51
0.66
0.43
0.53
0.53
0.64
0.84
0.69
0.58
0.71
0.64

1152 1208
other parts of the basin. The burial history chart for the
TE

1153 1209
Suarez-1 well (Fig. 9a) shows that in this kitchen, source
C23Tri þ C24
C23Tricyclic/

1154 1210
Tetracyclic

1155 rocks reached the oil window during the Paleocene, and that 1211
1156 a significant thickness of overburden rock 1212
0.90
0.91
0.72
0.79
0.60
0.78
0.85
0.84
0.61
0.86
0.73
0.86
0.80
0.86
0.51

(. 3048 m ¼ 10.000 ft) has been eroded since the Miocene

EC

1157 1213
1158 as indicated by mature rocks very close to the surface. 1214
C27Sterane/
C27 þ C29

1159 According to lithofacies distribution maps of the lower 1215

Sterane

1160 part of Villeta Gp. (Fig. 3a) the active source rock is clay- 1216
0.93
0.77
0.68
0.91
0.72
0.90
0.68
0.73
0.81
0.66
0.92
0.94
0.77
0.80
0.70
R

1161 rich in the northern part of this pod. Oils from the Totare, 1217
1162 Pulı́, Toqui-toqui and Pacandé oil fields present biomarker 1218
Diasterane/

1163 characteristics of oils derived from siliclastic source rock, 1219

Sterane

1164 indicating that these Family I oils were probably derived 1220
0.34
0.64
1.25
0.33
1.31
0.37
1.59
1.38
0.40
0.71
0.38
0.18
0.59
0.45
1.96
O

1165 from this clay-rich northern part of the Villarrica pod. 1221
1166 Tetuán unit extracts from the Rosita-1 well geochemically 1222
Pristane/
Phytane

correlate to the oil family I and has the same maturity

C

1167 1223
1.25
1.27
1.40
1.04
1.72
1.08
1.51
0.97
1.69
2.49
1.51
1.30
0.81
0.82
1.31

1168 level as the oils. However, the Tetuán unit in this well is 1224
Biomarker indexes for extracts

early mature and could not have generated an important

N

1169 1225
Formation

Tet-Bamb
Tet-Bamb
Bambucá

volume of oil. Oils of the Family I probably originated

La Luna
La Luna
La Luna
La Luna

1170 1226
Tetuán

Tetuán
Tetuán
Tetuan

Tetuán
Tetuán
Tetuán
Tetuán

from a similar but more mature facies eastward in the

U

1171 1227
1172 Villarrica pod. 1228
1173 Lithofacies maps also show carbonate-rich source rock in 1229
Cámbulos-1

Miravalle-1
Coyaima-1

Coyaima-1
Chanche-1
Mangos-1

the southern part of this pod. Oils from the near

Tolima-1
Balcón-1

Balcón-1
Balcón-1

1174 1230
Boreal-1

Tarqui-1

Tarqui-1
Rosita-1
Table 4

Nilo-1

1175 Purificación-2, Chenche-1 and Toldado-1 wells correlate 1231

Well

1176 with carbonate-rich source-rock as indicated by biomarker 1232

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 ARTICLE IN PRESS
12 L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology xx (0000) xxx–xxx

1233 1289
1234 1290
1235 1291
1236 1292
1237 1293
1238 1294
1239 1295
1240 1296
1241 1297
1242 1298
1243 1299
1244 1300
1245 1301
1246 1302
1247 1303
1248 1304
1249 1305
1250 1306
1251 1307
1252 1308

F
1253 1309

O
1254 1310
1255 1311
1256
1257
1258
O 1312
1313
1314
PR
1259 1315
1260 1316
1261 1317
1262 1318
D

1263 1319
1264 1320
TE

1265 1321
1266 1322
1267 1323
1268 1324
EC

1269 1325
1270 1326
1271 1327
1272 1328
R

1273 1329
1274 1330
R

1275 1331
1276 1332
O

1277 1333
1278 1334
C

1279 Fig. 8. Schematic structural cross-sections of the UMV Petroleum systems at their critical moment. The structural interpretation from seismic lines has been 1335
1280 taken from Ecopetrol et al. (1998). 1336
N

1281 1337
1282 analyses, (oil Family II). These oils probably were derived data from the Libano-1, Nilo-1, Tarqui-1 and Altamira-1 1338
from the southern carbonate-rich part of the Villarrica pod. wells near this area indicate intervals of early mature
U

1283 1339
1284 (2) Neiva syncline active source rock pod (Fig. 7). source rock in the lower part of the Villeta Gp. (Fig. 7). 1340
1285 This pod is located in the Tertiary depocenter where Oil generation modeling (Fig. 9d) indicate that the lower 1341
1286 Miocene sediments reach their maximum thickness. part of Villeta Gp. reached the top of the main oil 1342
1287 These Miocene sediments were deposited when the window at 3505 m (11,500 ft) depth during the beginning 1343
1288 basin acquired an intermontane character. Tmax pyrolysis of the Miocene, and the top of the late oil window at 1344

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 ARTICLE IN PRESS
L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology xx (0000) xxx–xxx 13

1345 1401
1346 1402
1347 1403
1348 1404
1349 1405
1350 1406
1351 1407
1352 1408
1353 1409
1354 1410
1355 1411
1356 1412
1357 1413
1358 1414
1359 1415
1360 1416
1361 1417
1362 1418
1363 1419
1364 1420

F
1365 1421

O
1366 1422
1367 1423
1368
1369
1370
O 1424
1425
1426
PR
1371 1427
1372 1428
1373 1429
1374 1430
D

1375 1431
1376 1432
TE

1377 1433
1378 1434
1379 1435
1380 1436
EC

1381 1437
1382 1438
1383 1439
1384 1440
R

1385 1441
1386 1442
R

1387 1443
1388 1444
O

1389 1445
1390 Fig. 9. Burial history charts of the petroleum systems of the UMV. (a) Villeta-Honda(!) petroleum system associated with the Villarrica kitchen, (b) Villeta- 1446
C

1391 Caballos(!) and Villeta-Monserrate (!) petroleum systems associated with the Neiva syncline kitchen, (c) Villeta-Caballos (.) petroleum system associated with 1447
1392 the Coyaima kitchen, (d) Villeta-Caballos (!) petroleum system associated with the San Francisco kitchen and Villeta-Monserrate (!) petroleum system 1448
associated with the Chusma kitchen.
N

1393 1449
1394 1450
3962 m (13,000 ft) depth, during the Middle Miocene. Yaguará and La Cañada oil fields to this pod, and the
U

1395 1451
1396 The bottom of the late oil window was reached at existence in these fields of oils derived from a 1452
1397 4572 m (15,000 ft) depth at the end of Miocene. dominantly calcareous source rock, as indicated by 1453
1398 Lithofacies distribution maps (Fig. 3a) show a dom- biomarker studies (oil family II) suggest that these oils 1454
1399 inantly carbonate source rock in the southern part of this were generated from the Neiva syncline pod. Tetuán unit 1455
1400 pod. Geographic proximity of the Gigante, Los Mangos, extracts from the Nilo-1 well geochemically correlate to 1456

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 ARTICLE IN PRESS
14 L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology xx (0000) xxx–xxx

1457 the oil family II and show maturity level close to that of (4) San Francisco active source rock pod (Figs. 7 and 8). 1513
1458 the oils (Fig. 5c and d). Source rock lithofacies distribution maps (Fig. 3a) in the 1514
1459 San Francisco area show a predominance of shale. Tmax 1515
1460 3.5. Paleo-normal sedimentation burial and burial due to pyrolysis data from the lowermost part of Villeta Gp below 1516
1461 Tectonic stacking of thrust sheets thrust sheets in this area (Ilona-1 and Balcon-1 wells) 1517
1462 indicate local pods of early mature source rock. An extract 1518
1463 Volumetrically most of the oil discovered in the UMV from a rock sample from the Balcon-1 well below a thrust 1519
1464 is derived from carbonate rich source rocks (oil Family II, sheet shows the same maturity level as geochemically 1520
1465 Table 1), that are mainly distributed in the western part of correlated family I oils in this area. Oils from the Andalucı́a, 1521
1466 the basin (Fig. 3a). Maturity data in this western area Balcón, Hatonuevo, La Jagua and San Francisco oil fields as 1522
1467 indicates that normal sediment accumulation burial was well as San Francisco oil seep have been classified as oil 1523
1468 not enough to generate oil. In order to explain the Family I, derived from a shale, indicating the existence of a 1524
1469 significant volumes of oil derived from carbonate rich petroleum system related to the San Francisco pod (Table 1 1525
1470 source rocks in this area generation probably occurred and Fig. 7). The present-day source rock depth as estimated 1526
1471 below thrust sheets in the western part of the basin (Fig. from seismic lines is shallower than the calculated top of the 1527
1472 4). Burial due to tectonic thrust sheet stacking has been oil-generative window, suggesting that generation occurred 1528
1473 demonstrated in the Coyaima area. There, rock samples in this area below an overburden rock thickness that latter 1529
1474 from the hanging wall of thrust faults (Cucuana back was eroded. Also, thrust sheets of the San Francisco and 1530
1475 thrust, samples collected in Tetuán, Toldado and Coyaima Chusma thrusts may have contributed to source rock 1531
1476 wells) are immature, whereas outcrop samples (collected maturity. 1532

F
1477 along Coyaima-Ataco road) from the footwall of the same 1533

O
1478 thrust faults are mature. Vergara (1994) also reported 1534
3.6. Reservoir rock
1479 mature footwall outcrop samples from this area. The 1535
presence of mature source rock at surface (Fig. 4)
1480
1481
1482
indicates erosion of important thicknesses of overburden,
probably as a result of local uplift and exhumation on the O
Most of the discovered oil of the UMV is reservoired in
the Caballos Fm., which is the main reservoir rock unit
1536
1537
1538
PR
1483 crest of growing structures. Taking into account that most (Table 1, Fig. 2). The best quality reservoir rock occurs 1539
1484 wells have not penetrated the footwall block of thrust within the upper part of the formation. Reservoir rock is 1540
1485 faults, there are few samples available to demonstrate dominantly quartz arenite containing more than 95% quartz. 1541
1486 pods of active source rock in the most of the UMV. The porosity distribution is normal with an average greater 1542
However, biomarker data from source rock extracts than 12% (10 – 25%), Except for some sandstone bodies
D

1487 1543
1488 mainly from the lowermost part of the Villeta Gp. (i.e. where dissolution of unstable minerals contributes to a high 1544
Rosita-1, Coyaima-1, Ilona-1, Balcon-1, Libano-1, Nilo-1, percentage of the total porosity, the dominant porosity of the
TE

1489 1545
1490 Tarqui-1 and Alltamira-1 wells) show the same maturity Caballos Fm. is primary intergranular (Alba Gladys Mesa, 1546
1491 level of correlatable oils (Fig. 5) demonstrating at least personal communication). Permeability values range from 1547
1492 local generation of hydrocarbons. Based on these local 100 mD to 4 Darcies (Houseknecht, 1991). 1548
EC

1493 data and on structural seismic interpretation and maturity The second most important reservoir rock unit by volume 1549
1494 modeling using the fault option of BASlNMOD, we of oil in place in the UMV is the Monserrate Fm. (Fig. 2). It 1550
1495 predict the existence of pods of mature source rock where is the main reservoir rock of the oil generated in the San 1551
1496 source rock reached maturity due to thrust sheet stacking Francisco, Neiva syncline and Villarrica (Pulı́ oil field) 1552
R

1497 in the following places (Figs. 6 and 7). active source rock pods. The reservoir rock is quartz arenite 1553
1498 (3) Coyaima active source rock pod (Figs. 7 and 8). This containing more than 96% quartz, dominantly monocrystal- 1554
R

1499 effective source rock pod is located in the footwall block of line. Porosity values range from 13 to 28%. Primary 1555
1500 the Cucuana thrust fault, near Coyaima, where the analysis porosity predominates. Permeability values vary from 1556
O

1501 of outcrop samples indicated mature source rock. A source 10 mD to almost 8 Darcies (Houseknecht, 1991). 1557
1502 rock extract from the lowermost part of the Villeta Gp. Reservoir rocks of the Totare and Toquitoqui oil fields 1558
containing oils generated from the Villarrica active source
C

1503 below the thrust sheets shows the same maturity level as the 1559
1504 oils as indicated by biomarker data (Fig. 5d). Maturity and rock pod, are the Honda Fm. and the Doima Fm. 1560
oil generation modeling of a representative section of this respectively. These formations and the Chicoral Fm. are
N

1505 1561
1506 area (Fig. 9b), with a structural repetition of all Cretaceous volumetrically less important reservoir rocks (Fig. 2). These 1562
and Tertiary stratigraphic units up to Potrerillo Fm. reservoir rocks are lithic feldspathic sandstones (24 –34%
U

1507 1563
1508 indicates that the lower part of Villeta Gp. reached the top quartz, 14 –28% feldspar and 38– 62% lithic fragments), 1564
1509 of the oil window at 2926 m (9600 ft) depth, during the with porosity values from 4 to 20%. Those rocks show 1565
1510 Miocene. Lithofacies distribution maps (Fig. 3a) indicate secondary porosity, primary porosity and micro-porosity. 1566
1511 relatively calcareous source rocks in the pod that may have The presence of unstable minerals makes these rocks 1567
1512 generated some oil. susceptible to formation damage (Houseknecht, 1991). 1568

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1569 3.7. Seal rock would have re-migrated from their original traps to the 1625
1570 present day traps and the new reservoir rocks were in the 1626
1571 Volumetrically, shales and fine-grained limestones of the Tertiary units. This hypothesis needs to be tested with better 1627
1572 Villeta Gp. are the most important seal rocks for the oil data from the above mentioned oil fields and from the oil 1628
1573 accumulated within Caballos Fm. Mudstones of the source rocks of the Eastern Cordillera. However, this 1629
1574 Guaduala Fm. are seal rocks for oils accumulated in the hypothesis is necessary to explain the existence of these oil 1630
1575 Monserrate Fm. Other minor important seal rocks are fields, otherwise the timing condition would not be satisfied. 1631
1576 mudstones of the Honda Fm. and other Tertiary rock units 1632
1577 (Fig. 2). 3.10. Petroleum systems and migration pathways 1633
1578 Seal rocks of the Villeta Gp., Guaduala Fm. and Tertiary 1634
1579 rock units, in some places have been truncated during We propose four petroleum systems in the UMV: 1635
1580 erosion events genetically related to the Lower Eocene and 1636
1581 Miocene unconformities. In addition, the seal capacity of 1. Villeta (Tetuán-La Luna)-Tertiary (!) petroleum system 1637
1582 these rocks has been reduced by faulting, resulting in local in the Girardot sub-basin. Family I oils were derived 1638
1583 but no regional seals over all the UMV. from clay-rich source rocks from the Villarrica pod as 1639
1584 suggested by geochemical correlation between extracts 1640
1585 3.8. Overburden rock from the Rosita-1 well from this pod and oil family I oils. 1641
1586 2. Villeta (Tetuán-La Luna)-Caballos (·) petroleum system 1642
1587 Overburden rock includes all Cretaceous and Tertiary in the Girardot sub-basin. Family II oils were possible 1643
1588 stratigraphic units overlying the lower part of the Villeta Gp derived from carbonate rich source rock from the 1644

F
1589 (Fig. 2) and thrust sheets locally. Overburden rock thickness Villarrica and Coyaima pods. 1645

O
1590 are shown in the burial history charts (Fig. 9c) 3. Villeta (Tetuán-La Luna)-Caballos (!) petroleum system 1646
1591 in the Neiva sub-basin. Family I oils were derived from 1647
3.9. Traps clay-rich source rocks from the Neiva syncline and San
1592
1593
1594 Almost all traps are structural or have a strong structural O
Francisco pods, as suggested by geochemical correlation
between oils and source rock extracts from Balcon-1
1648
1649
1650
PR
1595 component The biggest oil field, San Francisco, is an well. 1651
1596 anticline; other oil fields are trapped by faulted anticlines, 4. Villeta (Tetuán-La Luna)-Monserrate (!) petroleum 1652
1597 faults and/or unconformities. Oil fields with the Honda Gp. system in the Neiva sub-basin. Family II oils probably 1653
1598 as a reservoir have a stratigraphic component due to the were derived from carbonate-rich source rocks from 1654
lenticular character of the reservoir rock. Except for the La
D

1599 the Neiva syncline and San Francisco pods as 1655

1600 Cañada field, all oil fields are full to spill point (Buitrago, suggested by geochemical correlation between oils 1656
1994). and source rock extracts from the Nilo-1 well.
TE

1601 1657
1602 Structural traps formed by deformation associated with 1658
1603 the development of the fold and thrust belts of the east- Because there are lateral changes in source rock 1659
1604 verging Central Cordillera thrust system during Paleogene lithofacies (clay-rich to carbonate-rich) within a single 1660
EC

1605 and the west-verging Eastern Cordillera thrust system active source rock pod, different oil families were generated 1661
1606 during several events occurred during Cenozoic time, within the same pod. 1662
1607 although the most intensive deformation seems to have Comparison between lithofacies distribution of the lower 1663
1608 been in the Miocene. It is possible that Paleogene structures part of Villeta Gp., geochemical signature of source rock 1664
R

1609 were been rejuvenated during the Miocene. Traps that store extracts, oil family distribution and geochemical signature, 1665
1610 oils derived from the Neiva sub-basin were formed since allows a correlation between oils and pods of mature source 1666
R

1611 Paleogene or mainly during Miocene depending on their rocks for each petroleum system. According to these results 1667
1612 relation to the Central Cordillera thrust system or to the the certainty levels can be recognized as known (!), except 1668
O

1613 Eastern Cordillera thrust system respectively (Butler & for the petroleum system two, which level of certainty can 1669
1614 Schamel, 1988). be defined as hypothetical (·). 1670
The stratigraphic extent of the petroleum systems (Figs.
C

1615 Traps that store oils generated from the Villarrica active 1671
1616 source rock pod (Totare and Toquitoqui oil fields), were 2, 8 and 9) includes from the Caballos Fm. up to the top of 1672
formed during the Miocene, as indicated by the presence of Pleistocene, as overburden rock responsible for maturity of
N

1617 1673
1618 Miocene reservoir and seal rocks (Honda Gp.). If the oil the source rock (Fig. 2). If at least locally older rock units 1674
generation and migration peak occurred during Paleocene, (i.e. Saldaña Fm.) are included in the thrust sheets
U

1619 1675
1620 as indicated by the maturity modeling results. (Fig. 9a), such responsible for sub-thrust oil generation, these units and 1676
1621 oils would have been trapped in structures existing during the Yavı́ Fm. should also be included in the stratigraphic 1677
1622 the Paleocene and the existing reservoir rock at that time extent of the petroleum systems. In the Villarrica area the 1678
1623 probably was Monserrate Fm. (e.g. Pulı́ oil field; Table 1). petroleum system also includes Lower Cretaceous shales 1679
1624 Later during the Miocene deformation event, these oils older than the Caballos Fm. The pyrolysis data from this 1680

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 ARTICLE IN PRESS
16 L.F. Sarmiento, A. Rangel / Marine and Petroleum Geology xx (0000) xxx–xxx

1681 region demonstrate that some stratigraphic intervals within through thrust fault ramps toward traps of the two thrusts 1737
1682 these rocks are at least locally active source rocks. systems of the area (Fig. 8). Oils accumulated in the Totare 1738
1683 Figs. 7 and 8 show the petroleum systems geographic and Toquitoqui oil fields, generated in the Villarrica kitchen 1739
1684 extent and the pod of active oil source rock of each system. possibly migrated to Paleocene traps and latter during the 1740
1685 The map also shows lateral migration pathways, which in Miocene deformation event remigrated to their present day 1741
1686 general are short, not greater than 40 km. Within heavily traps. 1742
1687 faulted areas, such as the thrust belts of the UMV, faults The relatively low gas/oil ratio of the producing fields, 1743
1688 such as thrusts ramps or strike slip faults, may behave as suggests that oil expulsion and migration occurred as soon 1744
1689 vertical oil migration channels inhibiting lateral migration as source rock reached the critical oil saturation to expel 1745
1690 on long distances (Demaison & Huizinga, 1994). Lateral up without any delay or inhibition. 1746
1691 dip migration pathways tends to be normal to structures. 1747
1692 Oils reservoired in Monserrate Fm. or in Tertiary 1748
3.11. Events chart
1693 formations, migrated up from the Villeta Gp. Oils 1749
1694 reservoired in Tertiary rocks migrated following faults on 1750
Petroleum systems events charts (Fig. 10) show elements
1695 1751
areas where Guaduala Fm. seal was not eroded. Oils and processes responsible for oil field formation, which
1696 1752
reservoired in the Caballos Fm., probably migrated from occurred during the Cretaceous and Tertiary. Trap for-
1697 1753
Villeta Gp. shales in the footwall thrust fault block toward mation occurred before or during hydrocarbon generation
1698 1754
the Caballos Fm. sandstones in the hanging wall (Figs. 7 and satisfying the timing condition. For the Villarrica kitchen
1699 1755
8). Oil generated in the Neiva syncline laterally migrated we assume an initial filling of traps during the Paleocene
1700 1756

F
outward from the active source rock pod, then upward and remigration to present day traps during Miocene.
1701 1757

O
1702 1758
1703 1759
1704
1705
1706
O 1760
1761
1762
PR
1707 1763
1708 1764
1709 1765
1710 1766
D

1711 1767
1712 1768
TE

1713 1769
1714 1770
1715 1771
1716 1772
EC

1717 1773
1718 1774
1719 1775
1720 1776
R

1721 1777
1722 1778
R

1723 1779
1724 1780
O

1725 1781
1726 1782
C

1727 1783
1728 1784
N

1729 1785
1730 1786
U

1731 1787
1732 1788
1733 1789
1734 1790
1735 1791
1736 Fig. 10. Events chart of the UMV petroleum systems. 1792

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1793 Tertiary, largely Miocene to recent deformation and erosion Macia et al., 1985. Maze, 1984. Mojica and Macia, 1983. 1849
1794 events have drastically affected the UMV in such a way that Nivia, 1987. Renzoni, 1993. Rodr. Schlumberger, 1985. 1850
1795 probably a huge amount of hydrocarbons has been degraded Van Houten and Travis, 1968. Villamil and Arango, 1994. 1851
1796 at surface, especially on these areas where Cretaceous rocks Waples, 1994. Wellman, 1970. Xo and Desbiander, 1991. 1852
1797 crop out. As an example on the Yaguará field structure, Van Houten, 1976. 1853
1798 Monserrate Fm. sandstone at surface is saturated with tar 1854
1799 providing evidence of the previous existence of an oil 1855
1800 accumulation which was destroyed by erosion (Buitrago, Acknowledgements 1856
1801 1994). 1857
1802 Special thanks to the Geologist Blanca Nubia Giraldo for 1858
1803 her contribution to the analytical work. L.F: Sarmiento and 1859
1804 4. Conclusions A Rangel would like to thank to Ecopetrol for permission to 1860
1805 publish this work. We are grateful to Dr L. Maggon and 1861
1806 This study identified four petroleum systems. The main reviewers for helpful suggestions and constructive review. 1862
1807 source rock intervals are the lower Villeta Gp. Tetuán 1863
1808 Limestone and the La Luna Limestone which are, 1864
1809 respectively, 135 and 100 m. thick, their TOC values References 1865
1810 range from 1 to 4%, dominantly II type marine kerogen. 1866
1811 The main reservoir rocks are the Caballos Fm. and ACIPET (1994). Boletı́n estadı́stico mensual de la Asociación Colombiana 1867
1812 Monserrate Fm. (Maastrichtian) quartz arenites. The main de lngenieros de Petróleos, 4(318), 100. 1868

F
1813 seal rocks are the Villeta Gp. shales and the Guaduala Fm. Anderson, T. A. (1972). Paleogene nonmarine Gualanday Group. Neiva 1869
Basin, Colombia and regional development of the Colombian Andes.

O
1814 (Paleocene) mudstones. Overburden rock includes all the 1870
Geological Society of America. Bulletin, 83, 2423–2438.
1815 Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary rocks overlying the Barrero, D. (1979). Geology of the central Western Cordillera west of Buga
1871
source rock and where burial was due to thrust sheet
1816
1817
1818
stacking also includes the Yavı́ Fm. (Aptian), Saldaña Fm.
(Jurassic), or older rock units included in the thrust sheets. O
and Roldanillo, Colombia. Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones
Geológico Mineras. Publicaciones Geológicas Especiales de lngeomi-
nas, 4, 75.
1872
1873
1874
PR
1819 Traps are structural, generally faulted, and were formed Barrio, C., & Coffield, D. (1992). Late Cretaceous stratigraphy of the Upper 1875
Magdalena Basin in the Payandé-Chaparral segment (western Girardot
1820 during Eocene to Miocene deformation events. Crude oils Sub-Basin), Colombia. Journal of South America Earth Sciences, 5(2),
1876
1821 samples are classified in two families: (1) Oil family I 123– 139. 1877
1822 derived from clay-rich shales deposited in dysoxic environ- Bayona, J. A., Garcı́a, F. D., & Mora-Pabón, G. (1994). La Formación 1878
ments, (2) Oil family II derived from dominantly calcareous Saldaña: producto de la actividad de estratovolcanes continentales de un
D

1823 1879
1824 rocks deposited in dominantly anoxic environments. dominio de retroarco. In F. Etayo (Ed.), Estudios geológicos del Valle 1880
Superior del Magdalena, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad
Lithofacies distribution of the Villeta Gp., oil families
TE

1825 1881
de Ciencias, Departamento de Geociencias (pp. 21, Chapter 1.
1826 distribution and oils-source rock correlation allows to define Beltrán, N., & Gallo, J. (1968). The geology of the Neiva Sub basin, Upper 1882
1827 their certainty Ievel as known expect for the petroleum Magdalena basin, southern portion. Ninth Annual Field Conference, 1883
1828 system two which should be defined as hypothetical. Lateral Colombian Association of Petroleum Geologists and Geophysicists, 14. 1884
EC

1829 up dip migration distances are short and faults could serve as Buitrago, J. (1994). Petroleum systems of the Neiva area. Upper Magdalena 1885
Valley, Colombia. In L. B. Magoon, & W. G. Dow (Eds.), The
1830 vertical migration channels. Except for the northeast part of 1886
Petroleum System. From Source to Trap (Vol. 60) (pp. 483 –497).
1831 the basin where the critical moment occurred during the American Association of Petroleum Geologist Memoir. 1887
1832 Paleogene, the critical moment of petroleum generation, Butler, K., & Schamel, S. (1988). Structure along the eastern margin of the 1888
R

1833 expulsion and migration occurred during the Miocene as Central Cordillera, Upper Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Journal of 1889
1834 soon as source rock reached critical oil saturation to South America Earth Sciences, 1, 109–120. 1890
Caicedo, J. C., & Roncancio, J. H. (1994). El Grupo Gualanday como
R

1835 expulsion. The temporal extent of petroleum systems is 1891

ejemplo de acumulación sintectónica en el Valle Superior del
1836 Albian to Recent. Probably huge volumes of hydrocarbon Magdalena durante el Paleogeno. Estudios geológicos del Valle 1892
O

1837 have been degraded at surface as a result of deformation and Superior del Magdalena. In F. En Etayo (Ed.), Estudios geológicos 1893
1838 erosion events that occurred during the Tertiary largely in del Valle Superior del Magdalena, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 1894
Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Geociencias (pp. 19, Chapter
C

1839 the Miocene. 1895

X.
1840 1896
Connan, J., Bouroullec, J., Dessort, D., & Albrecht, P. (1986). The
N

1841 microbial input in carbonate-anhydrite facies of sabkha paleoenviron- 1897

1842 5. Uncited references ment from Guatemala. A molecular approach. Advances in Organic 1898
U

1843 Geochemistry, 10, 29–50. 1899

1844 ACIPET, 1994. Barrero, 1979. Bayona et al., 1994. Beltr. Cooper, M. A., Addison, F. T., Alvarez, R., Coral, M., Graham, R. H., 1900
Hayward, A. B., Howe, S., Martı́nez, J., Naar, J., Peñas, R., Pulham,
1845 Connan et al., 1986. Ensminger et al., 1978. Ekweozor et al., 1901
A. J., & Taborda, A. (1995). Basin development and tectonic history of
1846 1979. Etayo-Serna et al., 1969. Fabre, 1983a. Fabre, 1983b. the Llanos Basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley, 1902
1847 Fabre, 1987. Follmi et al., 1992. Galindo et al., 1994. Haq Colombia. American Association of Petroleum Geologist Bulletin, 1903
1848 et al., 1988. Howe, 1974. Huang and Meinschein, 1979. 79(10), 1421–1443. 1904

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1905 Córdoba, F (1998). Sistemas Petrolı́feros da sub-provincia de Neiva Vale Galindo, V., Garzón, H. J., & Rueda, M. C., (1994). Evaluación del 1961
1906 Superior do Rio Magdalena, Colômbia. Tesis de Maestrı́a, Universidad potencial de entrampamiento estructural en el Cretáceo (Cuenca Valle
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Federal de Rio de Janeiro,Rı́o de Janeiro, pp.230. Superior del Magdalena) Anexo por P. Brown: Regional overview of
1907 1963
Curiale, J. A. (1992). Application of organic geochemistry to sequence the Upper Magdalena Valley, Phase One: Tectonic Evolution, Informe
1908 stratigraphic analysis; four corners platform area, New Mexico, USA. Geológico Ecopetrol, Vicepresidencia de Exploración y Producción, 1964
1909 In C. B. Eckard (Ed.), Advances in organic geochemistry 1991, part 1. Gerencia de Exploración,. Internal Report. 50pp. 1965
1910 Advances in applications in energy and the natural environment (Vol. Gómez, E (2001). Tectonic controls on the late cretaceous to cenozoic 1966
1911 19) (pp. 53 –75). Organic Geochemistry. sedimentary fill of the Middle Magdalena Valley Basin, Eastern 1967
Demaison, G., & Huizinga, B. J. (1994). Genetic classification of petroleum Cordillera and Llanos Basin, Colombia. PhD Dissertation, 5 Appen-
1912 1968
systems using three factors: charge, migration and entrapment. In L. B. dixes, Cornell University, New York. 618pp.
1913 Magoon, & W. G. Dow (Eds.), The petroleum system—From source to Haq, B. U., Hardennol, J., & Vail, P. R. (1988). Mesozoic and Cenozoic 1969
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1915 73–89). (Eds.), (Vol. 42) (pp. 71–108). Sealevel changes: an integrated 1971
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