TABLE APPOINTMENTS

INTRODUCTION

The important consideration in meal management is how to meal is going to be serve. What are the tools to use
for dining? What tools to go with the type of foods to be served? What are some of the etiquette to be observe in
using these tools for dining? What types of materials are best for table use? All these will be discussed in detail in
this chapter.

DEFINITION

Table appointments are implements used for dining which consist of linen, silverware or flatware, dinnerware or
chinaware, glassware and the centerpiece.

A. Linen – includes table covering and napkins of all types.

Types of Linen size
a. Tablecloth – 36” square for four people
45” or 54” square for 6 people
72” or 86” or 90” long for 8-16 people
b. Placemats – 14” х 20” for each person
c. Napkins – 12” х 14” square for refreshments
22” х 24” or 27” square for dinner
18” х 20” for lunch
4” х 6” or 6” х 8” for cocktail
B. Silverware/Flatware – includes forks, spoons and knives.

 Two Kinds of Silverware

1. Sterling silver – is solid gold and last for generations.
2. Plated silver – is either silver plated or gold electroplated.

 Stainless steel flatware – modern metal with a combination of steel, chrome and nickle.

 Care of Silverware

1. Wash and rinse promptly in hot water.

2. Dry completely and quickly to retain luster.
3. Use mild detergent.
4. Store in tarnish – proof flannel bags.
5. Keep away from rubberbands.
6. Use only for intended purpose.
7. Use a small, soft brush for cleaning the crevices in ornamental silver.

 Using Silverware

1. A knife should never be used only when the food cannot be cut with a fork.
2. A spoon should never be used when you can use forks.
3. Only very dry or firm foods should be eaten with the fingers.

 Knife foods - steaks, chops, other meat and poultry fish that has to be boned. Foods that has to be spread with
butter, cheese, jelly.

 Fork foods – potatoes, eggs, cakes, pies, hamburger.

 Spoon foods – ice creams, fruit cocktail, cereals, custards, and pudding.

 Finger foods – crackers, cookies, sandwiches, candies, cherries, grapes, nuts, etc.

 Dinner or Chinaware – includes the luncheon plate, bread and butter plates, salad plates, soup bowl, cup and
saucers, and platters.

 Factors to consider in choosing chinaware

1. Durability 3. Suitability
2. Attractiveness in color, size, shape 4. Possibility of replacement

 Types of Dinnerware

1. Ceramic 5. Chinaware
2. Earthenware 6. Porcelain
3. Stoneware 7. Melamine
4. Ovenware

 Dinner wares for serving

1. Vegetables dish a serving dish for vegetables, rice or any saucy dish.
2. Soup tureen a deep dish for soup. It is always used with an under-liner and a fitted cover.
3. Platers usually oval-shaped dish used for serving a variety of foods. They come in different sizes.
4. Coffee pit with sugar bank and creamer.

 Types of dinner wares used for individual covers

1. Soup plate is nine inches (9”) deep plate used for soup informal sit down dinner.
2. Cereal bowl is six inches (6”) multipurpose deep dish for cereals, desserts, salads, or soups.
3. Cup and saucer comes in pairs and is used for coffee or tea, or oven soups for informal meals. The saucer is
used only as underliner and is differentiated from the bread and butter plate by the inner ring or groove
which fits the bottom of the cup. It is preferable to use cups with matching saucers.
4. Bread and plate a six inches (6”) plate used not only for bread but for desserts, molded salads or rice.
5. Salad plate a seven inches (7”) plate used for salads, desserts or underliners for glass stemware.
6. Demitasse cup and saucer or small cup and saucer used for hot chocolate or after dinner coffee. The capacity
is half as much as the ordinary cup.

 Care of Dinnerware

1. Store dishes carefully to prevent breakage.

2. Wash them in warm water and use either mild detergent.
3. Always put dishes gently in position to avoid scratching the glaze.
4. Cover china that are use in frequently to prevent them from becoming dusty and greasy.
5. Never leave coffee cups unrinsed, since the stain is sometimes difficult to remove.
6. Fine china should be warmed gradually. Never place it in a hot oven.

 Glassware and Beverage ware – includes goblets, tumblers, wine glasses and ordinary glasses.

 Types of Glassware according to material

1. Lead glass material or crystal

2. Lime glass
 3. Milk glass or borosilicate

 Care and Use of Glassware

1. Take hold of tumblers and small glasses by encircling them at the base with the thumb and first two fingers.
2. Grasp a footed or stemmed water glass (goblets) at the base of the bowl between the thumb and the first
two fingers.
3. Grasp wine glasses by the stem.
4. Handle pieces of glass individually when washing.
5. Stand glasses with the head up to present chipping.
6. Avoid quick changes in temperature. Extreme heat causes glass to expand, extreme cold causes it to contact.
When pouring hot water into glasses, leave a metal spoon inside to absorb the heat.

 Different Centerpiece or Table decorations

1. Flower arrangement
2. Fruit arrangement
3. Vegetable centerpiece
4. Candles and candlelight

 Rules in the use of Table Decorations and Centerpiece

1. Keep them low so people can see and converse across the table.
2. Centerpieces need not be always at the center.
3. Decorations on the buffet and tea service are larger and taller than dinners table decorations.
4. Use candles after dash, they should burn above or below eye level.
5. Suit centerpieces to the occasion.
6. Always check for contrast as well as color harmony to achieve balance and coordination between table
appointments and centerpieces.

 Handling Table Equipment

1. Place napkin on your lap. Use it, as needed, to touch your mouth lightly with a blotting motion.
2. When not use, keep the knife across the plate.
3. Use a knife only when the food is difficult to cut with a fork.
4. Use the service silverware when you serve yourself from a serving dish. Never use your own table ware.
5. When lifting a goblet, hold it at the base of the bowl.
6. Lift a beverage cup by its handle with one hand. Never hold it with two hands when drinking.
7. When passing plates, be careful not to put your thumb on the inside of the plate or to touch any of the food
on the plate.
8. Never play with the tableware.
9. When you are though eating, place knife and fork in the center of the plate.
10. At the end of the meal, lay the napkin on the table at the left of your plate, unfolded neatly.

 Good Eating Habits

1. Take small bites and eat slowly.

2. Chew with your mouth closed, do not talk until your mouth is empty.
3. Cut off each bite as you eat your food.
4. Lift food to your mouth when you eat. Do not lower your head to the food.
 5. Eat all the food taken on a fork or a spoon at one time. Never withdraw some of it.
6. Have your mouth empty when you drink water or beverages.
7. Sip beverages. Do not gulp them.
8. When a food is too hot to eat, wait until it cools.
9. Dip a soup spoon into the soup away from you and never fill the spoon completely. Dip it noiselessly from
the side of the spoon not from the tip and do not put the entire spoon in your mouth.
10. Break - do not cut – bread or rolls into small pieces before buttering. Butter each small piece just before it is
eaten.
11. Put butter, jelly, or marmalade or bread or toast with a bread – and – butter knife, if one is provided.
Otherwise use a regular knife.
12. Do not touch the food with your hands except for certain “finger food”.
13. Keep each food separate on your plate as you eat.
14. A napkin may be used to screen the removal of objects from the mouth. Remove the objects with the fingers
as inconspicuously as possible.
15. A toothpick should not be used except in private.

 Table of etiquettes

Good table manners should be so natural that they become second nature to us. They are not “put on”, so to
speak. Good manners at the table make meals more pleasant for others. They are also a mark of a well-bred person.
Those who practice good manners are poised and at ease.

There are three (3) general rules that govern acceptable conduct at the table:

1. Be thoughtful and considerate of others.

2. Handle your table equipment correctly.
3. Eat quietly, without attracting attention, and without being offensive to others.

 Good Table Conduct

1. Be well groomed when you come to the table.

2. Come to the table promptly when called.
3. It is discourteous to make others wait for you and a sign of thoughtlessness and inconsideration for the
person who prepared the meals.
4. Wait for others instead of rushing to the table ahead of them. When there are older or more important
persons, permit them to precede you to the table.
5. Be seated only after all have assembled at the table and then sit down from the left side of your chair.
Everyone sits down at the table at the same time.
6. If you are a man, help or assist the ladies by pulling out their chairs and pushing the chairs forward as the
ladies are seated.
7. If grace is to be said, sit or stand quietly while it is being done.
8. As soon as you are seated, keep your hands in your lap and your elbow’s close to your sides so as not to
interfere with someone next you.
9. Put your napkin in your lap. Large napkins are partly unfolded, small napkins may be completely unfolded.
10. Be observant of the needs of others. See that food is passed to them. Do not serve yourself first unless the
hostess asks you to do so.
11. Eat the food served, but be quiet about your eating (Gulping and smacking food are repulsive).
12. Keep your share in the conversation but avoid talking about unpleasant or objectionable topics. (examples:
illness, operation, etc..).
 13. Apologize in the event of an accident and then try to forget your disaster.
14. Never reach or grab for food. Request pleasantly what you want.
15. Manage your silver insconspiceously and learn the rules for its correct usage.

 Table setting

Rules for setting table

1. The pattern of the table service to be used, which gives the established position of some items.
2. The menu to be served which determines the specific appointments to be placed at covers.
3. The size of the table which influences the exact position of appointments at covers.

 Well-Set Table

1. The silver, china and glassware should be placed in straight lines both lengthwise and across the table. All
pieces should be placed parallel with even spacing between them.
2. The linen-tablecloth or placemats and napkins should be free from wrinkles and should match or harmonize
with each other.
3. The centerpiece may be placed in the center, to the side, or at one end of the table, but its position should
be considered in arranging a well-balanced table. The centerpiece should be low enough for people to see
each other across the table.
4. The chairs should be placed so that the center of the chair is in line with the center of the plate. The front of
the chair should come just under the edge of the table so that a person may sit down or rise without having
to move the chair too much.

Table skirting

Table skirting is a decorative way to hide table legs and clutter in a home or during a special event. By concealing
what is underneath the table, they offer a simple storage solution.

Type of Table Skirting

● Gathered or Shirred is a fabric drape drawn together by threads along the top of them providing extra body to the
skirt.

● Knife Pleat is a series of sharp narrow, sharp creases folded in the same direction.

● Box Pleat is made from a sequence of back-to-back knife pleats.

● Plastic is a cost-effective way to dress tables for occasions.

● Fringe is a charming substitute for table skirting and serve as a festive wall border for special occasions.

Swag are common attached with overlaps clips that will not flatten or damage the table skirt pleat.

Materials needed for table skirting

Tape measure Staple gun

Study table Scissors

Supportive foam and padding blade

Vinly or canvas cloth

Style of table services

 The manner of dining today differs in the way food is offered on the table, and how waiting on the table duties
are carried out. One style is when foods are served from the table, and the other is when the service of foods is from
the side. However the food served, it can be a sit down service, a tray service or buffet service. Each style of meal
service will dictate the type of table appointment to be used, how these are to be set and how food is to served and
cleared. Sit down meals are either Continental or Russian, Family or English service, Compromise style, Buffet style,
Tray service, American or Country service.

Napkin folding

Napkin should be folded and placed according to should be neat in presentation.

ROSE
The Rose was a favorite fold of Escoffier’s, the noted French chef of the last century who helped to make table
decoration an art. Use a 20-inch square napkin to fold the Rose.

Instructions:

1. Fold the corners of the napkin to the center.

2. The napkin will look like this.
3. Fold the new corners to the center.
4. Again, fold the corners to the center.
5. Carefully holding the center, turn the napkin over. Then fold the corners to the center.
6. Place a glass on the center of the napkin to anchor it as you pull out the corners from the underside. Give a
slight tug on each to make it stand up.
7. When all four corners have been pulled out, remove the glass. Hold on to the center points as you turn the
napkin over.
8. Hold these points together on the underside while you pull out a point on each side at the front.
9. Then fluff out the innermost points to form the center petals.

CANDLE

The Candle, a simple shape that looks appropriate with modern china and glassware, is a popular fold in Swedish
and Danish table settings.

This versatile fold can be placed in the center of the plate, to the left of the forks, above the forks, or centered
above the plate. For a buffet, a group of napkins folded into Candles makes a nice sculptural addition to the table.

Instructions:

1. Fold the napkin half diagonally to form a triangle.

2. Place the napkin so the fold is along the bottom edge.
3. Fold up the bottom edge about one and one half inches.
4. Turn the napkin over the roll it up fairly tightly.
5. Stand the candle up and luck the corner into the cut hold the rolled shape in place. If you like, fold down one
layer at the tip of the candle to resemble a flickering flame

MEXICAN FAN

To flaunt your beautiful damask napkins at your next, dinner party, fold them into
Mexican Fans. Linen damask is a firm, lustrous fabric with a woven-in design made on a
jacquard loom. Double damask has about twice as many filling, or crosswise, threads as
single damask, but it has a low thread count, it will not wear as well as a single damask of good quality with a high
count.

Instructions:

1. Fold the napkin in half to make a rectangle.

2. Fold the napkin into one-inch accordion pleats leaving, the last four inches unfolded.
3. Fold in half, with the pleats on the outside.
4. Fold up the bottom left corner and it into the pleats. Stand the napkin up so the pleats form a fan.

BISHOP’S HAT

The Bishop’s Hat is a traditional fold that has graced tables all over the world. With the front
sides of the hat pulled down and tucked into the fold, it looks like a Blossom.

BISHOP’S BUTTERFLY BLOSSOM

Instructions

1. Fold the napkin in half diagonally to form a triangle.

2. Place the fold along the bottom edge.
3. Hold your finger at the center of the bottom edge as you fold the right and left corners up to the top corner.
4. Fold up the bottom point to within one inch of the top point.
5. Fold the same point back to the bottom edge.
6. Turn the napkin over and fold the left side toward the center.
7. Fold the right side over the left side, ticking the point into the left fold. Stand the napkin up.

Butterfly Variation: Pull down the left and right sides of the Bishop’s Hat until they are horizontal.

Blossom Variation: Turn down the right and left sides and luck the points into the fold.

CROWN

The Crown is a traditional fold that has enhanced table settings for years. When standing at each place setting it
looks positively regal. The shape is easy to make and can be folded in a variety of fabrics.

Linen fabric for tablecloths and napkins can be damask, which has a design woven in, or oyster linen, which is a
plain woven fabric made in many colors and prints.

Instructions

1. Fold the napkin in half to make a rectangle.

2. Fold the top right corner down to the bottom edge.
3. Fold the bottom left corner up to the top edge.
4. Turn the napkin over.
 5. Fold the bottom edge up to the top edge; one triangle will extend below the bottom edge.
6. Hold the napkin along the top edge as you turn it over. A second triangle will fall free so there will now be
two triangles along the top edge.
7. Fold the right quarter of the napkin toward the center, tucking the poin under the long fold.
8. The napkin will look like this.
9. Turn the napkin over. On this side, fold the right quarter toward the center and tuck in the point. Stand the
napkin up.

ARROWHEAD

A turn-of-the-century book on household management suggested that each tablecloth be complemented by two
dozen napkins. Napkins of that day came in three sizes: breakfast, 17 to 22 inches; luncheon, 23 to 27 inches; and
formal dinner, 29 to 31 inches. By 1921, the recommended size for dinner napkins was 24 to 28 inches and for
luncheon 13 to 17 inches – somewhat smaller than those of twenty years earlier but still larger than the average
today. For the Arrowhead, either a 17 or 20 inch napkins is suitable.

Instructions

1. Fold up one corner of the napkin to within about two inches of the opposite
corner.
2. Place the napkin so the fold is along the bottom edge.
3. Turn the napkin over. Place your fingers about two inches apart in the center of
the bottom edge. Fold up the sides so right and left portions of the bottom
edge are perpendicular to the edge you are holding.
4. Fold up the bottom edge.
5. Turn the napkin over. Fold over the right side and then the left side.
6. Tuck the edge of the left side into the right side. To make the napkin stand up, put your hand down into the
center to round out the shape.

INTRODUCTION
The Basic Principles of food preservation are necessary for one to acquire the basic skills in food processing.
Fundamental knowledge and understanding of the different tools and equipment, techniques, and principles of food
preservation are important before one can attempt to process food for future use.
I. HISTORY OF FOOD PRESERVATION

TIME LINE
Before 1000 BC  Paleolithic/Mesolithic Age
 Hunters and Gatherers
 Control fire heating, smoking of foods
Around 1000 BC  Neolithic Age
 Agriculturally Based Life
 Solar Drying of Grains, Spices and Fish
Around 2500 BC  Presence of Large Bakery Sites
 Drying Grains, milling into flour, baking Flat Breads
30 BC  Cleopatra used to have cucumber pickles (Brining in
Salt)
 Fermented Cabbage (Sauerkraut in Germany)
  Kimchi in Korea
 Low pH, salt
1650 AD  First to observe large bacteria in saliva and other
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK (Father specimens
of Microbiology)
1795, FRANCE  French government release an order stating that they
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (Emperor, will give 12, 000 franc as a reward to anyone who can
Military Leader) invent food preservatives, for the benefit of navy and
“An army marches on its stomach” army
1809 (14 years after)  He used a wide mouthed glass jars to preserve foods
NICOLAS APPERT then heat it to release air (which he hath believe that it
causes spoilage)
1810  Used a metal canister to preserve food that is based or
PETER DURAND an old tea canister, no scientific principles
1862  Revolutionized food preservation through conjunction
LOUIS PASTEUR with pasteurization
 He discovered bacteria as the cause of spoilage
1810  Formed 1st English canning company at Bermondsey,
DANKIN AND HALL London
1817  Formed 1st food preserving firm in Boston,
WILLIAM UNDERWOOD Massachusetts, America
1840  Formed 1st Large Scale food preserving factory
THOMAS KENSETT
HENRY JOHN HEINZ  16-year old who discovered drying horse radish which
led to the drying of several foods
 Used clear glass container to let consumers see that his
products are pure
1920’s  introduced home canning in the Philippines
MARIA Y. OROSA (chemist)  Demonstrated other methods of preservation using
glass jars to store fruits and vegetables
1930’s  National Development Company (NADECO) put up
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT cannery in Estancia, Iloilo to introduce the technology
CORPORATION (NADECO) of canning bangos.
 Philippine Packing Corporation started the canning of
pineapples

HISTORICAL TIMELINE ACROSS CULTURES

500,000 BC – Fire Cooking 1809 AD – Canning
12, 000 BC – Sun Drying 1871 AD – Pasteurization
600 AD – Jam Preparation 1945 – Vacuum Packing
1400 AD – Curing 2000+ AD – Chemical Preservatives
1784 AD – Refrigeration

II. BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITION

FOOD PRESERVATION
 It is the application of techniques to prevent or minimize undesirable changes in food.
Spoilage is minimized and sometimes prevented through food preservation.
This includes canning, drying, dehydrating, freeze-drying, smoking, pasteurization and irradiation as well as
addition of chemical additives.
Large portions of fruits, vegetables, fish and other food items which would go to waste are stored for future
consumption.
Assures the consumers of a supply of food even when they are out of season.
Food preservation is essential in improving the general health of the family by supplying it with varied and
balanced diet even when some food items

FOOD PROCESSING
It is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food or food into other forms
for consumption by humans or animals either in the home or by the food processing industry.
Food processing typically takes clean, harvested crops or butchered animal products and uses these to
produce attractive, marketable and often long shelf-life food products.
Example: grinding of grain to raw flour to home cooking to make convenience foods.

FOOD SPOILAGE
Presence of Microorganism
 High Moisture Content
 Air around food contains microorganism
 Foods kept for long time at room temperature
 Skin of fruits and vegetables getting damaged
 Foods with low salt, sugar and acid content
Presence of Enzymes
Insects, worms and rats

FOOD MANUFACTURING
It is the production of products for use or sale using labor and machines, tools, chemical and biological
processing, or formulation.
It is most commonly applied to industrial design, in which raw materials are transformed into finished goods
on a large scale.
Finished goods may be sold to other manufacturers for the production of the other, more complex products
or sold to wholesalers who in turn sell them to retailers, who then sell them to end users and consumers.
Manufacturing companies commonly employs a man machine set up with division of labor in a large-scale
product.
It is the process of transforming edible raw materials into products for human consumption.

III. CATEGORIES OF FOOD PROCESSING

A. PRIMARY FOOD PROCESSING
Turns agricultural products, such as raw wheat kernels or livestock, into something that can eventually
be eaten.
This category includes ingredients that are produced by ancient processes such as drying, threshing,
winnowing and milling grain, shelling nuts and butchering animals for meat.
 It also includes deboning and cutting meat, freezing and smoking fish and meat, extracting and filtering
oils, canning food, preserving food through food irradiation and candling eggs as well as homogenizing
and pasteurizing milk.

dried bananas are an example of primary food processing

B. SECONDARY FOOD PROCESSING

It is the everyday process of creating food from ingredients that are ready to use.
Most of the secondary food processing methods known to human kind are commonly described as
cooking methods.
Example: Baking Bread, Fermenting Fish, making wine, beer and other alcoholic products, making
sausages

baking bread – secondary processing

C. TERTIARY FOOD PROCESSING
It is the commercial production of what is commonly called processed foods.
These are ready-to-eat or heat-and-serve foods

IV. CATEGORIES OF FOOD PRESERVATION METHODS

A. ACCORDING TO APPLICATION OF CHEMICALS
Entails adding chemical compounds to the product.
Preservative food additives reduce the risk of foodborne infections, decrease
microbial spoilage, and preserve fresh attributes and nutritional quality
Chemical preservatives can contribute substantially in the preservation of food. High temperature and
humidity’s favor microbial attack and increase the rate of development of oxidative rancidity – which can
be controlled by the use of chemicals. Food processors have been using many types of additives aside
from preservative to improve the appearance, flavor, texture or storage properties of food products.

FOOD ADDITIVES
Food additive is a substance or a mixture of substance other than basic foodstuffs, which is present
in food as a result of production, processing, storage or packing. Food additives are added to foods
in precise amounts during processing.
They are technologically justified for:
  Maintaining the nutritional quality of the food
 Enhancing the keeping quality or stability of food thereby reducing food wastage;
 Making food attractive to consumers in a manner which precludes deception, and
 Providing essentials aids in food processing.

CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD ADDITIVES

1. Preservatives are substances added to food to prevent or inhibit growth of spoilage organisms. Examples of
selected preservatives are:
a. Salt, sugar, vinegar, and pepper (common household preservatives)
b. Saltpeter or sodium nitrate (used for meat curing)
c. Sulfur dioxide (sulfurous acid) and sulfide (inhibit discoloration of cuts fruits and serve as anti-
browning agent)
d. Benzoic acid or sodium benzoate (for fruit juices, jellies, margarine, and catsup)
e. Citric acid and Tartaric Acids (provide the acid for flavor improvement in syrups, drinks and jellies)
f. Alum and soaked lime or apog – used as a firming agent for pickles and fruit preserves.
2. Anti-oxidants
3. Sequestrants
4. Surface Active Agents
5. Stabilizers, thickener
6. Bleaching and maturing agents, starch modifier
7. Anti-caking agents and enzymes

CRITERIA FOR USE

Before being considered for use in a food, a chemical preservative needs to fulfill the following conditions:
1. It must be non-toxic and suitable for application.
2. It must not impart off-flavors when used at levels effective in controlling microbial growth.
3. It must be readily soluble.
4. It must exhibit antimicrobial properties over the PH range of each particular food.
5. It should be economical and practical to use.

FOOD ADDITIVES COMMONLY USED

1. Binders and strengtheners – Aids in binding ingredients together to improve the texture of baked
products. All come from milk, soybeans, or wheat.
2. Color – Probably the most controversial category of food additives. Coloring may be natural (N) or
synthetic (S). however, the words “artificial color” must be included on the label if the substance is
added solely for the purpose of coloring the food. This is regardless of whether it is natural or synthetic.
3. Emulsifiers – added to foods to prevent separation of ingredients such as oil and vinegar in salad
dressings. In baking, emulsifiers improve the volume and uniformity of breads and rolls.
4. Flavor ingredients – The largest category of food additives used strictly to add flavor to food. Synthetic
flavors are often cheaper than the real thing and help to meet consumer demand when there is not
enough of certain flavors available in nature.
5. Flavor enhancers – Improved the natural flavor of foods without actually adding any flavor of their own
6. Humectants – Help food to certain moisture
7. Nutrients – Added to foods to improve their nutritional value and/or to replace nutrients that are
sometimes lost in processing.
8. Preservatives – added to make the aroma or taste of food more agreeable or pleasurable.
 9. Stabilizers, Thickeners – added to food to improve body consistency, and texture, many are natural
carbohydrates.
10. Sealants – Used to seal moisture in fresh fruits and vegetables, candies, gums and dietary supplements.
B. BIOLOGICAL MEANS
Salt and sugar have long been used as effective means of extending shelf life of various products as these
solutes bind water, leaving less water available for the growth of microorganisms.

C. PHYSICAL MEANS
Consist of the application of science-baes knowledge through a variety of available technologies and
procedures, to prevent deterioration and spoilage of food products and extend their shelf-life, while
assuring consumers a product free of pathogenic microorganisms.
Physical Methods: heat treatment, radiation, light, high pressure processing (HPP)
V. AGENTS OF SPOILAGE

A. PHYSICAL SPOILAGE
It is due to physical damage to food during
harvesting, processing or distribution.
The damage increases the chance of chemical or microbial spoilage and contamination because the
protective outer layer of the food is bruised or broken and microorganisms can enter the food stuff more
easily.
For example, you may have noticed that when apple skin is damaged, the apple rots more quickly.
B. BIOLOGICAL SPOILAGE
Since most food products are living biological systems, their spoilage could be associated with factors
related to aging. Fruits and vegetables may eventually rot when left in the tree or on the grounds. Even
when plucked from the tree they continue to age
When aging is not arrested by some processing methods like freezing, dehydration, canning, and other
methods, the fruit spoils because of over ripening or obsolescence. This holds true for meat, fish, poultry
and dairy products. When fresh they can be fertile grounds for self-destruction. When not processed,
their own enzymes can cause changes in the food. Such chemical/biological changes can result to food
spoilage.
Other forms of biological spoilage could be induced by microorganisms present in food and in the
atmosphere. Yeast, molds and bacteria are microorganisms which are ever present in the hands of man,
in the atmosphere and in things which can come in contact with food.
Their presence in considerable amounts can easily initiate their geometric growth which can be fatal to
fresh foods. To prevent this from occurring, foods are treated to reduce their amounts or to remove
them completely. When such treatment had been given, adequate protection from recontamination
should be provided. This can only be successful with proper choice of packaging materials.
MICROORGANISM – (from the Greek, mikros, “small” and organismós, "organism”) or microbe microscopic
organism, which may be a single cell or multicellular organism
 The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's
discovery of microorganisms in 1675, using a microscope of his own design
1. BACTERIA - constitute a large domain or kingdom of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically, a few
micrometers in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals.
Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most habitats on the planet.
Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste and the deep portions of Earth's crust.
Bacteria also live in plants, animals, and have flourished in manned space vehicles.

Classification of Bacteria
1. Spoilage - is the process in which food deteriorates to the point in which it is not edible to humans or its
quality of edibility becomes reduced. Various external forces are responsible for the spoilage of food. Food
that is capable of spoiling is referred to as perishable food.
2. Pathogenic- in the oldest and broadest sense is anything that can produce disease Typically the term is used
to mean an Infectious agent (colloquially known as a germ)- a microorganism, in the widest sense such as a
virus, bacterium, prion, or fungus, that causes disease in its ho0st The host may be an animal, human, a
plant, or even another microorganism.
Phases of Growth of Bacteria
a) During lag phase, bacteria adapt themselves to growth conditions. It is the period where the individual
bacteria are maturing and not yet able to divide
b) The log phase (sometimes called the logarithmic phase or the exponential phase) is a period characterized
by cell doubling. The number of new bacteria appearing per unit time is proportional to the present
population.
c) The stationary phase is often due to a growth-limiting factor such as the depletion of an essential nutrient,
and/or the formation of an inhibitory product such as an organic acid. Stationary phase results from a
situation in which growth rate and death rate are equal.
d) At death phase, bacteria run out of nutrients and die.

Conditions of bacteria needs to grow and multiply

F Food There are sufficient nutrients available that promote the growth of
microorganisms. Protein-rich foods, such as meat, milk, eggs and fish are most
susceptible.
A Acidity Foodborne pathogens require a slightly acidic pH level of 4.6-7.5, while they thrive
in conditions with a pH of 6.6-7.5. FDA regulations for acid/acidified foods require
that the food be brought to pH 4.5 or below.
T Time Food should be removed from "the danger zone" (see below) within two hours,
either by cooling or heating. While most guidelines state two hours, a few indicate
four hours is still safe.
T Temperature Foodborne pathogens grow best in temperatures between 5'C to 57 C, a range
referred to as the temperature danger zone (TDZ). They thrive in temperatures
that are between 21°C to 40°C.
O Oxygen Almost all foodborne pathogens are aerobic, that is requiring oxygen to grow.
Some pathogens, such as Clostridium botulinum, the source of botulism, are
anaerobic and do not require oxygen to grow.
M Moisture Water is essential for the growth foodborne pathogens, water activity (aw) is a
measure of the water available for use and is measured on a scale of 0 to 1.0.
Foodborne pathogens grow best in foods that have a, between 1.0 and 0.86. FDA
 regulations for canned foods require a, of 0.85 or below.
FATTOM

2. VIRUS - is a small infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of other organisms. Viruses can
infect all types of life forms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea.
3. PARASITE - Traditionally parasite referred to organisms with life stages that needed more than one host (e.g.
Taenia solium). These are now called macro parasites (typically protozoa and helminths). Parasite now also
refers to microparasites, which are typically smaller, such as viruses and bacteria, and can be directly
transmitted between hosts of the same species. Some examples of parasites include the plants mistletoe and
cuscuta, and animals such as hookworms.
4. FUNGI - is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts
and molds (British English: moulds), as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified
as a kingdom. Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, protists and bacteria. One major difference is
that fungal cells have cell walls that contain chitin, unlike the cell walls of plants and some protists, which
contain cellulose, and unlike the Cell walls of bacteria
C. ABIOTIC SPOILAGE OR CHEMICAL CHANGES.
It is an unwanted quality change in a food stuff, such as staling, discoloration, the development of off-flavors
and odors (e.g. rancidity) and thinning of sauces.
It can be caused for example by enzymic or microbial activity, oxidation or external tainting.
This category can help you identify the problem:
o Texture – such as thinning of sauces from starch degradation.
o Colour – including discoloration of meat, fruit or vegetables.
o Off-Odour and Off-Flavour: breakdown of proteins in meat, taint from packaging, environment or
processing, rancidity from lipid oxidation or hydrolysis.

These types of food spoilage can be prevented through the use of proper processing method. They can also be
arrested by the wise choice of packaging materials.
Thus, with this background on factors causing food spoilage, it can be expected that a novice in food packaging
should be adequately prepared in his planning and selection of food packaging materials

VI. MEAT PROCESSING INGREDIENTS AND FUNCTIONS

MEAT PROCESSING
Meat processing is a kind of food preservation or transformation to produce new product, attractive,
marketable and often long shelf-life meat products.
INGREDIENTS AND FUNCTIONS
1. CURING MIX
word curing means “saving or preserving” meat
It covers preservation processes such as: drying, salting and smoking
To homemade meat products, the term 'Curing usually means preserved with salt and nitrite
a. Refine salt or Vacuum Salt
retains normal moisture content.
provides desirable flavor.
b. Curing Salt (Pink)
99.4% of refined salt and 0.6% nitrite (N02)
powerful anti-oxidants, retarding the development of rancidity
 nitrite in combination with refined salt reacts directly to the meat, combines with myoglobin (red color
of the meat) to form nitroso-myoglobin, a bright red compound and stable upon the reaction of heat.
(ham, tocino, and sausages)
c. Phosphate
relaxes muscle of meat increasing water holding capacity and binding capacity of cured products.
reduces rancidity and increases product yield.
d. Vitamin C Powder or Ascorbic (acids, vinegar, calamansi)
Speed up curing reaction in cured products
fights carcinogens present in preserved mea
2. EXTENDERS
vegetable proteins (commonly textured soya protein) added to meat products to replace part of the meat.
a. Textured Vegetable Protein (TVP)
Replace or substitute for expensive lean meat
hydrate in double amount of water
b. Isolate (Soy Protein Isolate)
forms protein network in meat products
add juiciness and volume to the meat product in combination with textured soy protein.
c. Carageenan
origin: seaweeds
increases water holding capacity of meat
d. Qualicel
Comes from Bamboo fiber
Use for highly commercial ground products (siomai, embotido, longganisa, hamburger)
e. Versagel
Comes from plant protein
Qualicel and Versagel are hydrated with ¼ cup of TVP with 1 ½ cups of water for beef & pork, 1 ¼ cup for
chicken meats.
3. SEASONING
Seasoning is the process of imparting flavor to, or improving the flavor of food.
Seasonings include herbs and spices, which are themselves frequently referred to as "seasonings".
it has an aroma
a. Adobo Mix
b. Anisado Wine (for longganisa, tocino, tapa, cooking ham)
c. Bacon powder
d. Beef Flavor (for hamburger)
e. Beef Aroma
f. For Corned Beef
Corned Beef Seasoning Garlic Powder
Nutmeg Onion Powder or Onion Minced
Trimix
g. For Hamburger
Celery Powder Hamburger Seasonings
Potato Starch Hamburger Mix
h. For Ham (Pork, Chicken, Beef)
Cinnamon Powder Ham Spice
Clavo de Comer Laurel Leaves
 Oregano Strands or Oregano Powder

i. Fried Chicken Seasoning

j. Garlic Powder
k. Goyong Powder (for Quekiam)
l. Ground Black Pepper
m. Luncheon Meat Seasoning
n. Meat Enhancer
o. MSG
p. Onion Powder
q. Minced Onion
r. Meaty Ginisa
s. Paprika
t. Shrimp powder (for siomai, quekiam)
u. Smoke flavor (for ham, bacon, barbecue and smoked longganisa)
v. White pepper

OTHERS:
Syringe and Needle (30 ml. capacity) (Needle – 15 inches x 3 inches)
Cotton Thread
Hamburger Molders: Big (for 50 g. patty), Small (for 30 g. patty)
Funnel – for stuffing of longganisa and sausages
PACKAGING MATERIALS
Paperlyne (6 inches x 6 inches) (for skinless longganisa and hamburger)
Paperlyne (1 sq. foot) for wrapping of ham
Taupee Wrapper – for quekiam
Plastic Bag (polyethylene bag)
o Big (6 inches x 12 inches) – for ½ kg. meat product
o Medium (6 inches x 8 inches) – for ¼ kg. meat product
Salted hog casing – for sausages: natural, cleaned, salted (keep in freezer), wash before using
Collagen Casing – small and big
Opaque Plastic Containers for storage of ingredients
TIPS
FOR OVERSEAS FILIPINO WORKERS
Overseas Filipino workers leaving the country can still process meat products for their "kababayans" without
bringing in ingredients coming from the Philippines.
Here are some important tips to consider:
1. Select meat based on specifications of the meat products to be processed.
2. Ingredients that may be eliminated in processing:
Curing salt
Upon cooking, color of the meat product turns brown instead of pink.
Red food color may be substituted.
Phosphate
This can be removed since animals abroad (esp. Europe, America, Australia) are slaughtered in the proper
way (resting and fasting procedures are observed).
Vitamin C powder
 Ascorbic acid (250 mg. tablet, pulverized, can be substituted instead of Vitamin C powder).
Carageenan
Gelatin powder (plain flavor) maybe substituted to improve binding quality of meat
Monosodium Glutamate (MSG)
may be removed since meat abroad are properly slaughtered and aged. Ageing improves the flavor and color
of the meat.
Extenders
Textured Vegetable Protein (TVP) Isolate, Qualicel, and Versagel may be eliminated since there is no need
for the meat to increase the yield.

INTRODUCTION
An Introduction to Food Technology cannot be complete without discussions on food packaging Products,
particularly food, depend greatly on the degree of protection and sales appeal of its packaging materials. Oftentimes
food manufacturers lose out to their competitors mainly because of poor packaging. The topic, therefore, deserves a
chapter all its own it only to provide some general ideas to food manufacturers on how a package can make or break
their business.

The chapter will briefly cover areas dealing with: (a) importance, functions and classification of food packaging; (b)
characteristics of foodstuff and role in package selection; (c) composition of food and packaging requirements; (d)
selection of packaging materials; (e) types of packaging materials; and (f) quality control in food packaging.
I. BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITION
A. FOOD PACKAGING
food packaging is valuable to food preservation because it aids in lengthening the life of food. A package
protects the food stuff from physical damage during handling and contamination by dirt and other foreign
materials.
It also prevents infestation of insects, rodents, and microorganisms. Moreover, loss or gain of moisture is
controlled and contact with air, light, heat, and contaminating gases is minimized.
The main function of a package is to insure complete protection of the contents. The packaging material
should be suitable to the product properties and should not alter the good qualities of the product.
Package characteristics include moisture proofness, resistance to grease, resistance to microorganisms,
resistance to insects and rodents, protection against light, and odor retention and absorption.
Food packaging serves the following purposes
1. It protects food from physical and chemical spoilage
2. It enhances the shelf stability or preserved foodstuffs.
3. It facilitates the handling of food.
4. It simplifies storage or foodstuffs.
5. It protects food from physical and chemical spoilage.
B. FOOD LABELLING
It is any tag, brand, mark, pictorial or other descriptive matter, written, printed, stenciled, marked,
embossed or impressed on, or attached to, a container of food.
It is one of the most important and direct means of
communicating information to the consumer.
Food labels convey information about the products identity and
contents, and on how to handle, prepare and consume it safely
 This information, which includes items such as ingredients, quality and nutritional value, can accompany
the food or be displayed near the food to promote its sale.

General principle of Food Labelling

 Prepackaged food shall not be described or presented on any label or in any labelling in a manner
that is false, misleading or deceptive or is likely to create an erroneous impression regarding its character in
any respect.

 Prepackaged food shall not be described or presented on any label or in any labelling by words,
pictorial or other devices which refer to or are suggestive either directly or indirectly, of any other product
with which such food might be confused, or in such a manner as to lead the purchaser or consumer to
suppose that the food is connected with such other product.
II. IMPORTANCE, FUNCTIONS AND CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD PACKAGING
A. IMPORTANCE OF FOOD PACKAGING
Food packaging has been defined by Paine (1962) as the "art, science and technology of preparing goods
for transport and sale"
More specifically, it is a way of making sure that a product reaches the end-user good condition at the
least cost to the producer. In effect, a packaging material provides the means of transporting a product
from one place to another with maximum protection at the least cost. With this in mind, one may note
that in agricultural nations, the first function of packaging lies in its ability to contain agricultural
products from the time of harvest to the point of use by the costumer.
B. IMPORTANCE IN FOOD PROCESSING
Food products which have undergone processing are expected to remain clean and protected from the
elements. Such a function can only be obtained from a good packaging material.
All types of processed goods have its own packaging requirements and attention to this before manufacture
is of utmost importance. Thus, food processors potential and actual, are expected to regard with great
importance the food packaging requirements for any of their planned products.
C. FUNCTIONS OF FOOD PACKAGING
1. To contain
Whether the food product in the farm site or at the factory, the need for a packaging material simply to
contain them is obvious. During harvest at the farm site packages could mean crates, baskets, boxes and
the like to contain the farm produce in bulk. These are also necessary to allow for stacking the products
in their containers for storage at the warehouse or while awaiting transport, distribution or actual use.
At the food processing plant, the function of the package changes from concern mainly with bulk
containers to its use as a unit pack, Users of food product for household consumption may need the
goods in smaller packages. Hence, packages are made to fit this need by allowing them to contain
different quantities of food.
Regardless of package size, it is clear that one of the functions of packaging is to contain the food
product. This is of great necessity since transfer and distribution of product can be affected only if they
are contained in the specified package size.
This could either be packs for institutional use or for direct hone consumption. Unless goods are properly
contained in the package of the right size, storage and transfer of goods cannot be made fast and
efficient
2. To Protect
 When rough handling of perishable foods is minimized, speed of deterioration slows down. This is clearly
observed with farm products which have been given effective protection through proper use of the right
containers. At the farm, the right choice of packaging materials can already provide protection to the
fresh produce. Farmers should always be aware of this and perhaps food technologists should find
means of letting them know about this function of food packaging.
When fresh farm produces are processed, they undergo changes which are expected to help lengthen
product life.
Processing and packaging both have important functions in prolonging product shelf-life. It is easy to see
that one activity is useless without the other. No processed food product can survive the environment
unless it is packaged protectively. Any perishable item, like food, cannot last long without proper
packaging. Unless the right packaging material is utilized for the identified processed product, its storage
life cannot be assured. Food packaging, therefore, has that major function of protecting the quality and
shelf-life of food.
3. To Help Sell
Some authorities say that more than 60% of the cost of processed goods can be the cost of its package.
Generally, consumers get attracted first to the beauty, novelty or additional utility of packaging
materials.
The package itself helps in product promotion. The more attractive it is, the greater the chances it will be
noticed. It is, therefore, of great importance for food producers never to take for granted the aesthetic
value of food packaging. Remember always that the more attractive the package, the greater the chance
that the product can promote itself.
Other food manufacturers make use of the "re-usable" package approach. The consumers regard the
container for its additional utility after product consumption. For instance, the many coffee
manufactures in the Philippines, compete by packaging the goods in attractive drinking glasses. When
the coffee is consumed, the glass becomes part of the household collection.
Like all perishable goods, food cannot be properly utilized without packaging. Its survival rate through time is
increased when effectively packaged. Finally, besides the functions to contain and to protect, the food package can
also serve as the product's promotion and advertising vehicle. Wisely selected and designed food packaging
materials can therefore, be very important to the food processor/user.

III. CLASSIFICATION OF PACKAGE

A. Primary Package. Sometimes referred to as a unit pack, this type of package is meant to directly contain the
product. Hence, it gets in direct contact with the goods. Thus, for food, this package is expected to meet all
the requirements for safety and protection of the consumer.

 Examples of this include candy wrappers juice containers such as bottles of rigid plastic and
the like, Tetra packs or canned food packages such as tin cans, retortable pouch, plastic bottles,
flexible package, etc. They normally come in unit packages which would contain varying quantities
usually specified in the labels.

Chocolate Wrappers
 B. Secondary Package. From its name, this package is utilized to contain a specified number of unit packs. Thus,
a secondary package may contain a dozen tetra packs or two dozen tin cans or a gross of candies and so on.
Its major function is to allow for the unit packs to be carried in bulk. There are universally agreed standard
contents/sizes for secondary packages. Hence, a case of regular size soft drink is expected to have 24 bottles,
a case of corned beef or a box of canned gallon pineapple juice will contain 12 cans and so on.

Plastic which contains the unit packs of chocolates

C. Tertiary Package. When transporting in bulk, the secondary package may have to be packaged again for
greater protection and for bulk transfer. This package is on its tertiary level. Usually these can be crates
containing ten or more boxes of secondary packages; or pallets containing the large boxes of bulk-packed
goods, or they can actually be container vans which carry in big volume several crated goods. Use of tertiary
package is normally for bulk transport and/or storage in large warehouses while awaiting bulk distribution.

Box of Chocolate

Illustration of Classification of Packaging

IV. MARKET FORMS OF PACKAGING MATERIALS

There are many forms in which packaging materials are made available in the market. Unless designed exclusively for
the food manufacturer, the package can have its own market forms. Differences in final product package perhaps
can be due mainly to label designs.
A. FLEXIBLE PACKAGING MATERIALS
Perhaps considered as its own market forms are the flexible packaging materials available either from the market or
directly from suppliers.
Cellophane. This is a thin transparent material that is made of cellulose and contains variable amounts of
water and softener. Cellophane, as is, is a weak packaging material, therefore, it is usually coated on one or
both sides to make it resistant to moisture and sealable by heat or solvent. Cellophane may be used to wrap
baked goods, confectionery, snack foods, processed meats, coffee and tea, pasta products and wet produce.
Cellophane may be used in the middle layer of multiply laminations.
 Plastics are man-made polymers of very high molecular weight. Because of their excellent physical
properties (e.g. Strength and toughness), flexibility, light weight, and resistance to cracking, plastics have
found wide applications in the food industry. The major types of plastics used in food packaging are
polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene chloride, polystyrene, polyamides, and
polyesters.
A laminate is made of several layers of materials held together by adhesives. This comes in handy when no
singe packaging material provides the properties required by the product.
Paper and Paperboard are materials made from wood pulp. The former is usually thinner than the latter,
possesses less rigidity and strength, and is more flexible. Initially, paper was only used for dry foods because
it could not retain its strength under wet conditions.
Flexible or soft packaging materials
a. Cellophane f. Saran film
b. Aluminum foil g. Laminated wrappings
c. Polyethylene h. Others – such as box, edible packages,
d. Wax-coated papers plastic bags
e. Tetra pack

B. RIGID PACKAGING MATERIALS

The word rigid connotes hardness and inflexibility. This describes those packaging materials which are pre-formed,
generally cannot be folded and has a definite volume or its content.
Glass is made from limestone, sand, soda and ash. Glass is chemically inert that it does not react with the
food. It is transparent that it allows for product visibility. It does not appreciably deteriorate with time that it
may be rinsed. Once sealed, a glass container is impermeable to moisture and gases. It may also be reclosed
after opening. The major drawback of glass container is its fragility. It has a low impact resistance specially so
it its surface has been damaged already. It is also prone to thermal shock, i.e. it breaks if there is a sudden
temperature difference between the inner and outer walls of more than 32.2°C (90°F). Hence, when using
glass containers in thermal processing care should be taken to ensure a uniform temperature use on both
walls. Another thing going against glass is its weight.
Metal:
 Tin cans are not as chemically inert as glass containers. They can corrode with time and impart a "tinning"
flavor and an off-color to food. However, this may be minimized or prevented by applying a coating on the
side which comes in direct contact with food. The coating must not be toxic to man. It must be odorless and
tasteless. It must strongly adhere to the can wall that it doesn't come loose during food processing and
subsequent storage. Tin cans are lighter than glass containers. They are not prone to thermal shock. Upon
sealing, it is impermeable to gases and moisture. Some types of cans may be reclosed while others cannot.
Cans are not transparent protecting food from light.
 Aluminum, on the other hand, is widely used as cans, as foil wraps for dairy products (butter, cheese) and
chocolate, as a component of laminates, and as tubes. An aluminum can is lighter in weight than a tin can.
Aluminum is nontoxic and is a good barrier to light, gas, moisture and odors. It has an attractive finish which
can be easily decorated and which has a good feel. Aluminum is prone to corrosion especially if it is not
coated. The acidity of food is the determining factor. Unlike uncoated tin plates, aluminum does not discolor
food i.e. it does not produce dark sulfur stains with peas. Aluminum is not prone to thermal shock; it can
withstand extreme temperatures.
Rigid containers
a. Glass jars c. Rigid plastic containers
b. Cans d. Paperboard cartons
 e. Oven glass g. Wooden boxes
f. Bags and boxed bags

Others Wooden crates and "kaings" lined with banana leaves can be used to transport fresh produce from
the point of harvest to the market. However, then former has a better stacking performance than the latter.
The kaings" are lined to protect the product from bruises and cuts. Sacks made of cloth are used to contain
sugar in bulk. Care should be taken that all seams are well sawn to avoid leaks.

V. REQUIREMENT OF AN IDEAL FOOD PACKAGING MATERIAL

There are a number of packaging materials available to the manufacturer. In choosing, it would be wise to consider
the requirements of the ideal material for the packaging of foodstuff
First, it must be simple and inexpensive. Packaging is an added cost to the product; hence its cost should be
compatible with the value of the product. Also, bear in mind that the consumer is usually interested only in
the product and not in its package. An exception to this would be in the case of a food manufacturer holding
a promotion where the container which holds the food can be used for some other purposes after the food
has been eaten. For example, coffee jars which can be used as drinking glasses or cans of dried milk with
dainty prints which can be used as utility containers around the house. The cheapest material may not be
the best material for a particular food especially if it is not able to serve its functions. In this instance, the
package defeats its purpose.
Secondly it must preferably be transparent and nave surface gloss to attract customers. Consumers prefer to
see what they are buying. Otherwise they would think that they are being cheated. Hence, products which
are not sensitive to light should be packaged in transparent material. Foods which are rich in fat are usually
sensitive to light because light promotes oxidative rancidity of fats. Therefore, unless antioxidants are
incorporated in their formulation they should be wrapped or contained in materials which are not
transparent.
Third, it must have control over transfer of moisture. Flour mixes or soup mixes must be packed in a material
which does not allow entry of water vapor from the atmosphere to prevent lumping or caking. In other
foods, a material that allows for escape of moisture from food is desired. This is to avoid sweating and
condensation of water vapor inside the package, both of which could favor the growth of microorganisms
and loss of transparency of material.
Fourth, it must have control over transfer of other gases/vapors. Fruits and vegetables continue to respire
after harvest, a process where they give up oxygen and use up carbon dioxide. Otherwise, loo low
concentration of oxygen may favor fermentation and too high carbon dioxide may injure fruits. In instances
where the packaging material does not allow adequate gas transfer, it may be perforated.
Fifth, it must protect the food against crushing. This particularly important for the shipping of secondary
container.
Sixth, it must not contain any toxic constituents. This is especially important if the material comes in direct
contact with the food.
Seventh, it must be able to withstand wide temperature range in storage and use. Frozen foods must be
packed in material that can tolerate storage temperature of -18 C or lower.

VI. TYPES OF FOOD PRODUCTS TO BE CONSIDER IN PACKAGING

A guide in the selection of food packaging material should include the type of food products to be packaged. Earlier
the characteristics of food were presented to emphasize the fact that such knowledge can affect package selection.
This portion reiterate the physical nature of food about to be packaged.
a. Wet or Liquid Foods
 High moisture foods have been repeatedly mentioned relative to ease in food spoilage. At this point, this
characteristic should not be associated with product ease of handling, transport and distribution. Wet or
liquid food will require a packaging material which will not only protect them from the environment but
should also provide ease in handling. Putting wet products in flexible containers could promote squeezing,
resulting to package destruction. Generally, a rigid packaging material could be best fitted for liquid foods
provided they do not allow "tainting or food absorption of package odor called taint.
b. Frozen products and Solid Foods
Frozen items are solid but much more delicate than most other solids. Packaging for frozen products should
be so selected that it can remain pliable even when frozen. Also, frozen foods require packaging which
should contain the product protection even when slightly thawed. However, it should be emphasized that
freezing/thawing of frozen foods can be very damaging to its quality. Package selection for solid foods was
already discussed in an and, as much as possible render earlier section.
c. Dried Foods
For low moisture foods, package selection can be much easier. First, the food is generally not prone to
spoilage; second, it is light, and third, it is easy to handle. The problem usually associated with dried foods is
discoloration. This is generally catalyzed by undue exposure to light and to presence of oxygen in the
packaged product.
d. Product with High Fat Content
A consideration which is often disregarded is the amount of fat in food. It
may be recalled that foods containing fat could appear messy in
transparent packages and could provide problems when packed in
oxygen permeable containers. Generally, the problem associated win too
fat content is rancidity or the development of soapy taste in fatty foods.
With rancidity, textural properties are affected especially for food fried
to crispness. When, therefore, selecting a packaging material for high fat
foods, the major consideration is the extent of protection it can offer in
terms of prevention of oxygen or desired retention of vacuum in the
package.
VII. FOOD LABELLING REQUIREMENTS
Food labels carry useful information to help you make good choices
about food. The food label will tell you if the food contains an additive that
you may want to avoid. The nutrition information panel helps you to compare the nutrient profile of similar
products and choose the one that suits your needs.
All countries have requirements regarding information that is printed on food packaging labels. Usually a label has to
convey the following: name of the product, the manufacturer’s name and address, net weight, serving size, list of
ingredients and nutrition information per serving.
Labelling Law
Republic Act 3720 (Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act)
Prescribes rules and regulations for the packaging and labelling of foods distributed in the Philippines
Bureau of Food and Drug (BFAD) interprets regulations and details of RA 3720
Provides lists of substances permitted for use in food and food packaging material
Food Labelling
Information is provided on the packaging of food and drink products to help consumers make choices between
different products, brands and flavours.
1. Principal Display Panel (PDP) or Alternate Principal Display
 Portion of Package label that is most likely to be seen by the costumer. Sometimes, a food package may also
have an alternate principal display panel, which refers to the other surface of the package that is also
suitable for display as PDP
Required Information:
o Product Identity name
 The name should distinguish the product from other products of the same type
 A sufficient precise description of the food and its nature
 Product name should not be misleading
 The name prescribed by law
o Net content Declaration
 Expression of the weight, measure or numerical count or a combination of numerical count
and weight of the product inside the package
 Example: net weight 227 g, net contents 355 ml, net wt. 397 g, 24 pieces
2. Information Panel
It is the label panel immediately to the right of the PDP, as seen by the
consumer facing the product
Require Information, All other mandatory information
o the name and address of the manufacturer, packer, or distributor

 Example:
Manufactured by:
 _______________________________________________________
Distributed by:
_______________________________________________________
Packed by:
_______________________________________________________
Date of Manufacture:
_______________________________________________________
o the ingredient lists
 defined in Article to mean “Any substance, including additives, used in the manufacture or
preparation of a food stuff and still present in the finished product”
 descending order of predominance by weight
 Examples: Ingredients: Snail, coconut milk, salt, garlic, spices
o Instruction of Use
o country of origin
 Example:
Product of the Philippines
o The nutrition facts (when present) may appear on the information panel
 Group 1
The energy values
The amount of protein
The amount of carbohydrates
The amount of fat
 Group 2 The amount of fat
The energy values amnt saturated fatty acids
The amount of protein The amount of dietary fiber
The amount of carbohydrates The amount of sodium
o Open-Date Marking for Specific Food (Best Before Date and Consume Before Date)
 Means legibly indicating a date on food labels/packages for the purpose of informing the
consumer about the expected quality of product at a given period of time provided that it
has been properly stored

o Barcode
 An article numbering system for increased productivity
The Food and Drug Administration requires the following data to be clearly stated on a
packaged food label:
Name of the Product
List of Ingredients
Nutritional Information
Net Weight/Quantity
Date of Manufacture
Name and Complete address of the Manufacturer
Instructions of use
Best Before/Use by date
Barcode
METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION
PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PRESERVATION
All methods of food preservation are based on the following principles.
A. Microbial decomposition may be prevented or delayed by:
1. Keeping out microorganisms through sanitary handling
2. Removal of microorganisms
3. Hindering the growth and activity of microorganisms by low temperature, drying, anaerobic, or
chemicals; and
4. Killing microorganisms by heat.
B. Self-decomposition of food may be prevented or delayed by:
1. Destruction or inactivation of food enzymes; and
2. Prevention of delay of purely chemical reactions such as preventing oxidation by means of an
antioxidant.
C. Damage by external factors like insects, animals or mechanical causes may be prevented only with adequate
packaging of food.
I. HEAT APPLICATION

A. HEATING
Nearly all types of food can be preserved for a consideration period of time by cooking. When raw foods
deteriorate, it is through the action of the enzymes they contain and action of bacteria with which they
become contaminated. Heating or cooking destroys or inactivates these enzymes thus preventing this type
of deterioration.
Cooking also destroys certain types of microorganisms that cause spoilage. In the home, cooking is used as a
preservation method as well as a method to make food more palatable. However, ordinary cooking does not
destroy all bacteria. Deterioration although delayed, will occur through the growth of surviving bacteria.
B. PASTEURIZATION
In this method of preservation named after Louis Pasteur, foods are subjected to sufficient heat to kill most
of the bacteria without markedly altering flavor or other characteristics. The food is heated in a closed
system. Rapidly cooked, and then placed in covered or sealed container to prevent recontamination. This
method is generally used for liquids such as milk, fruit, vegetables juices and beer.
C. STERILIZATION
Sterilization refers to any process that removes, kills, or deactivates all forms of life (in particular referring to
microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, spores, unicellular eukaryotic organisms such as
Plasmodium, etc.) and other biological agents like prions present in a specific surface, object or fluid, for
example food or biological culture.
 Sterilization can be achieved through various means, including heat, chemicals, irradiation, high pressure, and
filtration.
Sterilization is distinct from disinfection, sanitization, and pasteurization, in that those methods reduce rather
than eliminate all forms of life and biological agents present. After sterilization, an object is referred to as being
sterile or aseptic.
D. HOT FILLING
Hot filling is a process where the product is heated up to a temperature of 194 degrees Fahrenheit to
remove harmful bacteria or microorganisms which might be with the product. Then the hot fluid is filled into
the bottles and bottles are capped. After the bottles are filled, they are turned on side or upside down to
sterilize the cap. At the end bottles are rapidly cooled down.
II. LOW TEMPERATURE FOOD PRESERVATION
A. CHILLING/REFRIGERATION
The rate of deterioration by naturally occurring enzymes and the rate of growth of microorganisms are
progressively retarded by low temperature. In supermarkets, fresh meat is displayed in a chilling case, and fresh
poultry in crushed ice to maintain quality and retard deterioration. Fresh fruits and vegetables are held in a
refrigerated warehouse regulated to obtain maximum storage according to product requirements. To extend
storage life, products such as butter, cheese, dehydrated eggs and canned goods are stored in cooled
warehouse. No change of form or texture is involved when products are simply cooled to prolong freshness.
B. FREEZING
Certain products require a porous structure to facilitate dehydration otherwise they may suffer heat or oxidation
damage during drying even at room temperature. Products such as raw or cooked meat, fish, and certain fruits
and vegetables are frozen, placed in a chamber, and subjected to a high vacuum. This causes the ice crystals to
sublime or evaporate leaving small cavities. The spongy material takes up water, rapidly during dehydration. To
facilitate evaporation, heat is applied through the shelves upon which the frozen food seats. Temperature of the
shelves must be regulated to increase the drying rate without melting. Many products can be dried in this way
and very closely resemble raw products when dehydration, yet will keep for long periods without refrigeration
provided proper moisture proof packaging is used.
III. DRYING AND CANNING
A. SUN AND AIR-DRYING
In certain localities where the warm sun and low humidity prevail. Local fruits are dried on trays in the open.
Rapid drying is essential to prevent molding and to maintain quality. For fast drying where sun drying is not
practicable, mechanical air drying offers a solution. Fruit and vegetables are prepared, spread on regulated air
until dry. In some products, sulfur dioxide is applied to preserve color and retard deterioration. Some liquid
foods such as milk, liquid eggs, and instant coffee are dried by spraying them into rapidly moving current of hot
dry air then covering the resulting powder. Drying on a rotating heated drum is also employed for certain
products.
B. VACUUM DRYING
With products that deteriorate from heat or oxidation, a vacuum drying process may be employed in batch or
continuous flow. A high vacuum plus heat causes the product to dry rapidly by evaporation. Raising the
temperature increases the rate of evaporation but this must be regulated according to product requirements.
This method lends itself to the drying of certain fruit juices.
C. CANNING
 Canning is a method of preserving foods which combines the techniques of heating to kill the spoilage
microorganisms and inactivate by sealing in an air tight container to prevent subsequent contamination.
Microorganisms may exist in two forms: a growing vegetative cell or an inactive form called a spore. Vegetative
cells can be killed by rather mild heat (140°F-180°F) depending upon the time of exposure. However, some
spores can withstand boiling water for hours and after cooking still germinate into vegetative cells that cause
spoilage. Therefore, it is necessary to use much higher temperature to kill spores in foods. Food products are
heated to expel air. Then sealed in containers of glass or plated steel and heated or sterilized in retorts and
cooled. The resulting product is altered in flavor and texture from that of the raw product. Nevertheless, it is
preserved do that it can be shipped or stored for several years at ordinary temperature.
IV. CONCENTRATION
A. FRUIT JUICES CONCENTRATION and CARBONATION
Fruit Juices are made from pure filtered fruit juice with nothing added. Sodium benzoate can be added as Fruit
Juice preparation preservative to extend the shelf life, but this is not essential. Properly pasteurized juice has a
shelf life of several months. Most fruits can be used to make juice. The most popular ones are pineapple,
orange, mango, grape fruit and passion fruit.
Concentration of aqueous foods such as fruit juices, milk, beer, wine, coffee and tea are a major unit operation
in the food industry. Technically feasible processes that are commonly available for the concentration of liquid
foods include evaporation, freeze concentration, reverse osmosis and ultrafiltration. It is a partial removal of
moisture from liquid foods to increase their final total solids up to 70 %.
In jams, jellies, marmalades and such preservations are accomplished by addition of sugar, while concentration
of products by the removal of water produces syrups and various fruit concentrates. Most of these products will
keep without refrigeration, but some require cool storage to retain flavor. Such products add variety to the diet
through use of this preservation method. Honey is a natural product owing preservation to soluble sugars
gathered from flowers and concentrated by the bees.
Beverages are often pressured, and made more palatable by use of carbon dioxide gas under pressure. The gas
is soluble in the liquid and inhibits bacterial and mold growth. Fine filtration with a raw fruit juices coupled with
saturation with. CO2 under about 7 atmosphere pressure is used for long term bulk refrigerated storage.
V. SUGAR PRESERVATION
A. JAMS
Jam refers to a product made of whole fruit cut into pieces or crushed, then heated with water and sugar
until it reaches "jelling" or "setting" point, achieved through the action of natural or added pectin, then
sealed in containers.
Pectin thickens the final product via cross-linking of the large polymer chains. Recipes without added pectin
use the natural pectin in the fruit to set. Tart apples, sour blackberries, cranberries, currants, gooseberries,
Concord grapes, soft plums, and quinces work well in recipes without added pectin.
Other fruits, such as apricots, blueberries, cherries, peaches, pineapple, raspberries, rhubarb, and
strawberries are low in pectin. In order to set, or gel, they must be combined with one of the higher pectin
fruits or used with commercially produced. Use of added or homemade pectin. pectin decreases cooking
time.
Freezer jam is uncooked (or cooked less than 5 minutes), then stored frozen. It is popular in parts of North
America for its very fresh taste.
B. JELLIES
 The category of fruit preserve referred to as a jelly (from the French gelée) is a clear or translucent fruit
spread made by a process similar to that used for making jam, with the additional steps of adding extra
liquid and filtering out the fruit pulp after the initial cooking.
Good jelly is clear and sparkling and has a fresh flavor of the fruit from which it is made. It is tender enough
to quiver when moved, but holds angles when cut.
The characteristic clarity and jellied consistency of a jelly are qualities it shares with the gelatin-based also
called jelly.
High pectin fruits such as quinces, apples or redcurrants are preferred fruits for making jelly. Fruit jellies may
be used in a meal or dish in a similar way to jam. Some jellies, such as redcurrant, or mint, are classic
accompaniments to roasted meats such as turkey, game, and lamb.
Pectin is essential to the formation of jelly because it acts as a gelling agent, meaning when the pectin chains
combine, they create a network that results in a gel. The strength and effectiveness of the side chains and
the bonds they form depend on the pH of the pectin, the optimal pH is between 2.8 and 3.2.
C. MARMALADES
Marmalade is a fruit preserve made from the juice and peel of citrus fruits boiled with sugar and water. It
can be produced from lemons, limes, grapefruits, mandarins, sweet oranges, bergamots and other citrus
fruits, or any combination thereof.
Marmalade is distinguished from jam by the inclusion of citrus peel, and the addition of a larger quantity of
water, in which respect it resembles a jelly. It is distinguished from a jelly by the fact that the fruit pulp is not
strained out of the liquid in the case of a marmalade.
D. FRUIT PRESERVES
Preparations of fruits whose main preserving agent is sugar and sometimes acid, often stored in glass jars
and uses as a condiment or spread.
IN GENERAL
Packaging
Glass or plastic jars are an efficient method of storing and preserving jam. Though sugar can keep for
exceedingly long times, containing it in a jar is far more useful than older methods. Other methods of
packaging jam, especially for industrially produced products, include cans and plastic packets, especially
used in the food service industry for individual servings. Fruit preserves typically are of low water activity
and can be stored at room temperature after opening, if used within a short period of time.
Processing
In general, jam is produced by taking mashed or chopped fruit or vegetable pulp and boiling it with sugar
and water. The proportion of sugar and fruit varies according to the type of fruit and its ripeness, but a
rough starting point is equal weights of each. When the mixture reaches a temperature of 104°C (219°F) the
acid and the pectin in the fruit react with the sugar, and the jam will set on cooling. However, most cooks
work by trial and error, bringing the mixture to a "fast rolling boil", watching to see if the seething mass
changes texture, and dropping small samples on a plate to see if they run or set.
VI. SALTING, CURING and SMOKING
Meat, fish and certain vegetables may be preserved by high salt concentration. The salt inhibits microorganisms
and enzymes action. Products are later utilized by leaching the salt out with water. In curing ham, bacon, brine
fish, and producing pickles the product is submerged in a solution of curing salts, allowed to undergo a “cure”:
then certain products are processed in a smokehouse by dry heat. Corned beef is curing salt brine and
distributed under refrigeration. Certain sausages. Like salami, are made by adding a small amount of curing salt
 to control a fermentation that imparts a characteristic flavor and exerts preservative qualities. These products
are partially dehydrated in the smokehouse and are stable for a time without refrigeration.
A. SALTING OF FISH
Salting of fish is a traditional processing method in most countries of the world. Very often salting is used in
combination with drying and smoking; the following lectures on salting, drying and smoking outline the basic
principles and discuss the practical application of the various methods that are in common use.
The presence of sufficient quantities of common salt (sodium chloride) in fish can prevent, or drastically reduce,
bacterial action. When fish are placed in a strong solution of salt (brine) which is stronger than the solution of
salt in the fish tissue, water will pass from the tissue into the brine until the strength of the two solutions is
equal. At the same time, salt will penetrate into the tissue. This phenomenon is known as osmosis.
Several factors which affect the rate at which salt is taken up and water is replaced in fish are:
 the higher the fat content, the slower the salt uptake;
 the thicker the fish, the slower the penetration of salt to the center;
 the fresher the fish, the more slowly salt will be taken up;
 the higher the temperature, the more rapid the salt uptake.
During subsequent drying the presence of salt has the following effects:
 the higher the salt concentration, the greater the replacement of water and, therefore, the less water
that remains to be removed during drying;
 the higher the salt concentration, the less water that needs to be removed to produce a satisfactorily
preserved product;
 the higher the salt concentration, the more slowly the fish dries;
 salt tends to absorb moisture from the air and at relative humidity of more than about 75 per cent
during the drying process or during subsequent storage, fish will not dry further; they may even absorb
more moisture.
B. CURING OF MEATS
Curing is any of various food preservation and flavoring processes of foods such as meat, fish and vegetables, by
the addition of salt, with the aim of drawing moisture out of the food by the process of osmosis. Because curing
increases the solute concentration in the food and hence decreases its water potential, the food becomes
inhospitable for the microbe growth that causes food spoilage.
Curing can be traced back to antiquity, and was the primary method of preserving meat and fish until the late-
19th century. Dehydration was the earliest form of food curing. Many curing processes also involve smoking,
spicing, cooking, or the addition of combinations of sugar, nitrate, and nitrite.
Meat preservation in general (of meat from livestock, game, and poultry) comprises the set of all treatment
processes for preserving the properties, taste, texture, and color of raw, partially cooked, or cooked meats while
keeping them edible and safe to consume.
Curing has been the dominant method of meat preservation for thousands of years, although modern
developments like refrigeration and synthetic preservatives have begun to complement and supplant it. While
meat-preservation processes like curing were mainly developed in order to prevent disease and to increase food
security, the advent of modern preservation methods mean that in most developed countries today curing is
instead mainly practiced for its cultural value and desirable impact on the texture and taste of food. For lesser-
developed countries, curing remains a key process in the production, transport and availability of meat.
C. SMOKING
Smoking is a method of preserving fish which combines three effects:
  1. Preservative value of the smoke: the smoke produced from burning wood contains a large
number of compounds, some of which will kill bacteria, e.g., phenols.
 2. Drying: the fire which produces the smoke also generates heat and this will dry the fish.
 3. Cooking: if the fish are smoked at a high temperature, the flesh will be cooked and this will
destroy the enzymes and kill bacteria.
The long storage life of some smoked fish products is due more to drying and cooking than to the
preservative value of the chemical compounds deposited on the fish from the smoke.
The burning of wood or sawdust to produce smoke is extremely complex since the smoke is the result of
incomplete combustion and this will vary with the source of the fuel and the ventilation of the fire. A slow
burning fire will produce much more smoke than a small intense fire. Wood smoke is a mixture of gases,
vapours and droplets. Droplets form the visible part of the smoke although the invisible vapours contribute
to the characteristic smell. It has been shown that it is mainly the vapours that are taken up by fish during
smoking. The substances in the vapours dissolve in the liquid on the surface of the fish and the rate of
uptake depends on the moisture on the surface of the fish and the rate of flow of the smoke.
Smoked fish can be divided into two general categories:
 Cold smoked: during the smoking process, the temperature at no time rises to a level where the
flesh is cooked (i.e., the protein is denatured). In practice, this means a maximum temperature of
approximately 30 - 400C and is only really possible in temperate climates.
 Hot smoked. during the smoking process, the flesh is cooked. Traditional smoking in tropical
countries falls within this category.
VII. FERMENTATION, PICKLING AND BRINE SOLUTION
A. FERMENTATION
Fermentation in food processing is the process of converting carbohydrates to
alcohol or organic acids using microorganisms—yeasts or bacteria—under
anaerobic conditions. Fermentation usually implies that the action of
microorganisms is desired. The science of fermentation is known as zymology
or zymurgy.
The word "ferment" comes from the Latin verb "fervere," which means "to
boil." Ironically, fermentation is possible without heat.
Wines and beers are produced by adding to ferment the natural sugar.
Because fruits and juices spoil through the action of many types of
microorganisms, these are placed in a container to seal out air. Yeast can utilize
sugar when even without oxygen and produce alcohol, which acts as a preservative. When the container is
opened, acetic acid bacteria will oxidize the alcohol within the beverage, producing vinegar.
Food fermentation serves five main purposes:
 to enrich the diet through development of a diversity of flavors, aromas, and textures in food substrates;
 to preserve substantial amounts of food through lactic acid, alcohol, acetic acid, and alkaline
fermentations;
 to enrich food substrates with protein, essential amino acids, and vitamins;
 to eliminate antinutrients; and
 to reduce cooking time and the associated use of fuel.
Microbes specialized at converting certain substances into others can produce a variety of foodstuffs and
beverages. These are three distinct types of fermentation that people use.
  1. Lactic acid fermentation. Yeast strains and bacteria convert starches or sugars into lactic acid,
requiring no heat in preparation. Lactic acid bacteria are vital to producing and preserving inexpensive,
wholesome foods, which is especially important in feeding impoverished populations. This method
makes sauerkraut pickles, kimchi, yogurt, and sourdough bread.
 2. Ethanol fermentation/alcohol fermentation. Yeasts break pyruvate molecules—the output of the
metabolism of glucose (C6H1206) known as glycolysis—in starches or sugars down into alcohol and
carbon dioxide molecules. Alcoholic fermentation produces wine and beer.
 3. Acetic acid fermentation. Starches and sugars from grains and fruit ferment into sour tasting vinegar
and condiments. Examples include apple cider vinegar, wine vinegar, and kombucha.

B. PICKLING
Pickling is the process of preserving or extending the shelf life of food by either anaerobic fermentation in brine
or immersion in vinegar. The pickling procedure typically affects the food's texture, taste and flavor. The
resulting food is called a pickle, or, to prevent ambiguity, prefaced with pickled. Foods that are pickled include
vegetables, fruits, meats, fish, dairy and eggs.

Ingredients for Pickling

Pickling preserves food in a brine solution. The perfect balance of salt, vinegar, water, and herbs and spices can
safely preserve your pickled food. You can achieve this balance by precisely measuring your pickling ingredients:
 Salt: Used as a preservative. It adds flavor and crispness to your food, especially pickles. Use a pure,
additive- free, granulated salt. Acceptable salts are pickling and canning salt (a fine-grained salt
containing no additives), most kosher salt, and sea salt (produced from evaporated seawater).
 Vinegar: A tart liquid that prevents the growth of bacteria. Always use a vinegar with an acidity level of
5 percent. The preferred vinegar for pickling is distilled white vinegar, which has a sharp, tart flavor. Use
apple cider vinegar for a milder flavor.
 Water: Soft water is the best water for your brine solution. Distilled water, water with all minerals and
other impurities removed, is also a good choice.
 Herbs and spices: Use the exact amount of herbs or spices called for in your recipe.

C. BRINE
Brine, salt water, particularly a highly concentrated water solution of common salt (sodium chloride). Natural
brines occur underground, in salt lakes, or as seawater and are commercially important sources of common salt
and other salts, such as chlorides and sulfates of magnesium and potassium.
Brine is used as a preservative in meat-packing (as in corned beef) and pickling. In refrigeration and cooling
systems, brines are used as heat-transfer media because of their low freezing temperatures or as vapor-
absorption agents because of their low vapor pressure. Brine is also used to quench (cool) steel.
INTRODUCTION
To achieve excellent results in food preservation, proper selection of food materials is necessary. A thorough
knowledge and understanding of the nature of each foodstuff in a particular good group, will help one to select the best
quality item from the market place and elsewhere. More importantly, the conservation of the nutritive value of food can
be achieved if one is familiar with proper storage and handling, cooking techniques and appropriate recipes. This
chapter presents the most advanced thinking on the selection. Storage, preparation and cooking of these food groups.

Fruits and Vegetables Fish and Shellfish

Meat and Meat Products Cereals (Native Delicacies)
Poultry Products

I. FRUITS
Fruits are produced from flowers. As ripened plant ovaries and their adjacent tissues, fruits are fleshy or pulpy in
character, often juicy and usually sweet with fragrant, aromatic flavors. Most fruits are edible when ripe.
Fruits differ in structure according to the kind of flowers from which they develop. Some fruits come from a
simple blossom and others from a flower with many stamens and pistils. In addition, there are some fruits forms
from many flowers that have collected together. Nuts, on the other hand, yield a seed rather a fleshy portion
but are botanically classified as fruit.
FRUIT CLASSIFICATION
Fruits may be classified on the basis of consistency and structure:
1. Fleshy fruits – there are fruits from a single ovary which remain succulent instead of turning dry at maturity.
Examples are; citrus fruits such as orange, calamansi, grapes, bananas, mangoes, and others.
2. Dry fruits – fruits develop when the ovary opens at maturity and discharges the seeds, allows them to fall or
fails to do so. Examples are; nuts, legumes, and cereal grains.
3. Aggregate Fruits – these are fruits that develop from a flower with carpels distributed loosely or closely
over a common receptable. In short, they are formed from several ovaries produced as one flower.
Examples are; atis and strawberries.
4. Multiple or collective fruits – these are fruits that are formed from many flowers that have collected
together. Examples are; pineapple and jackfruit.
CHANGES DURING RIPENING
Knowledge of the ripening process of fruits is essential because most fruits are good only when ripe. Several
important changes occur during ripening; the fruit develops to its full size; the pulpy edible tissue surrounding
the seeds becomes soft and tender; the color changes; the starch content changes to sugar giving a mild, sweet
flavor; and the full characteristic aroma of the fruits develops. However, the enzymes continue to function even
after the fruits has reached its peak of maturity. Changes beyond this point cause spoilage and deterioration of
texture and flavor.
Ripeness and the manner of ripening may influence the vitamin content of fruits. For example, the ascorbic acid
content of banana is greatest in fully ripe fruit. Fruits ripened in the sun are rich in ascorbic acid.
NUTRITIVE VALUE
Fruits do not certain large amount of protein and fats but are high in carbohydrates and water content. They are
the best food sources of minerals and vitamins. Sugar in fruit are in a form ready to use by the body. The
minerals, phosphorus, and iron are found in abundant quantity in fresh fruits. Although there is variation of
 vitamin content from fruit to fruit, most fruits are in the raw state contain some ascorbic acid. Citrus fruits,
berries and melons are among the best sources of ascorbic acid. Carotene is present in good amount in yellow
fruits such as papayas, mangoes and bananas. Fruits are also valuable for their bulk or indigestible fiber.
Proximate Composition of Selected Fruits
in 100 grams Edible Portion
(Food Composition Table, 1980)
FRUIT MOISTUR CHO PROTEIN FAT ASCORBIC CAROTEINE IRON
E% GM GM ACID EQUIVALENT MG
GM MG
BANANAS 68 29.6 1.4 0.2 25 360 0.8
LANZONES 83.9 14.2 1.0 0.3 2 - 0.9
AVACADO 81.8 10.5 0.9 6.2 14 130 0.8
GUAVA 82.4 16.0 0.8 0.3 127 40 0.9
KASOY 90 13.8 0.7 0.6 67 15 0.5
DURIAN 59.9 36.1 2.0 1.2 44 - 1.1
MANGO 82.9 16.4 0.6 0.2 46 1165 0.6
SAMPALOC 83.4 61.4 2.0 0.6 4 - 0.9
PAPAYA 86.6 12.1 0.5 0.3 74 450 1.0
ATIS 73.3 23.7 1.3 0.4 40 - 0.9

SELECTION OF FRUITS
Efficient selection of fruits involves a consideration of its special characteristics. Knowledge of these
characteristics will ensure the selection of fruits with desirable qualities. Here are some characteristics of fruits
to consider.

FRUIT DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTIC

Banana Plump and fully matured: skin fleeced with a brown tip; yellow or brown, not
green.
Mango Golden yellow skin; sweet and juicy; full checked
Melon Heavy in relation to size; fragrant, normal in shape; free from decay and disease;
a bit soft when pressed at the bottom end.
Pineapple Yellowish brown; stiff leaves that can easily be pulled from the fruit; heavy in
relation to size fragrant.
Citrus fruits (suha, Heavy; fine-grained; thin skinned and smooth
calamansi, dalandan)
Strawberries Firm; free from decay; bright red; uniformly; large in size.
Papaya Firm with trace of yellow at the apex or between ridges; free from lump; not
misshaped
Avocado Smooth and firm; purplish black

GUIDES IN BUYING FRUITS

 Shop for fruits in the morning when fruits are fresh.
  But the fruits in season. They are less expensive and better in quality than those sold out of season
 Because fruits deteriorate rapidly after they have ripened, avoid buying large quantities at one time, unless you
have provisions for preserving the surplus fruits.
 Decide how the fruit is to be used before buying it.
 Select the fruit personally whenever possible in order to make the best selection for your purpose.
 Purchase the fruit by weight: the heaviest rather than the biggest may be the best
 Sweet fruits which are ripe but firm and smooth. Overripe, soft, or bruised fruits are not desirable
 Handle fruit with care to preserve their attractive appearance.
 Select fruits with good color and aroma: these are guides to ripeness.
 Fruit price is not an identification of quality or nutritive. value but is determined by supply and demand.
SOME PRINCIPLES IN COOKING FRUITS
1. Some under ripe fruits of firm texture require cooking because of their starch content and cellulose structure
that needs softening. Fruits cooked to provide variety of dishes as well as to prepare it for canning purposes.
2. Whenever possible, fresh fruits should be cooked with the skin or for better color. Flavor, and nutritive value.
3. Fruit should be cut into uniform pieces before it is cooked so that all pieces will be tender at the same time
4. Fruit should be cooked in small amount of water as possible until tender to prevent loss of vitamins and
minerals.
5. The amount of sugar to be added depends on the sweetness of the fruit. Too much sugar destroys the delicate
flavor of the fruit. Fruits are better cooked in sugar rather than syrup because too long cooking in syrup develops
an off-flavor
6. When it is desirable to retain the shape and firm texture of fruit. It is cooked in sugar syrup or with sugar
7. Red fruits such as strawberries may lose color when heated rapidly, so slow heating preferable
8. Short cooking time will ensure greater vitamin and favor retention
9. Cooked fruits are most palatable when served immediately
10. Fruits with heavy skin such as apples are good to bake because the peel serves as protective covering and holds
in the steam necessary to softer the cellulose and decrease the loss of volatile flavors.
II. VEGETABLES
Vegetables are edible parts of plants. They maybe root, tubers, bulbs, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds, or pods, in
culinary arts, vegetables are considered those plant materials eaten with the principal parts of the meal. They
may be served cooked or raw-in their natural state on in a completely challenged appearance. Vegetables
maybe combined with other food items or eaten as is. In the Philippines, vegetables are always a popular item in
the people’s diet.
CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES
Plant parts used as vegetables maybe classified as follows:
1. Leafy vegetables – are often called green vegetables. Examples of these are kamote tops, kangkong, pechay,
saluyot, malunggay, ampalaya leaves, alugbati, spinach and other leaves used for food.
2. Seed Vegetables – are sometimes called leguminous vegetables. Example of these are paayap, monggo, batane
and other beans and peas
3. Steam and Bulbs – consist of asparagus, bamboo shoots, coconut shoot, onions and celery
4. Roots and tubers – are at times referred to as root crops. Examples are kamote, cassava, ube, carrots,
singkamas, potato, gabi, ginger, garlic and other plants identified with roots.
5. Fruit vegetables – consist of tomato, squash, eggplants, upo, ampalaya, patola, sayote, cucumbers, and okra.
6. Flowers – consist of katuray, suash blossoms, cauli flower and kakarati flowers.
NUTRITIVE VALUE OF VEGETABLES
Vegetables are naturally rich sources of vitamins and minerals. They also contain cellulose-fibrous materials that
aid in digestion. Protein, sugar, and starch are most abundantly found in vegetable seeds and pod, root crops
and fruits and flowers. Dark green and yellow vegetables are especially rich in vitamin A as well as other
minerals. The following table shows the nutritive value of selected locally grown vegetables
Proximate Composition of Some Common Vegetables
In 100 grams Edible Portion
(Food Composition Table – 1980)
VEGETABLES CHO FAT PROTEIN VIT. A ASCORBIC IRON CALCIUM
Gm gm mg (Carotene) mg mg mg
Mcg
Ampalaya 4.5 0.4 0.9 185 40 0.8 42
Squash 8.6 0.5 1.4 880 20 0.7 61
Tomato 5.2 0.9 0.3 385 34 1.0 31
Camote Tops 9.1 0.8 3.3 3.195 28 4.6 197
Kangkong 3.5 0.6 3.5 2.575 30 4.6 92
Carrots 10.5 0.4 1.5 10.290 8 2.1 69
Cabbage 4.8 0.3 1.4 20 42 0.8 74
Eggplant 5.8 0.2 1.0 80 85 0.6 35
Monggo 64.2 1.0 24.4 80 10 5.7 142
Bitsuelas 6.8 0.1 2.0 360 17 1.2 77
Sitaw 7.2 0.2 3.1 250 22 0.9 61
Pechay 3.2 0.5 2.0 1.450 54 3.7 168
Malungagay 12.4 1.9 6.1 14.945 230 4.5 346
leaves

SOME GUIDELINES IN THE SELECTION AND PURCHASE OF VEGETABLES

Vegetables have high perishability and great variation in quality. It is therefore important for one to know how
to select vegetables of the best quality. The quality of vegetables depends on:
1. Favorable conditions for their growth
2. The season of their harvest
3. The variety of the vegetables
4. Degree of maturity
5. Size and uniformity of shape
6. Presence of defects
THE ESSENTIALS OF BUYING VEGETABLES
1. Buy vegetables that are in season: they are cheap and plentiful. They are also most nutritious and better in
flavor.
2. Select the vegetables that are free from surface bruises or blemishes due to decay.
3. Choose leafy vegetables that are fresh, young and free from decay. Avoid the wilted ones.
4. Pick out dry seeds or legumes that are not powdery and are free from holes. Legumes are susceptible to weevil
attacks especially when they had been stored improperly for someone.
 5. Get root crops that are free from dark spots and dirt. They must be firm, not soft.
6. Buy quality vegetables that will best suit your particular purpose.
7. Consider the cost in relation to the edible portion and the amount of waste for each type.
8. Buy by weight, if possible or by count of necessary.
9. Consider the prices of similar vegetables from at least two sources before buying.
10. Consider quality above all other consideration.
VEGETABLES COOKERY
1. Cook fresh green vegetables uncovered for the first few minutes and continue cooking until tender and still
slightly crispy.
2. Peel and cut vegetables just before cooking; avoid soaking them in water.
3. Never cook vegetables in an iron container. Enamel ware is suitable and preferable.
4. Use the smallest amount of water possible in boiling leafy vegetables. If vegetables are to be cooked with meat,
add the vegetables just before the meat gets too tender.
5. To preserve the green color of vegetables, avoid overcooking them: do not use baking soda: uncover the pan for
the first 2 or 3 minutes.
6. Use the same water in which dried legumes are soaked, by simmering them instead of boiling.
7. Cook starchy vegetables such as potatoes, gabi, etc. long enough to gelatinize. Drain off after boiling.
8. Save the liquid left after cooking vegetables; use it for gravies, soups or sauces.
9. See that cooked vegetables are crispy rather than mushy with flavor and color as natural as possible.
10. For the best method of cooking frozen vegetables read what is stated on the package. On the other hand,
canned vegetables have already been cooked. They need only to be heated and seasoned. To prepare
dehydrated vegetables, add water and cook according to the directions on the package.

SELECTION OF VEGETABLES
Vegetables Desirable Characteristics
Beans Firm, clean, tender, crisp pods, seeds hardly half grown. (toughness,
wilting or discoloration indicates over maturity.)
Cabbage Hard, compact heads, greenish – white in color. (puffy, slightly
yellow leaves indicate over maturity)
Carrots Firm, fresh, smooth, well-shaped roots of a bright yellow to orange
color.
Cucumbers Firm, fresh, well-shaped bodies and firm, crisp, tender flesh;
immature seeds.
Eggplant Firm, heavy body of a uniform dark, rich purple color, free of scars or
decay.
Green Leafy Vegetables (Camote tops, Fresh, tender young leaves. (discolored and wilted leaves indicate
Kangkong etc.) poor quality.)
Onions Bright, clean, hard, well-shaped globes with dry skins.
Squash fresh bright-colored, hard rind.
Tomatoes Well-formed, plump bodies with a uniform red color.

III. MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS

 Meat is an important food in the diet and is the foremost food of the people of the world. In every home the
daily menu is built around meat as the central dish. This extensive use of meat is due to its palatability and high
nutritive value. Technically, the term meat is used to designate only those portions of the various animals used
for food like muscle, fatty tissues and some glands such as the liver, heart and spleen. Commercially the term
meat includes all portions of the dressed carcass as muscle tissues, connective tissues, fat, lymphatic glands,
edible organs, and the bone.
Zoological classes of animals from which meat is obtained are:
1. Mammalia – Examples are: cattle, carabaos, sheep, swine or pigs, and other similar four-footer animals.
2. Aves – Examples are: fowls and birds.
3. Pisces – fishes
4. Reptilian - For example: turtles.
5. Amphibia – For example: frogs
6. Mollusca – Examples are: oyster and clams
7. Crustacea – Examples are: lobster and crabs
GRADING OF MEAT
After the meat has been inspected by an authorized veterinarian and is declared wholesome, hygienic and fit for
human consumption, then it is graded. The basis for grading is quality, conformation and finish of its carcass.
1. Quality includes tenderness, juiciness and palatability.
2. Conformation refers to the shape, form or general outline of the side or the whole carcass. This indicates the
relative proportion of lean to the bone ratio, as well as the relative percentage of each of the different whole
sale cuts. Good conformation means a high meat to bone ratio and high percentage of the tender cuts.
3. Finish refers to the amount, quality and color of the fat within and around the muscle.
The Bureau of Standards (Philippines) had meat grades standardized and prepared in 1970 as excellent.
Superior. Good and unclassified. But grading is an expensive operation, hence it is not widely practiced in the
Philippines. Imported meat cuts. That find their way to the modern supermarket, may have grades according to
the grading system of their country of origin.
The type and quantity of connective tissue in meat also affect tenderness. There are two kinds of connective
tissue: white (collagen) and yellow (elastin). Collagen is changed into gelatin and water by moist heat. Elastin is
not changed by cooking. To make it tender, it is broken up by mechanical treatment such as grinding, pounding
or cubing.
Fats in meat occur mainly in the adipose tissues as visible fat. It is present in intermediate amounts in
between the muscle as intramuscular fat and in minor quantities inside the muscle cell as intracellular fat.
Intramuscular fat when present in sufficient quantity and is visible, is called marbling. Fats in meat are important
because they contribute to tenderness. Juiciness and flavor.
The bone is an essential part of the gross structure of the meat. The conditioning of the bone is an indication
of the age of the animal. In young animals, the backbone is soft and has reddish tinge, in fully mature animals,
the backbone is flinty and white. A high proportion of bone to meat increases the cost of meat; therefore, the
carcass with a high proportion of meat to bone is the more desirable. The shape of the bone is an excellent
guide for identifying the various cuts of meat.
NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MEAT
Meat is a very valuable food. It is a rich source of high-quality protein needed for building and repairing worn-
out body tissues. It contains a rich supply of phosphorous, copper, iron and vitamin B. thiamin, riboflavin, and
niacin. It is relatively low in calories without the fat. The fat in meat gives the body energy and warmth, the
 variety meat or the internal organs which include the brain, sweet breads, liver, spleen and intestines are
equally as nutritious as the lean meat. Liver is a good source of iron which is needed to make the blood red.

CLASSES OF MEAT
Beef carcasses are classified on the basis of age and sex. The specific classes are:
1. Stear – a male cow, castrated when young
2. Heifer – a young female which has not borne a calf
3. Cow – a female that has not borne a calf
4. Stag – a male castrated after maturity and
5. Bull – a mature male not castrated.
Carabeef is carabao meat. Although widely eaten by Filipinos it is still sold and passed as beef.
Veal is meat from, immature animals of the bovine species. The best veal carcasses are usually from animals 4 to
8 weeks of age of either sex.
Pork is the meat of swine. Good quality pork comes from young animals usually 7 to 12 months of age. In young
animals there is no distinction in quality or grade of meat due to sex. However, in older animal’s sex differences
are pronounced.
Lamb and mutton are sheep carcasses so classified according to the age of animals. Lamb meat is taken from
young animals of one year or less of age. Mutton is derived from those that have passed the lamb stage.
Carcasses of yearlings are heavier and their flesh darker than those of lamb. It is the best mutton class is darker
in color, less tender and stronger-smelling than lamb.
Goat meat is quite popular in some parts of the Philippines particularly in the Ilocos Region. It is taken mainly as
“pulutan” with basi or tuba by men who drink during their leisure hours or after work in the farm.
Rabbits meat come from rabbits that should be 3 to 4 months old before they are slaughtered for food. At this
age, a large breed of rabbit weighs about ½ to 2 kg. older stocks are heavier and make good materials for
roasted meat. Domesticated rabbits are meatier but gourmet relish the wild rabbit’s meat. Rabbits are known in
the Philippines as pets and certainly not for eating.
MARKET FORMS OF MEAT
Meat is available in the market as fresh, chilled, frozen, cured, canned, or dried.
1. Fresh meat has not undergone chilling freezing, or any processing treatment. Most market meat in the
Philippines is in this form.
2. Chilled meat has been cooled to a temperature range of 1 to 3°C (34° to 36°F) within 24 hours after slaughter.
3. Chilled Meat has been chilled then frozen. Most meat in the supermarkets are pre-packaged frozen meat for
self-service. Frozen meat should have an expiry date stamped on the package.
4. Cared Meat is preserved meat acted upon by curing agents such as salt, sodium nitrate (salitre), sugar and
sometimes spices and vinegar without refrigeration. Sausages, hotdog, longganisa, tocino, ham, bacon, corned
beef and tapa are examples of cured meat.
5. Canned Meat is also known as dehydrated meat. There is a limited amount of dried meat available. Tapa is an
example of dried meat that is also cured.
MEAT CUTS
A slaughtered animal is called a carcass. The carcass is cut into larger pieces called wholesale cuts which are
further reduced into retail cuts. The retail cuts commonly found in the market are further classified as tender
cuts, less tender cuts, tough cuts, and variety cuts. The specific cut determines the price of the meat.
TENDER CUTS
 Tender cuts contain lean meat and little collagen. These are the exercised parts of the animals and are the most
expensive cuts. Meat of the upper half of an animal, along the backbone, is tender because the back muscle
simply supports the spine and does not perform much movement. The most tender muscle in booth beef and
pork is the psoas major muscle or the loin. This portion is most appropriate for broiling, roasting and frying. The
whole or kaldereta of the beef yields the loin end. Short loin, sirloin, and the tenderloin. In pork the loin is
known as lomo which when sliced is called pork chops. Other tender cuts in pork include the ham and side
bacon or belly.

LESS TENDER CUTS

There are more developed connective tissues in less tender cuts than the tender cuts. Considerable portions are
present in the shoulder and neck of the animals. It is necessary to apply moist heat methods of cookery to
gelatinize the connective tissues thus tenderizing the meat. Braising and stewing are also appropriate cooking
methods. Most often less tender cuts are ground to break and cut the muscle fibers and connective tissues. In a
pork carcass, the shoulder, Boston Butt, picnic and neck bones are examples of less tender cuts. The round rump
and chuck are for the beef carcass.

TOUGH CUTS
The tough cuts are usually those muscles which get more exercise while the animal is alive. They are usually
located in the lower part of the animal. Muscles that are exercised a lot contain higher quantities of connective
tissues. Really hard-working muscles such as the shoulder (or chuck) and neck produce tough meat. The tough
cuts in beef are the shank. Flank, plate, brisket, and neck. There are no tough cuts in the pork carcass.

VARIETY CUTS
Variety cuts are the animal glands and other internal organs. They include the liver, kidney, tripe, sweetbreads,
brain, lung, and tongue. The tail, blood and skin are also grouped under the variety meats. Variety meat should
be cooked until well-done to minimize the danger of transmitting the organisms found in them. In the
Philippines, the variety cuts are considered choice parts and are priced accordingly.

LIST OF VARIETY CUTS

LOCAL NAME ENGLISH NAME SUGGESTED RECIPE

Puso Heart Bachoy, bopiz, dinuguan, egado
Atay Liver Liver spread, bachoy, bopiz, dinuguan, adobo, egado.
Bato Kidney Bachoy, bopiz, egado, dinuguan.
Baga Lungs Egado, bopiz, dinuguan.
Lapay Pancreas Dinuguan, egado, bopiz
Empella Small intestines Adobo, kilawin, dinuguan.
Bahay guya Uterus Dinuguan, bopiz,
Dila Tongue Pastel de lengua, gisadp.
Tuwalya/libro Tripe Menudo, goto, callos, kilawin
Balat Skin Sitsaron
Dugo Blood Dinuguan, bopiz
Kaloogan Esophagus Egado, bopiz
 Tastasin Omentum Bopiz, dinuguan
Trepella Omentum Goto, bopiz, dinuguan

MEAT CUTS OF BEEF AND CARABEEF

1. Chuck or paypay – contains the square-cut shoulder and the top five ribs, the arm, the blade bones, and the
neckbones.
2. Brisket or punta y pecho – has layers of lean and fat and pieces of breast bone.
3. Ribs or Costillas – include 6 to 12 ribs and the blade bones.
4. Plate or Tadyang – is a fatty cut whose meat is ground for hamburgers.
5. Short Loin or Solomillo – consist of the backbone and sometimes the last rib. This is the cut that yields the beef
steaks – porterhouse. T-bone and club steak.
6. Flank or Kanto – is lean and tough and contains a high percentage of fat.
7. Loin End or Tagilirang Hilihan – lies between the rump and the short loin and yields sirloin steaks, pin bones,
wide bones and flat bones.
8. Rump or Tapadero – is the rear part behind the upper sirloin.
9. Round or Pierna – is oval shaped with a small round bone and a high proportion of lean and fat roast cut
10. Sirloin Tip or Kaldereta – is from the bottom and round and the lower sirloin.
11. Foreshank or Kenchi Or Pata – is a very bony piece that contains a high percentage of cartilage and connective
tissues.

PORK CUTS
 1. Jowl or kalamnan – is the loose flesh about the lower jaw or throat with a high percentage of fat.
2. Boston but or paypay – cut from the upper shoulder, has a compact shape and is easy to slice
3. The loin or lomo - is a long cut that extends along the backbone of the animal. This may be cut into smaller loin
roasts known locally as costillas.
4. The picnic or Kasim – is a cut from the lower portion of the shoulder of the animal that has more bone in
proportion to lean meat.
5. The bacon side or liyempo – is cut from the belly portion of the long carcass, usually cured and sold in slices or
slabs.
6. The ham or pigi – is composed of the butt or shank end. It contains a higher proportion of lean-to bone.
7. The spare rib or buto sa tadyang – is taken the belly portion of the animal; it contains a large proportion of
bones.
8. The shanks (foreshanks and hindshanks) or pata – are the pig’s legs, considered by the Filipinos as a delicacy,
they contain a high percentage of cartilage and connective tissue.
MEAT COOKERY
Meat is cooked to make it more palatable and digestible. To tenderized meat is must be cooked with heat. Dry
heat seldom softens meat and overcooking even with dry heat toughens the flesh. High temperatures and
extended cooking even with moisture is not advisable. Doneness can be judge by the outside and inside
appearances of the meat.
There are six stages of doneness
1. Very rare – only a thin portion around the edge of the meat is fully cooked. Red, almost bloody juices ooze out.
Under finger pressure, the meat feels soft and jelly-like inside
2. Rare – the raw, red potion of the meat is small and around it is pink; there is good brown outer surface. The
meat has a full, plump appearance and gives into pressure; juices are red but not bloody.
3. Medium rare – the interior portion is rich pink and exudes juice of the same color. The meat is still plump and
firm; the amount of gray outer surface has increased.
4. Medium – the interior color of the meat is a modified rose. Pink juices are apparent but less. The exterior
portion is well-browned. The surface does not appear plump or full. When pressed, there is definite resistance.
5. Medium well – the pink color has completely disappeared. Juiciness is still evident, but the juices are clear or
gray, not pink. There is not plumpness; the meat is firm to touch.
6. Well – the meat is completely gray inside hard, flinty and shrunken. Little or no juice appears on its surface
which is brown and dry.
COOKING TECHNIQUES
The extent of its tenderness largely dictates how meat should be cooked. Tender cuts are usually cooked by dry
heat and tough cuts by moist heat. Some tough cuts may be treated mechanically with tenderizes to make them
soft and then be cooked by dry-heat methods.
Dry heat methods are
1. Broiling, pan broiling, or griddle broiling
2. Roasting or baking
3. Barbecuing
4. Sautéing, pan frying or grilling
5. Deep-frying
6. Oven Baking
Moist heat methods are:
 1. Braising (pot-raising, fricasseeing, casseroling and stewing)
2. Simmering
3. Steaming
4. Blanching
PRINCPLES OF COOKING HEAT
1. Meat should be immediately removed from wrapping paper because paper absorbs the juice of meat. Soaking
meat in a pan of cold water for a long period of time draws out the meat juices.
2. Low to moderate heat is the best cooking temperature for meat. Such temperature produces a tender and
flavorful product, minimizes meat shrinkage and retains much of its nutritive value.
3. Tough cuts of meat must be cooked with moisture or in water at low temperature for a longer period of time.
4. Pressure-cooking meat results in decreased cooking time. However, the process reduces the color and flavor of
food produced by ordinary cooking. Nevertheless, these qualities can be attained by the use of other food
materials such as spices, sauces, and vegetables.
5. When defrosting or thawing frozen meat, one should not remove its wrapping to prevent the growth of
bacteria. Meat that has been defrosted should be cooked immediately. It should never be refrozen.
6. Pork should always be thoroughly cooked because it may contain harmful pathogenic organisms or small worm
harmful to the human body.
7. Meat is done when the heat necessary to bring about desired changes in color, texture and flavor has
penetrated to the center of the piece.
8. Ground meat will cook in a much shorter time because its connective tissues have been broken making it more
tender.
9. When broiling meat, one must keep the fire very hot and turn the meat every two or three minutes to keep it at
proper temperature.
IV. POULTRY
Nature of Poultry
Poultry, which consist of domestic birds specially bred for the table, includes chicken, duck, goes, pigeon, and
turkey. Poultry is now available in many convenient forms and sizes the year round. The production of poultry
may be adapted to most areas of the world. At present. It is a main source of meat of the diet of many people
throughout the World. In the Philippines a total of 3.9kg, poultry meat is consumed per person a year and 97%
of this consists of chicken, while the rest consists of turkey, pigeon and duck. Comparable in nutritive value to
other meat forms it is economical. It has a rapid growth rate and a rapid generation time, that is a poultry farm
can produce meat in 8 weeks and egg in 24 weeks. Furthermore, present in it. Hence, it is good food for those
on weight control diets, convalescents, and old people who are not physically active.
CLASSIFICATION OF POULTRY
1. Chicken
Throughout the year, chickens are available, fresh or frozen. When sold even-ready they are plucked, drawn,
and trussed.
1. A pullet is a baby chicken, four to six weeks old and weighs at most, 1lb. it is suitable for roasting and grilling
2. Double Poussin (Broiler) this chicken is six to ten weeks old and weighs about 2 lbs.
3. A spring chicken (Fryer) is about six weeks old. With an average weight of 2½ lbs.
4. A roasting chicken (roaster) is the most popular size for a family. It is eight weeks old and weighs 3.4 lbs.
5. A Broiler Fowl is an older bird usually a laying hen, about 8 months old, weighing 6 lbs. meaty but also fat, it is
suitable for stews or casseroles.
 6. A Capon is a surgically unsexed male chicken (usually under 8 months of age) that is tender-meated with soft,
pliable, smooth-textured skin.
7. A Stag is a male chicken (usually under 10 months of age) with coarse skin, a toughened and darkened flesh, and
considerably hardened breast-bone cartilage. It shoes a condition of fleshing and a degree of maturity
intermediate between a cock and a roaster.
8. A cock or roaster is a mature male chicken with coarse skin, toughened and darkened meat, and hardened
breast bone tip.
2. Ducks
Most ducks are marketed as ducklings or young ducks. Duck does not serve as many people as a chicken of
similar weight does. A 6lb duck is only enough for 4 people. A duck is a fatty bird that is best roasted.
1. A broiler duckling or fryer duckling is a young duck usually under 8 weeks of age, of either sex, with tender
meat, a soft bill, and a soft windpipe.
2. A roaster duckling is a young duck, usually under 16 weeks of age, of either sex, that is tender-meated and has a
bill that is not completely hardened and a windpipe that is easily dented.
3. A mature duck or old duck is usually over 6 months of either sex, with toughened flesh, and a hardened bill and
hardened windpipe.
3. Turkeys
Turkeys are not readily available in the market although they may be classified into:
1. A fryer-roaster is a young immature turkey (16 weeks of age 4.8 lbs.) of either sex that has tender meat with soft
pliable smooth-textured skin and flexible breastbone cartilage.
2. A young hen is a young female turkey (5-7 months weighing 8-4 lbs.) that is tender-meated with soft pliable,
smooth textured skin, and breastbone cartilage that is somewhat less flexible than in fryer-roaster turkey.
3. A young tom is a young male (5-7 months weighing 12 lbs. of over) that is also tender-meated with soft pliable,
smooth-textured skin, and breastbone cartilage that is somewhat less flexible than in fryer-roaster turkey.
4. A yearling hen is a fully matured female turkey (under 15 months of age) that is reasonably tender-meated and
with reasonably smooth-textured skin.
5. A yearling tom is a fully matured male, under 15 months of age that is reasonably tender-meated and with
reasonably smooth-texture skin.
6. A mature or old turkey is an old turkey male or female usually more than 15 months old with coarse skin and
toughened skin
7. A squab is a young immature pigeon of either sex and is extra tender meated.
8. A pigeon is a mature once of either sex, with coarse skin and roughened flesh.
4. Goose
It is a fatty with creamy-white flesh which is light brown when cooked.
It has a slightly gamey flavor. It is marketed young and usually weight 6-12 lbs., but again it serves less per
pound than chicken.
Gosling is a young goose not more than six months old.
COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MEATS
The nutritive value of poultry is similar to that of other meat-producing animals. The proteins supplied by
poultry are complete and contain amino acids essential in building body tissues. In addition, poultry is a very
good source of B-Vitamins thiamine, riboflavin and niacin. A concentration of niacin and more abundant in fat
and connective tissues than white meat. It has a high myoglobin content which are very mobile, have only dark
 meat. Filipinos prefer meat over the white meat. Chicken fat is yellow mainly because of the presence in it of
carotenoids, xanthophyll, and carotene.
The fat content of a goose, a duck, a squab, or a turkey is higher than that a chicken. The fat of poultry is
deposited in the muscle tissue, in thick layer under the skin and in the abdominal cavity. The fat of all types of
poultry is of a softer consistency than that of other meats. It also has a lower melting point.
Proximate Composition of the Dark Meat of Chicken,
Turkey, Duck and pigeon per 100 gm. Edible Portion
Food Composition Table Recommended for use in the Philippines. (1968)
CHICKEN TURKEY DUCK PIGEON
Moisture (gm) 76.3 76.6 73.1 64.6
Protein (gm) 22.6 20.3 19.8 14.6
Fam (gm) 0.1 2.1 6.0 20.1
Carbohydrates (gm) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Ash (gm) 1.0 1.0 1.1 0.9
Calories 108 106 139 244
Calcium (mg) 4 8 11 10
Phosphorus (mg) 86 141 164 218
Iron (mg) 1.0 1.0 2.8 0.6
Sodium (mg) 56 119 71 86
Potassium (mg) 365 357 365 286
Thiamine (mg) 0.11 0.09 0.18 0.15
Riboflavin (mg) 0.07 0.28 0.38 0.41
Niacin (mg) 5.2 4.7 4.1 2.9

HOW TO BONE THE CHICKEN

Chickens are easy to bone if one follows these simple instructions. It is not too difficult once you have tried it,
but care should be taken not to pierce the skin except for the initial slits.
Here are the steps-by-step procedures:
1. Place the bird breast down on the board and make an incision in the entire length of the spine, through both
skin and flesh. Push the skin and flesh back as you cut.
2. Work the skin off the neck down, so you can get the neck bone to extend way beyond it.
3. Start with the ball and socket shoulder blade. Pull the wing bone through from the inside, bringing the skin with
it.
4. Strike for the ball and socket joint of the leg and pull the bone through.
5. Continue to work the meat free, from one side of the body, then from the other, until the center front of the
breast bone is reached. Get the whole skeleton out with its contents all in one piece.
PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION
In the Philippines, poultry is marketed in these forms: live, whole, dressed, drawn, and pieced ready to cook. It is
important to know the characteristics of each form to ensure proper selection when purchasing poultry.
A. Live Poultry. When selecting live poultry, choose those that are alert, healthy, well-feathered and well-formed.
They should have a good fat covering and free from broken bones, bruises and blisters. Sluggish looking birds
should not be purchased.
 B. Whole Poultry. Most of the chickens available in most markets are in this form. These are slaughtered poultry
with head, feet, and viscera intact, and blood and feathers removed. The good dressed poultry have moderate
fat covering. Free from pin feathers, no missing skin or parts. Those with slimy off odors, and discoloration
should be avoided.
C. Ready to Cook Poultry Parts. Several pieces of a single poultry parts are usually available and packed in one
carton, wrapped and are chilled or frozen. Wings, drumsticks, thighs, backs, breast, legs, halves, quarters and
internal organs, such as livers with heart, and gizzards are separately packaged and sold in most supermarkets.
Consumer acceptance of these ready to cook poultry parts is indicated by the brisk sales in the frozen
compartments of supermarkets. Wet markets also sell these poultry parts minus the fancy packaging of
supermarkets. Likewise, even chicken heads, feet, and intestines are sold in the wet market because some
people have a preference for them.

PRINCIPLES IN THE PREPARATION OF POULTRY

In the Philippine countryside, poultry is still slaughtered in the home. This practice is becoming rare in the urban
area where commercial preparation of ready-to-cook poultry is taken care of by the poultry farms business. The
steps in dressing the poultry are basically the same except that commercial preparation makes use of automated
devices and machineries.
1. Slaughtering and bleeding. Proper handling prior to slaughter is essential to prevent bruising and injury to the
bird. Live birds are not fed 8 to 24 hours prior to slaughter to allow easier removal of entrails. Water may be
given to the live animals. This practice improves flavor and tenderness of the meat. Slaughtering done by slitting
the large or jugular vein in the animal’s throat. Bleeding may take about 1 to 3 minutes to effect proper draining
of its blood. In the case of large scale slaughtering the live birds are shackled and electrically steamed.
2. Scalding. The bled are scalded by dipping in hot water at about 60° (140°F) for 30 to 74 seconds. Scalding is
done to facilitate removal feathers. In commercial dressing of poultry big tanks with good temporary control are
used for scalding.
3. Defeathering. Feathers are removed by rubbing. The birds are now called dressed poultry. Defeathering in
commercial basis is done in machines with rubberized “picking fingers”
4. Evisceration. Slitting the abdominal part and pulling out the entrails in one piece is called evisceration. When
this is accomplished the poultry is called drowned poultry. The head and feet are cut off clean and the oil glands
are removes. If pin feathers are present. They may be removed by singeing over on an open flame. Internal
organs are removed and cleaned.
Commercially, evisceration is done in cool rooms where the carcasses are also inspected by an authorized
veterinarian and then chilled quick-frozen and vacuum-packed prior to marketing.
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY COOKERY
 1. Poultry meat lacks color. Therefore, to add color to the meat and intensively its flavor. Poultry should be
browned as part of cooking.
2. Mature birds have mare extractives than young ones. Thus, they are excellent for various kinds of soup and
broth. Fryers and broilers are suitable for frying.
3. Low to moderate heat is the best cooking temperature for poultry because it produces a tender and flavorful
product and allows little shrinkage of meat and more retention of nutritive value
4. Frozen poultry should be thawed without removing the wrapping to prevent the growth of bacteria. It should be
cooked immediately.
5. When cooking poultry, the age and fat distribution of the birds should be considered. Young birds are more
palatable when cooked by dry heat; older birds are best cooked by moist heat.
6. Chickens and turkeys should be stuffed immediately before roasting so that the danger of bacterial action is
minimized. The cavity should not be filled completely with stuffing which will tend to swell and fill up the air
spaces and prevent the stuffing from being thoroughly cooked.
7. In roasting, chicken cuts are laid with the breast-side down to produce a tender and juicy product. The breast-
side up position tends to dry it out
8. Cooked poultry should always be eaten as soon as possible after being removed from the heat.
9. Poultry leftovers, a common source of Salmonella bacteria must be refrigerated immediately. Left-over stuffing
from chicken relleno should be removed and refrigerated separately.
10. Basting improves the desirability of the lean meat or poultry in terms of improved flavor. Palatability and
appearance.
V. FISH AND FISH PRODUCTS

THE NATURE OF FISH

Fish is scientifically known as Istiophorus Orientalis. This group of flesh foods may be classified into two major
categories: fish (vertebrate) and shellfish (invertebrate). Fish is covered with scales while the shellfish is incased
in some type of shell. Shellfish is of two groups, the mollusks and the crustaceans. The mollusks are soft in
structure and are either partially or wholly enclosed in a hard shell that is largely of mineral composition.
Examples of mollusks are oyster, clams, abalone, scallops, and mussels. The crustaceans are covered with crust
like shells and have segmented bodies. Common examples are lobster, crab, shrimp, and crayfish.
Fish has always been an important item in the Philippine diet and is one of the cheapest sources of protein and
thus can take the place of chicken, pork, carabeef, or beef. Like these meats, the protein of fish contains all the
essential amino acid; hence it has a high biological value.
DETERIORATE CHANGES AFTER DEATH
Most fish caught from the sea die even while still in the net in the water. Those caught or harvested from inland
water also die shortly after they are taken from water. An exception are those fish with necessary breathing
organs like hito and dalag which stay alive after catch
The deteriorative changes after death of fish are important to its acceptability as food. Immediately after death,
the fleshy portion or muscle of fish is soft, gel-like, and sticky. The rigor mortis sets in and is characterized by
rigidity of the muscle. When rigor has passed, spoilage starts. This is caused mainly by fish enzymes and bacteria.
The bacteria come from the slime of the fish skin as well as from the gills and intestinal tract. The flesh of a
healthy fish is actually sterile. The enzymes which are found mainly in the intestinal organs of the fish start
digesting the neighboring flesh. A substance which is found in living fish flesh called trimethylamine oxide is
 converted to trimethylamine which imparts the characteristic odor of state fish. Oxidative deterioration or
rancidity of fish fat follows.

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FISH AND SHELLFISH

Protein. Fish is one of the most valuable sources of high-grade protein. Most fish contain 18-20% protein with
most of the essential amino acids in the right proportion. Apahap, lapu-lapu, labahita, tulingan, talakitok, bia
and kanduli have generally high protein content. Protein is needed for growth and repair of body tissues.
Fat. The fat content of fish varies. Most fish varieties are low in fat. (less than one percent) thus, being
moderately low in calories. Fat is not always uniformly distributed throughout the flesh of a fatty fish but it is
found on the belly, head and the liver – where the bulk of it is stored.
Vitamins. Fish liver oils are topically rich sources of Vitamin A. often, parts of a fish not normally eaten, like the
liver and gut, contain much greater quantities of oil-soluble vitamins than the flesh. Fish roe, when present is
also a good source of vitamins. An allowance for B, 1/25 to 1/5 of B2 and an appreciable amount of vitamin B2 –
a growth promoting compound.
Minerals. the edible portions of fishes are satisfactory sources of magnesium, phosphorus, iron, copper, and
iodine. Shellfish is rich in minerals such as calcium which is good for our bones. Inclusion of fish in the daily diet
provides an abundant mineral intake.
Carbohydrates. All shellfish has some carbohydrates in the form of glycogen. Its sweet taste is due to the
glucose formed by enzyme action from glycogen.
The nutritive component of fish is shown in the illustration: fish is high in vitamins, minerals, and protein but low
in fat and carbohydrates.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF
FRESH AND STALE FISH
CRITERIA FRESH STALE
Eyes Bright, full, bulging Dull, wrinkled, sunken
Gills Bright red, covered with clear slime, Dull brown or gray, slime cloudy, odor
odor fresh. offensive
Odor Fresh sea weedy odor Stale, sour, putrid
Body Firm Soft
Color Bright, shiny Faded
Flesh Firm, elastic, finger impression does Soft and flabby finger impression remains
not remain
Slime Clear Opaque
Belly walls Intact Often ruptured, viscera protruding
Muscle tissue White, light Pinkish, tainted with blood especially around
backbone
Vent Pink, not protruding Brown, protruding
Scales Complete, adhere tightly, sink Loosely attached
Test Sinks in a basin of water Floats in a basin of water
Taste Sweet Biting, itchy
 MARKET FORMS OF FISH

1. Live fish or whole fish

Live fishes transported and marketed alive. Whole, round fishes
are caught and taken from the water.

1. Dressed

Dressed fish is whole fish with scales, entrails, fins and head
removed.

2.
Butterfly fillets are the two side of the fish cut lengthwise away
Butterfly
from the backbone and held together by the uncut flesh and skin
fillet
of the belly.

3.
Fillet is the boneless side of the fish cut lengthwise from the
Fillet
backbone

4. Steaks
Steaks are cross section slices cut from a large, dressed fish; the
cross section of backbone generally included.

5. Sticks

Sticks are uniform stick cuts from large blocks of frozen fillets.

FISH COOKERY
Fish tastes much better when cooked. Fish is cooked to destroy any bacteria present as well as to improve its
taste and tenderness. In cooking, moderate temperature is used, long enough for the fish delicate flavor to
develop, for proteins to coagulate and for very small amounts of connective tissue present to break easily into
clumps of chalky-white flakes when tested with a fork
When no additional water is used to cook fish, it is important that no overcooking be done, otherwise the fish
would be very dry. This method is known as dry cookery. Broiling, baking, frying and toasting are examples of
such a method. As a rule, fat fish are more desirable for dry heat cooking.
When moist cookery is employed that is, fish is cooked in water it is best to allow the water to boil before
plunging or adding the fish. Prolonged boiling tends to break the flesh of the fish until it falls apart. 10 to 15
minutes cooking is generally enough time for the fish to be done. Indication of doneness is evident when the
flesh becomes opaque and the muscles are easily flaked.
PRINCIPLES OF COOKING FISH
1. If the fish is not to be cooked at once, it should be dressed and wrapped completely and placed in the freezer in
a closed container or package.
 2. Fish requires less cooking time for it has no connective tissues. It is fully when it can be easily flaked and the
eyeballs come out.
3. Fat fish is best cooked by dry heat, broiled or baked.
4. Cooking should be done in the shortest possible time to avoid loss of moisture, flavour, and nutritive value.
5. Because fish has a mild flavour, it is frequently served with sauce and some garnishes. Garnishes and sauce add
to the appearance and flavour of fish. Sliced cucumber, tomatoes, green pepper, hard-cooked eggs, pickles, etc.
are good garnishes. Butter, tomato, chili, mayonnaise and catsup are examples of sauces.
6. Fish should be served soon after it has been prepared otherwise it will become dry and hard and lose some of its
flavour. Something colorful, crisp, or tart like celery, raw vegetables, coleslaw or tossed green salad should be
served with fish.
7. Fish may be fried at moderate heat until golden brown. Fry only a single layer at a time and drain it on absorbent
paper.
8. When baking fish baste the fish occasionally to prevent it from drying out.
NEW FISH AND FISHERY PRODUCTS
1. Fish Quekiam is prepared by mixing the fish meat with shrimp meat, egg, spices and vegetables and is served
with sweet sour to enhance its flavour.
2. Fish Croquettes are a mixture of fish meat, chicken and vegetables chopped of fish. It undergoes curing in a
mixture of flavouring and preserving agents such as salt, sugar, and nitrates for one week, finally smoked to
obtain a distinctive flavour and aroma.
3. Boneless Bangus is a result of deboning bangus, after which may be closed, frozen, smoked, or fried. It may also
be left open and picked in preparation for making it into daing.
4. Fish burger is derived from a wide variety of fish such as lapu-lapu, tuna, and parrot fish. It is easily prepared by
mixing the chopped fish meat with the ingredients such as salt, pepper, milk, onions, eggs, and hamburger
seasoning. Then it is molded into patties and fried in oil a brownish color is obtained.
5. Spicy Dilis is prepared from dried dilis, completely coated with the mixture of well blended ingredients such as
egg, sugar, salt, sili, and cornstarch. It is fried in deep fat or oil.
6. Fish Sausage, similarly prepared to meat sausage, consists mainly of the white meaty portion of fish like
labahita, sharks, or marlin. It is prepared by grinding the fish meat and thoroughly blending it with other
ingredients and cooked in simmering water for one hour.
BY-PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY
Fishery by products are largely derived from fish left unsold; these include products that cannot be sold as fresh
fish or rejects from drying and smoking plants. Such by products comprise the following:
1. Fish sauce – bagoong residue left after the extraction of patis
2. Fish meal – a dried product, ground to small particles and used as an additive in animal feeds.
3. Fish sauce – locally called “patis” drawn off from the liquefaction of salt mixture.
4. Fish silage – for animal feed ingredients; a product of acid hydrolysis.
VI. SHELLFISH
Fish and shellfish are very perishable and deteriorate rapidly after removal from water. Fish with shells as
distinguished from fish with bones form two groups base on differences in the character of the shells. Oyster,
clams, scallops live in hinged shells. They have unsegmented bodies and the whole portion is eaten except in the
case of the scallops. Of the scallops only the muscles are used. Lobster, crabs, and shrimps have various
appendages and shell-like crust that conform to the shape of their bodies. Fifteen percent of the total fish
consumption in the Philippines consists of shellfish. It also includes squid, cuttlefish, and sea cucumber.
 The Product of fish in salt water bodies such as in coves and shores is called mariculture. Mariculture is presently
applied to tahong and oysters and is relatively in its infancy in the Philippines.

TYPES OF SHELLFISH: CRUSTACEANS AND MOLLUSKS CRUSTACEANS

A. CRUSTACEANS
are shellfish with hard shells over the back and along the claws but have softer shells covering the lower
part of the body and legs. Examples of these are crabs, lobsters and shrimps.
1. Crabs. There are various types of crabs commonly found in the Philippines: the alimango or green crab, the
alimasag or blue crab, and the talangka
a. The talangka or kapi is unique to its small size, about one-fourth the size of a regular crab. A fresh
water crab obtained from the rivers has a shell that covers the lower part of its body and is soft
enough to be edible. The carapace or hard shell covers it back which contains the fat or aligi that
may be separated from the meat and preserved. Called taba ng talangka it is eaten as sauce, a
delicacy prepared laboriously by experts. The bigger carbs alimango and alimasag, also contain aligi
which is normally with its meat.
2. Lobster is popular shellfish in New England Fisheries. The claw meat is preferred and brings a higher price
than the tail meat. Lobster are expensive and marketed mainly for export.
3. Shrimps are more commonly eaten than lobster. Like crabs, some shrimps are also small and would
normally be eaten whole with their hells. Suahe is a salt water shrimp while ulang and tagunton are fresh
water shrimps.
B. MOLLUSKS
have soft unsegmented bodies and are protected by calcareous shells in one in one or more pieces or
enclosed in hard shells which are largely mineral in composition.
Examples of these are oyster, clams, scallops, and sea mussels.
There are two types of mollusk: the univalves with only one shell and the bivalves with two shells. The
shells of mollusks are usually hard all over so that they are not in any case edible. Examples of univalves
is kuhol while examples of bivalves are clams (halaan), kabibi, tulya, oyster (talaba) and mussels
(tahong)
The composition of the edible portion of mollusks is quite different from fin fishes and crustaceans, even
if the former’s shells are not normally eaten. Their flesh is generally leathery in texture. They are
comparatively high in glycogen content. For instance, in the case of oyster, the ph does not rise after
death but decreases down to as low as 4.8 due to the formation of lactic acid from glycogen. The ph
serves as an index of freshness of oyster.
1. Tahong is a salt water mussed cultured mostly in Bacoor, Cavite. Its meat is considered more delicious than
that of oyster.
2. Oyster grown in artificial beds are usually of better quality than those grown in natural beds. Oyster eggs are
now being planted in many waters. When the eggs are hatched the tiny oysters, which are not any larger
than the point of a needle move about the water and finally attach themselves to somebody such as a stone,
a stick or a shell. They grow slowly and at the ages of one year they have usually reached about the size of a
silver quarter. Oyster are harvested by picking and scooping the shells from the bottom of the sea.
3. Clams are two types: the hard-shell clams and the soft-shell clams. The former has tightly shut shells but the
latter may have partially open shells because of the long siphon extending from the interior. Clams are dug
by hand
 4. Scallops are highly prized because of their butter texture and delicate flavour. Scallops have two shells and
are capable of swimming freely through water.
Classification of Philippine Shellfish
1. MOLLUSKS
ENGLISH NAME TAGALOG NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME
a. Oyster Talaba Oystre Sp.
b. Clam Halaan Cyraeidae
1. Clam Tulya Cyrenidae
2. Clam Kabibi Sotetellina Cummingiana
c. Mussels
1. Salt water mussels Tahong Mytilus Smaragdinus cheamits
2. Fresh water snails Susong Pilipit Thiara Asperata Lim

2. CRUSTACEANS
ENGLISH NAME TAGALOG NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

a. Crabs
1. Small crab Talangka Potamon Grapsoides
2. Crab Alimasag Neptunus Pelagacius
3. Crab Alimango Scylla Serrata
b. Shrimps
1. Small shrimp Alamang Acetas Indicus
2. Fresh water shrimp Ulan Palaenonidae
3. White shrimp Suwahe Metapenaeus Sp.
4. Tiger prawn Sugpo Penaeus Monodom Fab
c. Other family
a. Squid Pusit Loligo Pealli
b. Octopus Pugita Octopus Spp.

Proximate Composition of Local Clams, Snails,

Mussels, and Oyster in Grams per 100 grams Edible Portion
Food Composition Table, 1980
PROXIMATE KABIBI HALAAN KUHOL TAHONG OYSTER
COMPONENTS CLAM SNAIL MUSSEL TALABA
Moisture 84.4 89.2 77.6 40.8 85.5
Protein 9.0 5.8 12.2 21.9 5.9
Fat 1.6 0.6 0.4 14.5 5.2
Carbohydrates 3.0 2.6 6.6 18.5 5.2
Ash 1.6 1.8 3.2 4.3 1.7

A Proximate Composition of Local Types of

Fresh Crabs in Grams per 100gm. Edible Portion
 (Food Composition Table, 1980)
PROXIMATE ALIMANGO MEAT ALIMASAG MEAT ALIMANGO ALIGI TALANGKA E.P.
COMPONENTS
Moisture 47.6 75.5 58.1 68.1
Protein 19.8 29.9 26.0 13.8
Fat 4.0 0.5 5.6 3.8
Carbohydrates 0.4 2.2 8.5 8.1
Ash 1.6 1.9 1.8 6.2

TYPES OF SHELL FISH

SHRIMP

LOBSTER CLAM, HARD SHELL

CONCH
DUNGENESS CRAB SQUID
SCALLOP, SEA

OYSTER
MUSSEL

OCTOPUS

MARKET FORMS OF SHELLFISH

Shellfish are sold on the shell, shucked or removed from the shell or cooked. All forms are quickly perishable and
care is needed in selecting them.
A. LIVE SHELLFISH
Ideally crabs, clams, mussels, snails, oysters and shrimps should be marketed live. A live crab is indicated to be
fat if its claws do not sharp teeth and if it is heavy in weight. The female crab has a rounded apron and usually
contains aligi. The crab has a narrow, more pointed apron. Filipino consumers generally prefer the female
variety. Because of the proximity of most markets to the sources of shellfish, live species can be sold to
consumers.
B. WHOLE SHELLFISH
Whole shellfish are served in the form in which they are caught but are no longer alive. The head and thorax are
intact. Filipinos are fond of eating the heads and extremities of crabs and shrimps.
 C. SHUCKLED SHELLFISH
Oyster, clams, mollusks and scallops are removed from the shell and are known as shuckled shellfish. Fresh
shuckled shellfish have a translucent appearance but become opaque when no longer fresh.
D. HEADLESS SHELLFISH
Shrimps, lobsters and prawns for export are marketed in headless form; the head and thorax removed. Foreign
consumers do not favour the consumption of these parts of the shellfish. Furthermore, the head is removed
mainly because it is the main source of bacterial spoilage.
E. COOKED FORM
Most cooked shellfish are canned for expert. The meat of shrimps, crabs, and lobsters are usually popular items
for canned products. At present, only a small volume of canned, cooked shellfish is available locally; most of it is
imported.

PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY
1. Shellfish requires a little cooking time; overcooking causes the flesh to become tough and fibrous.
2. Unwholesome parts of most shellfish such as the beard of mussels, crab’s grills or lobsters’ intestinal tubes must
be removed before cooking.
3. Colour change in crustaceans is an indication that cooking is done. Shrimps and crabs, for example, change from
dark to blue green to an attractive orange or bright red.
4. Crabs are usually boiled in small amount of brine for 10 to 20 minutes until a colour change occurs. Overcooking
would make the food watery.
5. Clams, oysters, and mussels may be roasted, baked, or broiled in their shells to retain their delicate flavour.
6. Shellfish are all very lean. Therefore, dry heat, high. Heat and long cooking time will make them tough and
rubbery. Ideally, they would be either steamed or simmered within the temperature range of 190°-120°F. All
shellfish cook very quickly.

VII. CEREAL AND CEREAL COOKERY

Cereals are cultivated plants of the grass family that yield edible starchy seeds or grains. The common cereal
grains are: rice, wheat, corn or maize, millet or sorghum, rye, oats and triticale. Buckwheat is not a member
of the grass family, but its use as food or feed classifies it with true cereals.

SIGNIFICANCE
The word “cereal” was derived from Ceres, the Roman goddess of harvest and grains. However, its
cultivation for human consumption and animal feeding started some 7,000 years ago marking the Neolithic
Age. Since then, cereals have become mainstay of diets all over the world because they are easy to grow,
store and transport. With their bland flavor, cereals are versatile foods with extensive culinary uses. They
are inexpensive sources of energy largely in the form of starch.
They supply incomplete proteins which become significant considering the amount of cereals eaten,
particularly in areas where animal proteins are scarce and expensive. In the Philippines, rice alone provides
55% and 40% of the average daily intake per capita for calories and protein, respectively.
Besides their role in foods and feeds, cereals and cereal by-products have varied industrial uses such in
textiles, leather goods and building materials.
KINDS OF CEREALS AND MARKET FORMS
 There are several species of cereal and many varieties within each species. The types cultivated in a country or
region depend on soil and climatic conditions, agricultural know-how and other economic resources.
1. RICE
There is no single commodity which is as valuable to so many people as rice. It is the staple of over half of the
world’s population, mainly in Asia where rice contributes 60% of caloric intake. In the Philippines, 80% of the
population are rice-eaters.
Rice is the primary or secondary staple of 90% of the low-income group in the most densely populated areas of
the world. The average annual income of these people who depend on rice as the bulk of their diet is only 600
pesos.

Classification of Rice Varieties

The exact number of rice varieties or hybrids is not known, but there are over a hundred kinds available in the
Philippines both from imports and local crops. Some that used to be cultivated have been discontinued in favor
of high-yielding, disease resistant and early maturing varieties.
Depending on the location of cultivation, the two classes of rice varieties are Lowland and Upland. Majority of
rice grown in the Philippines is lowland, mainly in Central Luzon, Southern Tagalog, Ilocos and Bicol Regions: IR
20, IR 26, IR 28, IR 36, BPI 76, C4, C12 and B3. Upland Varieties grown in plateaus and mountainous areas are:
Azucena, Palawan, BPI-48, Dinalaga, Miltex and IR-5.

The other method of classifying rice varieties is based on amylose content as follows:
RICE GROUP AMYLOSE CONTENT (per cent) EXAMPLES OF VARIETIES
1. High-Amylose Over 27 Wagwag, IR 8
2. Moderately High-Amylose 25 to 27 Burma and Thai Rice
3. Intermediate-Amylose 20 to 25 Milagrosa
4. Low-Amylose Less than 20 Japonica
5. Non-Amylose Less than 1 Waxy rice or Malagkit

Another common classification of rice in the market is bago or luma, referring to the new harvest or last year’s
stock, respectively.
The significance of these classes of rice relates to cooking and eating qualities as will be discussed later in this
chapter.
Rice Milling and Products
1. Rough Rice or Paddy Rice (Palay) – delivered to a mill after a drying period. It is passed through shaker screens to
remove weeds, pebbles, foreign seeds and other impurities. The clean palay is dehulled into brown or unpolished rice.
Brown rice is polished to remove the bran and germ resulting in polished or white rice, with commercial bran as by-
product. The percentage distribution of polished rice, polishing and bran based on the total weight of unpolished grains
is: 88%, 2% and 10% respectively. Grading of rice depends on the size of kernels as long, medium or short; the
percentage of broken kernels; and the degree of whiteness.
2. Parboiled rice Converted rice – roughed rice or palay that is soaked, steamed, dried and finally milled. This process
partly gelatinizes the starch making the grains more translucent. Although brownish in color, its nutritive value, keeping
qualities and milling recovery are better than polished rice. In India, parboiled rice is preferred to polished rice.
 * Pinipig – type of parboiled rice prepared by soaking, steaming and drying the palay. The rice used is generally
of the waxy variety which is low amylose-containing, locally called malagkit. It is pounded manually and winnowed in
bilaos to rid the hulls. Pinipig flakes are simply roasted and uses as rice krispies for chocolate or desserts toppings.
3. Quick Cooking or minute rice – precooked, rinsed, dried and package as convenient food item. Cooking time is cut
down to only one third of the original.
4. Rice Grits (Binlid) – are broken rice kernels as a result of the milling process. Rice galapong is wet-milled from whole
rice kernels and has particle size more like a meal than the powdery fine flour that is derived from milling wheat grains.
5. Rice Starch – is 100% pure carbohydrate obtained from the endosperm of the rice grain
6. Rice Oil – extracted from the bran is a good quality salad or cooking oil. It is not commercially produced in the
Philippines because the bran is fully utilized as food or feed.
2. CORN
One out of five Filipinos are corn-eaters. The leading corn-producing regions in the Philippines are: Cebu, Bohol,
Leyte, Cotabato and Misamis Occidental. Corn was introduced here by the Spaniard 400 years ago. Since then, it
has been grown throughout the archipelago making it our second staple crop. Corn is known as maize in Europe
and Great Britain from which the local term as mais was derived. Next to rice and wheat, it is the third widely
used cereal, representing 20% of the world’s total consumption. Corn is the staple food in Mexico, Central
America, some southern regions in the USA and part of Africa. Practically half of the world production comes
from the USA.
Varieties of Corn
Corn in commonly classified as white ir yellow. In the Philippines, well-known hybrids are: Batangas Yellow Flint,
College Yellow Flint, Cebu or Bicol White Flint, Sweet Corn, Pop Corn and lagkitan or waxy maize. Sixty per cent
of corn produced in the Philippines goes to food. In some industrialized countries, 90% is utilized for animal
feeding. Yellow Corn is preferred to white corn for feeds because of its carotenoid pigments.
Corn Milling and Products
Corn Milling in the Philippines is done basically to prepare grits for supplementing rice supply. In a typical corn
mill, 70% is recovered as grit, 20% is composed of the germ, bran and finer grits, 10% is considered waste or
loss.
1. Corn Grits – are coarsely ground from whole kernels from which the bran and germ have been removed. They
are graded on the shaker screen with 10 to 22 square openings per linear inch. Number 10, 12 and 14 granules
are sold as first-class grit. It is more coarsely ground than corn meal.
2. Corn Meal – prepared by grinding white or yellow corn to fine granules smaller than corn grits. In the USA, it is
usually enriched by adding thiamin, niacin, riboflavin and iron.
3. Corn Flour – finely pulverized grit, a product that resembles wheat flour.
4. Corn Starch – refined starch in powdery form obtained from the endosperm by a wet-milling process.
5. Hominy – corn with the hull and germ removed. If the process is done by machine, the product is called pearl
hominy. Lye hominy locally called binatog is prepared by soaking the kernels in lye water. Granulated hominy or
hominy grits are broken hominy kernels.
6. Corn Oil – extracted from the germ by pressure. Its role in food preparation is discussed under fats and oils.
7. Corn as breakfast cereals and snack foods – made from corn grits that are precooked, dried and then puffed,
toasted, flaked or shredded. Flavoring ingredients may be added. Mais ampaw is puffed corn molded into round
or rectangular pieces using caramelized sugar.
Corn and Corn products are used in many household recipes or commercially prepared foods as added ingredients or
thickening agents.
 1. WHEAT
Wheat traditionally grows in a temperate climate. It is internationally favored
for its breadmaking properties. Attempts to grow wheat in the Philippines have
failed and the search for the right variety adapted to our soil and climate has to
continue. Currently, the Philippines imports wheat which is milled by eight local
flour milling companies.
The market form of wheat that are cooked as substitute for rice are:
1. Bulgur or parboiled wheat – whole wheat that has been cooked, dried partially de-
branned and cracked into smaller fragments.
2. Cracked Wheat – prepared by breaking de-branned wheat, other than durum
wheat, into a coarse meal. Farina is similarly prepared, except that its granules are
finer making it suitable for infant feeding. It is enriched with thiamin, niacin,
riboflavin and iron.
2. SORGHUM OR MILLET
Millet grains are smaller than wheat and rice kernels. It is also known as
Guinea Corn. The African millet is the distinct genus or sorghum. A tiny
millet-like grain, called dawa is known to come from Cebu.
In the Philippines, sorghum-growing is relatively recent. It is supported by
the government because of its potential as rice or corn substitute,
particularly for animal feeding. However, it lacks the provitamin A of
yellow corn which is valued by the poultry industry. Sorghum may be used
as base for fermentation and brewing.

3. BARLEY
Barley was the chief bread cereal of ancient Greeks, Hebrews and Romans and is
still used to a limited extent in Europe. Its main use today is for malt production
and animal feed formulation. Sprouted barley is rich in the enzyme diastase used
commercially for hydrolyzing cornstarch to dextrin and maltose.

Pearl barley is prepared by removing the hull and bran from whole grain barley. Its
pearl like appearance is relished in soups. Barley flour is an ingredient in processed
cereals and baby foods.

4. RYE
Rye is the major cereal grain in Northern Europe. Forty per cent of the total world
supply is grown in the USSR. Its principal feature is its hardiness. It is more resistant
to cold weather, pests and diseases than wheat. However, its popularity in breadmaking has declined
because its baked products are less palatable than those made from wheat.
Rye flour is available as white, medium or dark colored flour. Its protein gliadin approximates that of wheat.
Rye is also used for making whisky and for feeding livestock.
 5. OATS
Oats as a cereal crop can grow well in poor soil and dull, rainy climate. It ripens fast even with a minimum of
sunshine. There are several varieties, but the common species used for making oatmeal and for animal feeding
is Avena Sativa. Oats have higher protein and fat content than most cereals. It is used chiefly as a breakfast hot
cereal or as an ingredient in baked products in the form of rolled oats or oatmeal.
Oatmeal is prepared by dehulling the oat grains into groats. The groats are rolled into flakes. Regular oatmeal
has thicker flakes while quick-cooking oatmeal has thinner, smaller flakes.
Oats are suitable for animal feeding, particularly for horses. The grain is also fermented to manufacture furfural,
an aldehyde used as an industrial solvent.
6. TRITICALE
Triticale is a hybrid of rye and wheat recently developed and tested in 1970. Its protein content is better than
either rye or wheat in kind and amount. Triticale flour is suitable for making breads and noodles. Its palatability
in breads approaches that of whole wheat flour and is rated superior to
rye flour.
7. BUCKWHEAT
Buckwheat is the seed of an herbaceous plant. It does not belong to
the grass family like true cereals. However, it contains a glutinous
material making it suitable as a wheat substitute. Its main use is as
flour ingredient for griddle cakes. It has a characteristics flavor which
limits its consumer acceptability.

STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION

Just like any plant tissue, the cell is the basic structural unit in a cereal
grain. Each cell is enclosed by a wall composed of cellulose and hemicellulose. Within the cell is the protoplasm
which contains water, starch and protein molecules, fat globules, minerals, vitamins, pigments and enzymes.

A. PHYSICAL STRUCTURE
All cereal grains have similar structure consisting of three parts: the bran, the germ or embryo and the
endosperm.
 THE BRAN is the outer covering and constitutes about 5% of the kernel. It may be present in several
layers, five layers in wheat and two layers in rice. It contains cellulose, minerals or ash, vitamins and
some proteins. Just beneath the bulky bran is a group of single layered square cells called the aleurone
layer. It represents 8% of the kernel and is rich in protein, ash and thiamine.
 THE GERM or EMBRYO is a small part located at the lower end of the grain. It makes up 3% of the kernel
and is concentrated in oil, protein, ash and vitamins. This is the part easily attacked by insects and
oxidative rancidity.
 THE ENDOSPERM makes up 85% of the kernel. It consists of well packed starch granules embedded in a
matrix of protein. A typical endosperm contains 75% starch, 10% protein and traces of fat, ash and fiber.
Since cereal grains are largely starch, principles of cereal cookery are based on this major component as
discussed in the next section.
 The white pigments in rice and other white cereals belong to the flavones. Yellow pigments found in yellow corn
are called carotenoids. The main types of carotenoids in yellow corn are xanthophyll, cryptoxanthin, alpha and
beta carotene.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE
As a group, cereals contain approximately 75% carbohydrates, 10% protein, 10% moisture, 1 to 2% ash. Starch is
the main carbohydrate component with small amounts of sucrose and dextrin.
The kind and amount of protein in a cereal grain also determine its potential in bread making. Also, the presence
of the bran, aleurone layer and germ in whole or in part improves the nutritive value of the cereal. Whole grains
and partially milled cereals have more fiber, protein, vitamins and minerals than highly refined cereals.
Enriched cereals are excellent sources of thiamine, niacin, riboflavin and iron. The fortification of ready to eat
cereals are indicated on the label.
Cooking practices also affect nutrient retention. Washing rice many times and using too much water which is
removed later as am and thrown away reduce the water-soluble vitamin and mineral content of rice. The
Filipino practice using hugas-bigas or rice washings as cooking stock for soups, fish, meat and vegetable dishes is
encouraged.
Starch in cereals is highly digestible and the fiber furnishes roughage. The laxative effect of whole grains is due
to the fiber or cellulose and germ oil. Germ oil also supplies unsaturated fats and the fat-soluble vitamins E and
K.
CEREAL COOKERY
The principle of cereal cookery is basically the saline as those in starch cookery in as much as starch constitutes
85% of a cereal grain. The main aims of cereal cookery are:
1. To improve palatability such as flavor, texture or consistency and color by gelatinization and Dextrinization, by
varying the kind of cereal and added ingredients and by using different methods of cooking.
2. To increase digestibility by softening the cellulose and gelatinizing the starch.
Since cereals are generally bland in flavor, there is versatility in using them as staple foods or as ingredients in
household recipes or processed foods. For the latter, they are used as meat extenders, thickeners or binding
agents.
RICE COOKERY
A rice eater has to consider many factors.
Of all cereal grains, rice presents extreme variations in individual preferences: long vs. short grained, sticky and
moister vs. separate and drier, new harvest vs. old stock, waxy variety vs. ordinary rice, hard vs. soft, brown or
pinawa vs. white pol shed rice, etc. even among nations, the eating qualities preferred for steamed rice differ.
Orientals like cohesive molds of rice while Americans prefer separate, fluffier kernels. Within a family, one
 member likes the tutong, another relishes moist rice which can be obtained from the side of the cooking pot and
still another who wants a drier portion can get this from the center of the family pot.
Whichever characteristics a consumer prefers for his cereals, the fundamental principles remain the same,
namely: proper ratio of water to cereal; complete gelatinization of the starch; prevention of lumping in hot
cereals; retention of discrete grains as desired; and prevention of scorching. Since rice is the staple food for
Filipinos, application of these principles uses rice as an example.
1. Ratio of Water to Cereal
The average range for the amount of water per cup dry polished rice is one to two cups. Waxy varieties or high-
amylose containing cereals, short-grained kernels, newly harvested rice, cooking in automatic cookers with tight
lids and preference for drier and harder kernels need less water, that is close to the 1:1 ratio. If a consumer likes
a more moist and sticky steamed rice, he has to add over two cups water per cup raw rice.
In cooking breakfast cereals like champorado, oatmeal, cream of wheat or farina, more water is required for a
thinner porridge. Also, the fines the granulation, the more water absorbed. Thus, one cup oatmeal needs 2 cups
water while one-cup farina needs 4 cups water. To avoid lumping, the dry cereal is added gradually to boiling
water and stirred gently with a fork. The mixture is stirred occasionally to prevent scorching. Too much agitation,
however will make it pasty because the grains may rupture or disintegrate, allowing starch molecules embedded
within the gelatinized granules to escaped into the cooking solution. Some purposely allow this to happen as in
arroz caldo and champorado for a thicker consistency.
2. Gelatinization
Gelatinization is a series of steps which is dependent on water and heat. This moist heat method of cooking
starch requires the right proportion of water as determined by a number of factors just discussed and the
proper end point of cooking.
In general, volume expansion of cooked cereals is related to the amount of water present for absorption. Finely
milled cereals like farina, corn mush and cream of wheat increase in volume five times. Oats or flaked cereals
swell three times and rice, twice. Thus, a cooking vessel large enough to allow for volume expansion and
occasional stirring as needed, should be used.
3. Cooking methods
In steaming rice, one may start with cold water or boiling water. The latter method is followed if separate,
fluffier kernels are desired. The loose starch granules present on the surface of the kernel as a result of milling
will be immediately gelatinized before it escapes into the cooking solution. Once all the water is absorbed by the
grains, reduce heat and cover vessel tightly. Finish steaming by allowing 10 more minutes for white rice, 20
minutes for converted or parboiled rice and 40 minutes for brown rice. The American way is to wash the
partially cooked rice before completing the steaming process. This gets rid of the starch paste on the surface
resulting in separate, fluffier kernels. Some add salt to the cooking water and others add butter or substitute
before serving hot. In the middle east, saffron powder is added along with butter ad this evokes a pleasing
aroma and color.
How to test doneness: rub between fingers a few rice grains which should have no hard part inside. The best
way to taste a few grains to detect any raw starchy flavor and hardness.
4. Effect of other Ingredients
The use of acid, sugar or fat delays gelatinization. If tomato sauce, sugar or butter is added at the start of
cooking a rice recipe, swelling or water absorption is reduced or delayed. When a relatively higher concentration
of sugar is added to raw malagkit, the kernels become hard and would not gelatinize completely. Therefore, the
 addition of such ingredients toward the last period of cooking allows for complete swelling and gelatinization.
Explanations for these phenomena are given in the subsequent discussion of starch.
Milk, eggs and gelatin add viscosity since these ingredients have the ability to thicken and gel.
Cooking in hard water at an alkaline pH of 8 changes the white color of cereals to creamy or yellow grains.
Cooking in lye water or lihiya as in suman sa lihia and kutsinta produces brown cereal or starch product as well
as a stickier texture.
5. Dextrinization
It is the effect of dry heat on starch: toasting pinipig, browning of rice for kare-kae and toasting bread. It changes
the starch to smaller fragments called dextrin which impart a sweetish taste that the original starch does not
have. Its ability to gelatinize and thicken is reduced.
POINTERS IN BUYING CEREALS
In buying rice, it is assumed that the consumer knows the family preferences: new or old harvest, long or short
grained, waxy type or not, etc. The family budget has to be considered too. Rice grains that are whiter with a
higher percentage of whole kernels are more expensive. Once the variety is decided upon, the following
pointers will help the consumer buy rice properly.
1. Check how clean the rice is, i.e palay and hulls or ipa are relatively absent.
2. Look closely for the proportion of broken kernels or binlid.
3. Smell a handful to detect off-odor, especially from insect infestation.
4. Note the presence of seeds, stones, rice weevils, larvae, etc.
5. Buy by weight. Get your rice supply from reliable sources.
The Culinary Uses of Rice and Other Cereals
TYPE OF FOOD RECIPES USING CEREALS
SOUPS Arroz Caldo, Corn Soup, Pearl Barley, Beef-Rice Soup, Vegetable
Chowder
ENTREES Arroz Paella, Arroz ala Valenciana, Arroz Filipina, Spanish Rice, Corn
Timables, Rice Pilaf, Corn Casserole, Shrimp-Rice Curry, Corn Caneloni,
Souffles, Tamales, Croquettes, Cabbage Roll with Rice, Roast Poultry
with Rice Stuffing, Stuffed Pepper, Meat Loaf, Escalloped Corn with
Chees, Oatmeal as extender in Meat Balls, Hamburgers, etc.
CEREALS, BREAD OR Steamed Rice, Fried Rice, Champorado, Oatmeal, Farina, Cereal of Rice,
SUBSTITUTE Cream of Wheat, Corn Meal or Corn Mush, Arroz Caldo, Lugaw, Bread
and Rolls or Biscuits mafe from composite Flours: such as rye bread,
corn bread, triticale, Root Crop flours blended with cereal flours and
wheat flours, Noodles: misua, sotanghon, bihon, canton, etc.
DESSERT OR SNACK ITEMS Made with Glutinous Rice or Malagkit:
Pinipig and its products like bibingka, pitsi-pitsi, ampaw, biko, ginataan,
palitaw, champorado, kutsinta, bibngkang malagkit, tamales, kalamay,
churros, ginataang mais o munggo, inangit, nilupak, put bumbong,
puto maya, suman, sinukmani, arroz a la Filipina, arroz caldo and arroz
Valenciana
Made with Ordinary Rice:
Maja Blanca, Putong Puti, Bibingkang Galapong, Sapin-Sapin, Ukoy
 Batter, Buchi, Budin, Ampaw, Maruya, Lugaw

Made with Cereals and Other than Rice:

Corn Fritters, Boiled or Corn Inihaw, Pop Corn, Crispies, Corn Curls,
Cheese Curls, Corn Balls, Ampaw Mais, Shredded Wheat; other ready-
to-eat Cereals, Doughnuts, Hot Cake, Cookies and Cakes, Biscuits, etc.
BEVERAGES Rye Whisky, sake from rice, binubudan, etc.
PROCESSED FOODS Corn Starch, Rice Starch, Flour or as Cereal Grains in canned and Frozen
Foods, Baby Foods, etc.

STORAGE AND CARE

It should be remembered that cereal grains are seeds composed of living cells which continue to respire after
harvest and is favored by temperature and moisture at optimum levels. During storage, oxygen is consumed
with the formation of carbon dioxide and heat. A moisture level less than 13% slows down the respiration rate
and prolongs shelf life of grains. It discourages mold growth and insect infestation. Therefore, the drying period
after harvest is very important. Palay that is adequately dried to contain no more than 13% moisture can be
restored in the warehouse up to six months. Above 13% is the alarm level for safe storage of cereals
The approximate storage time for cereals that are properly packaged is as follows: 2 months for ready-to-eat
breakfast cereals, 6 months for granulated cereals, 6 months for whole grains and brown rice and 1 year for
whole corn kernels and polished rice.
Aging or storing grains hardens the kernels and decreases the solubility of starch protein. Some rice varieties like
binuhangin and milagrosa that have pleasing aroma when newly harvested, lose this property upon storage.
The presence of the bran and germ definitely shortens the shelf-life of cereals. This is due to oxidative rancidity
of the oil they contain which is rich in unsaturated fats. To prolong the shelf-life of wheat germ, rice bran and
whole grains refrigerated storage is necessary
Cereal grains are hygroscopic, that is they tend to absorb moisture from the air. Thus, they should be stored-in
tightly covered containers and kept in a dry, cool place.
The loss of crispness in cereals is due to exposure to air and moisture absorption. This is noticeable with sugar
coated cereals. Therefore, after the package is opened, the inner foil should be folded several times.
Dry grains should be packaged in well-sealed plastics. Presently, polypropylene bags have replaced the usual
sako made form jute fiber for packaging rice and corn. These bags are more resistant to rodents and insects.
To sum it up, the main aims of proper storage and packaging cereals are:
1. To retain crispness as in ready-to-eat cereals
2. To avoid off-flavors absorbed from surrounding foreign odor
3. To prevent the entrance of rodents, insect infestation and mold growth
4. To avoid moisture absorption
CAKE DECORATION/FROSTING AND ICING
INTRODUCTION

 Frosting or icing, fillings and glazes are typically a sweet, sugar-based soft mixture used to fill, coat, add flavor and
improve the appearance and texture. They are used on baked recipes such as cake, cupcakes, cookies and pastries.
In addition to sugar, frosting can contain a combination of other ingredients including butter, milk, water, eggs and
various flavorings it can be cooked (as with boiled icing) or uncooked (as with buttercream), and can range from
thick to thin. There are so many choices. The flavors, colors and consistencies should not overpower the other.
 Some are cooked, while others can be uncooked, and many can be purchased ready-made, and many can be store
online. Make sure you understand the storage requirements of each.
 The goal in frosting or glazing a cake is to put it on smoothly, while keeping the cake crumbs out. It also adds a
protective shield that preserves freshness in a baked dessert. Usually two layers of frosting are put: a crumb coat or
a thin layer and a final coat. Sometimes a third icing coat can be applied, if necessary. After finishing the cake, it will
stay fresh at least a couple of days, depending on the type of icing and filling used. Once cut, keep the cut edges of
the main cake covered with plastic wrap or waxed or parchment paper. If it contains any perishable items, the cake
must be refrigerated, and can only stay out of refrigeration for no more than two hours for food safety.
 SUGAR FLOWER MAKING
A combination of powdered sugar and egg whites. Sugar flowers are made with a special sugar dough called
gumpaste recipe made with edible gums such as Tylose or CMC. These make the petals hard enabling us to roll the paste
really thin thus creating lifelike sugar flowers. Making gum paste recipe at home is a simple, easy and effortless process.

 Definition of frosting and icing

Icing is a sweet coating or covering of which sugar is the main ingredient. It has from one to three main functions
when applied to a baked product:

1. It may form a protective coating around the item to seal in the moisture and flavor.
2. It will improve the taste.
3. It will add eye appeal, which is so important to any baked product.

 Icing preparation
Icings are usually quite simple to prepare. However, certain basic rules must be followed if the best results
are to be obtained:

1. Use the best products obtained. This is especially true of the shortening if it is called for in the recipe.
2. Use proper combinations of flavoring.
3. Color icing in pastel shades for a more attractive appearance.
4. Mix most butter cream icings at medium speed. Increase the mixing time to aerate the icing and increase the
volume.
5. Obtain proper consistency before applying or using the icing. In most cases the consistency can be controlled by
adding or eliminating certain amounts of powdered sugar. The consistency of the icing will depend upon the
use.

 Classification of icing and frosting

Icing may be classified into five basic kinds:

1. Cream icing – is one of the most popular kinds. More cream icing is used in the average bake shop than any
other kind. This is true mainly because it is simple to prepare, easy to keep, and when applied to cake and
cupcakes adds eye appeal and taste. It is usually made by creaming together shortening or butter, powdered
sugar and in some cases eggs. Cream icing are light and aerated because more air cells can be retained with this
method of mixing. Cream icings enter well but remember to use pastel shades for best result.
2. Flat icing – is the simplest of all type to prepare. It is usually prepared by blending together water, powdered
sugar, can syrup and flavorings; heating to approximately 100 degrees F. It is applied by brush, to such as sweet
rolls, doughnuts, Danish pastry. The icing should be heated in a double boiler because direct heat or over
heating causes the icing to lose its gloss or shine when it cools.
3. Boiled icing – is prepared by combining sugar, glucose and water; boiling it to approximately 240 degrees F and
adding the resulting syrup to an egg white meringue while still hot. If heavy syrup is added to the meringue a
heavy icing will be the result, if thin syrup is added the result will be thin icing. Boiled icing maybe colored
 slightly and most be applied the same day it is prepared, if held overnight it will be breakdown. This kind of icing
is used on cakes and should be applied on generous amounts so it can be worked into peaks.
4. Fudge icing – is a rich heavy bodied icing that is usually prepared by adding a hot liquid or syrup to the other
ingredients called for in the recipe, while whipping to obtain the smoothness required for this kind of icing.
Fudge should be use while still warm or it left to cool, it should be reheated in a double boiler before applying.
Fudge icing is generally used to its layer cake and cup cakes. To store cover and place to the refrigerator.
5. Fondant icing – is a rich white cooked icing that hardens when exposed to the air. It is used mainly on small
cakes that are picked up with the fingers to be eaten. It is prepared by cooking glucose, sugar and water to a
temperature of 240 degrees F; letting it to cool to 150 degrees F and then working it until it is creamy and
smooth.

 Kinds of icing and frosting

1. Cooked icing – sugar is dissolved in a small amount of liquid or water and then cooked.
2. Uncooked icing – made of confectioners or powdered sugar and usually uncooked.

 Steps and rules in cakes icing

1. Determine the height of the cake.
2. Level the layer by removing any high peaks and loose crust.
3. Cut the layers into equal length and size. Use a serrated knife or bread knife. If cakes layers are thin, it may be
necessary to put 2 layers together. If the layer high, they may cut into 2 or 3 sections and placed filling between
them.
4. Fill in dents and in the layer with jam, jelly, fudge and etc. to make all gaps even for the icing. Press down cake
layer gently after putting filling to make them sticks. Be sure the layer is even all around before applying the
outer icing.
5. Remove all cake crumbs from the top of the layer and the working area, as these may get into the icing and
cause lumps.
6. Place the layer cake on a thin cardboard liner, slightly smaller or the same diameter as the cake.
7. Place sufficient amount of icing on the layer cake to cover the top sides about 1/8 to ¼ inches thick, spread
evenly or with the use of cake decorator.
8. Garnishing may now applied. Garnish with sugars, flowers, nut fruits etc.

Introduction

Did you know that baskets of reeds, wineskin (bota bags), wooden boxes, pottery vases, ceramic, wooden
barrels, woven bags are natural materials used as packaging a long time ago? This have been used for several years for
carrying foods. However, due to the continues development of marketing products and looking for more efficient
packaging container, modern packaging materials have been developed

I. EVOLUTION OF PACKAGING
A. ANCIENT CIVILIZATION

In prehistoric times, early humans were nomads. They moved to and from the same areas,
following the seasonal availability of wild plants and animals. Refrigerators and freezers did not
exist back then, so whatever they could hunt and forage, they had to immediately consume. If
they needed to transport their food, they also had to make do with whatever nature provided.
Containers were made from animal skin, shells, and gourds. Baskets and bags were fashioned
out of the grass, wood, and other pliable natural fibers.
 It was not until new minerals and chemicals were discovered that materials such as fabrics,
ceramics, and woodware were used for food packaging.

In 3500 BC, the Ancient Egyptians discovered glass blowing to create containers for food and water storage.
In 105 AD, Emperor Ts’ai Lun of the Imperial Court invented paper, the oldest example of flexible packaging. He
mixed bamboo and paper to make a paste, then dried it in the sun.

B. Medieval Period
Wooden barrels were common packaging in the Middle Ages. Their robustness helped transport
food, especially for long and perilous periods of travel. Both barrels and wooden boxes were used to
store water, rum, and dried food while traversing across oceans.
In medieval Europe, food items were also displayed and sold in barrels. Shoppers who bought in
small quantities had to bring their wicker baskets, bottles, or pitchers when purchasing food in the
market. Linen and wool rags were used to wrap meats, beans, salted fish, and flour.
C.  Industrial Revolution
The invention of machines caused the birth of new industries and allowed trade
to flourish. In turn, the need for better packaging increased.Because of this period’s
focus on mass production and distribution, food packaging had to be durable, easy to
produce, and accessible. Food preservation was also a high priority during this time as
new transportation methods allowed businesses and individuals to travel more often.
Back in 1975, French General Napoleon Bonaparte offered 12,000 francs to anyone who could
preserve food for his army. This led to the first “canning” technique, founded by
confectioner Nicholas Appert. He sealed cooked food in glass containers and boiled them for
sterilization.
Later in 1810, British inventor Peter Durand patented his own canning method using tin instead of
glass. By 1820 he was supplying canned food to the Royal Navy in large quantities.
D. Age of Mass Production
Also known as the Second Industrial Revolution, this era is characterized by
technological advancements in energy, mass production, and the invention of the telegraph and
the telephone.
This period allowed people to build on the previous revolution’s discoveries, allowing further
developments in manufacturing and production—among which included food packaging.
In 1856, the corrugated paper was patented in England and used as a liner for tall hats. By the early
1900s, wooden crates and boxes were being replaced by corrugated paper and shipping cartons.
In 1890, biscuits were the first products to be individually packaged and sold by National Biscuit Co.,
now known as Nabisco. This was the first packaging to preserve crispness by providing a moisture
barrier.
The invention of the crown cork in 1892 revolutionized the beverage industry. William Painter, known today as
the founder of Crown Holdings Inc., created a metal cap with a layer of cork that protected the liquid inside the
bottle.
The first cereal box for corn flakes was introduced by Kellogg's in 1906.
The first plastic based on a synthetic polymer was invented by Leo Hendrik Baekeland in 1907. It was
called Bakelite, and it could be shaped or molded into almost anything, providing endless possibilities.
In 1933, a new era of plastics began with the discovery of the plastic Saran Wrap. This material would cling to
 almost any surface and paved the way for airtight food packaging.
The Tetra Pak was invented in 1951 by Ruben Rausing, a Swedish graduate from Colombia University. This
paperboard-based package revolutionized Europe’s dairy industry; it could store liquids without refrigeration,
and the box shape was easy to stack and ship.
Coors pioneered the use of aluminum cans in 1959. From this start, there has been a steady growth in sodas,
energy drinks, and sparkling waters.
In 1963, the first ring pull for cans was introduced. Before this, aluminum cans were opened with a can opener,
like the way other metal cans are opened.
In 1973, the first plastic bottles that can contain carbonated drinks were invented by chemist Nathaniel Wyeth.
This became the cheaper alternative to glass.
E. Active Packaging in the Modern Era
In the last few decades, the steady increase in consumer demands has resulted in the advancements
of food packaging.
Active packaging gained popularity in the 1990s, benefitting both the manufacturer and consumer.
This type of packaging meant better preservation, extended shelf-life, reduced food waste,
and easy use for customers. Some examples of active packaging include, but are not limited to:
Sachets and pads placed inside the packaging to preserve the food
Packaging films and absorbers to eliminate unwanted odors and moisture
Materials with temperature control and insulation so food can be heated and eaten directly from
the packaging
II. PACKAGING DESIGN AND TRENDS

INTRODUCTION

There are many reasons why a consumer package goods (CPG) packaging design fails. Changing the
look can make the product difficult to locate. A visually appealing, functional design doesn’t work well if
the package is hard to open. Creating packaging design that isn’t recyclable or doesn’t keep products
fresh may put consumers off.
Regardless of the reason, it’s important to remember not every packaging design will be a winner.
Conducting proper research and listening to consumers will help you find the right balance between what to
keep and what to change.
A. THINGS TO CONSIDER IN PACKAGING
1. Sustainable packaging

There is far more to it than just less plastic:  The demand for sustainable packaging is on the rise; plastic
components are gradually being replaced by renewable, eco-friendly raw materials such as cardboard, grass
cardboard or cardboard made from agricultural waste. Smart packaging designs reduce material usage. 

2. Illuminated packaging

A smart eye-catcher: Packaging is becoming increasingly empathic. It fits with consumers and their
lifestyle. While some industries (such as the food retail or natural cosmetics sectors) are increasingly looking for
packaging solutions that are stripped back to the essentials and produced using sustainable materials and
finishes, others favour spectacular packaging that attracts attention and sparks the impulse to buy.

3. Easy to used/ open packaging

 The consumers expect the packaging to be functional and to fulfill their specific
needs in every way.

In choosing packaging for our product we need to consider that it is convenient to all the consumer.

There should be an easy access to your product.

III. FOOD LABELING REQUIREMENTS

INTRODUCTION
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for assuring that foods sold in the United States are
safe, wholesome and properly labeled. This applies to foods produced domestically, as well as foods from
foreign countries.
The FDA receives many questions from manufacturers, distributors, and importers about the proper
labeling of their food products. This guidance is a summary of the required statements that must appear
on food labels under these laws and their regulations. To help minimize legal action and delays, it is
recommended that manufacturers and importers become fully informed about the applicable laws and
regulations before offering foods for distribution in the United States.
The Principal Display Panel (PDP) is the front panel of the packaging
The Principal Display Panel (PDP) is the part of a food label that is most likely to be displayed to the customer
when for sale. This is the front panel on a product.
A. FOOD LABELING REQUIREMENTS IN THE PHILIPPINES
 Product Name-The name of the food should be visible on the product label. It should be specific
and description may be added to clearly state the product’s characteristics. It may also include
the treatment used for a product such as Sterilized, Freeze-Dried, and others.
 Brand Name-The registered trademark of a company’s brand name must be printed on the
label. This is a unique identifier and is registered with the FDA.
 Ingredients-Food products should include labels that provide the complete details of the
ingredients used. It should be presented in descending order or according to proportion.
IMPORTANT: Food allergen information must be visible below the list of ingredients. This should
disclose the components used in a product. This should warn consumers of possible allergic
reactions they may cause.
 Net ContentTo be clear, net weight and gross weight are two different things. Net weight is
required on product labels to represent food volume minus the actual packaging. It must also be
declared in units using the metricsystem. NOTE: Drained weight is also required to be declared
for food products packed in a liquid medium. It represents the actual weight of the food product
once the aqueous solution is discarded
 Manufacturer Details-The name and the address of the manufacturer are vital for all locally
manufactured items. The manufacturer’s contact details will give consumers a reference in case
they have inquiries about the food product they purchase.
NOTE: For manufacturing companies with plants in different locations, the head address would
be enough as long as a traceability code is added.
 Lot Identification
This refers to the code that uses a mix of numbers and letters in reference to the batch of
products. This is crucial for product identification and tracking.
  . Storage-To provide consumers with essential information, storage condition must also be
found on product labels. This will guide them in properly stocking on food products after
opening.
 Best Before Date-Expiration and Use by dates are some of the most common information that
consumers usually search for. It is an important marking that reassures product quality. 
 Instructions- The direction of use should be visible on the label especially for products that
require certain instructions to be properly consumed.
 Nutritional InformationNutrients that are claimed to be in the product must be declared. It
should include the number of nutrients and other vitamins and minerals that a product has.
O Labelling Law
O Republic Act 3720 (Food Drug and Cosmetic Act)
O Prescribes rules and regulations for the packaging and labelling of foods distributed in the Philippines.
O Bureau of Food and Drug (BFAD) interprets regulations and details of RA 3720 Provides lists of substances
permitted for use in food and food packaging material.
Any violation of thile provision of this Administrative Order shall render the food product
misbranded.

MEAL MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

 Meal management is not a simple task, but a series of events concerned with menu-planning, food purchasing,
preparation, and serving the meal. Proper storage is involved whenever necessary for food safety and preservation,
i.e., after buying or acquiring the food, in pre-preparation and cooking, and in safekeeping any left-over.

 Quantity food service management will be an advanced course and requires basic meal management as
prerequisite. While fundamental principles are similar, there are additional issues to be considered in quantity
cooking because of the number people served. For example, food laws and governmental policies have to observe
by hospitals, nursing homes, school cafeterias, military facilities, and the commercial food service industry. The
latter group is more complex, because cooking for profit and menu merchandising are some of the main concerns of
the meal manager.

DEFINITION

Meal management is the process whereby resources, both material and human, are used to obtain goals that have to
do with feeding the individual or the group. The goal of meal management is to provide food that will ensure the
physical and mental growth of the person, his social development and well-being, with a reasonable expenditure of
available resources.

Meal management is the efficient application of the 5 Ms of management, of management, namely: man hour (time),
materials, methods, money and manpower (labor) in planning, purchasing, preparing and serving the meal in a sanitary
and safe condition at the proper time and temperature. another viewpoint to discuss an efficiently managed meal is to
list the quality factors to be considered in serving meals properly. These are:

 Sanitation and safety factor

 Nutritional quality
 Organoleptic or palatability factor
  Socio-economic and other cultural factors
 Time and energy-saving factor

Each quality factor is discussed in the succeeding chapters. Examples are drawn from observations and actual
practices of various culture or countries. Whenever possible, more applications suitable to Philippine use are cited.
There are many books available locally, which discuss the culinary arts of other nations, especially for the industrialized
countries.

A menu pattern is a general outline of foods served in one meal. It may consist of courses that require the proper
sequence of offering the food, or the whole meal may be served all at once. A sample menu is a specific kind of the food,
possibly with a description of how it is prepared.

Menu patterns are variable, depending on the food budget of a family and the food-ways of an ethnic group or food
culture of a country. A simple one-dish pattern and sample menu could be just Congee for a Chinese breakfast or
Cinnamon Roll with Nuts and Coffee/Milk for a busy working family

 Kinds of menus

Menus are classified according to mealtime, such as: breakfast, lunch, supper or dinner, and snacks in between
meals locally called “merienda” or “minindal”. Festive menus are also recognized by their names, such as baby shower
party, birthdays, wedding anniversaries, graduation, and religious holidays.

Menu cards when dining out, list in the menu priced individually (a la carte), of the complete menu has one fixed price
(table d’ hote). Commercial restaurants may serve their specialties as their main offering. They are sometimes called:
“theme” restaurants and they serve their “signature” recipes. They have menu cards that are quite attractive and
reasonably priced, because of keen competition.

 Mechanics of Menu

Planning may be day-to-day (du jour menu) or by the week. Two to four weekly menus may be planned ahead and when
repeated at the end of the period, this is called a cyclic menu.

The steps in menu-planning are:

Steps#1. Check what is available (inventory or stock) from your pantry, refrigerator, and freezer.

Step#2. Note that leftovers in the cold storage have to be utilized as soon as possible. For allowed time when a food is
still safe to use.

Step#3. Be sure leftovers are labeled (kind and date when first stored).

 Notes to Meal Planner or Homemaker

A legal sized paper (8 х 12 inches) is better for more space. Use a pencil first draft, then rewrite in water-permanent
ink. Also, the first step of menu planning, e.g., writing the main dish or entrée, is illustrated here.

First letters of the course or name of the recipe is capitalized. Do not capitalize prepositions and conjunctions, unless it is
the first word of the phrase or recipe title.

Examples:

Lechon with Liver Sauce Pie a la Mode

Ensaymada at Tsokolate Brown Gravy for Beef Roast

Doughnut and Coffee Chicken Teriyaki on top of Steamed Rice

Underline or highlight with a yellow or green marker, recipes or foods you plan for dining out or take-outs.

Keep a file at your past menus to avoid repetition frequently, unless well-liked by family members. Keep your
grocery or market expenses for review and for budget records.

One does not have complete the standard format of a menu. For example, in one-dish meals, like Putsero, it has
broth for soup; potatoes (or kamote) and chickpeas for starchy vegetables; green beans, cabbage, pechay for other
vegetables; and mixture of meats as desired (usually beef, pork, chicken) and chorizo bilbao for special occasions or
family with more food budget. Steamed rice and a sweet dessert or fresh fruit completes a nutritious, delicious and
attractive meal.

Table 1-1. Sample form for a weekly menu-planner.

Day Breakfast Lunch Dinner

Sunday Cheese and Ensaymada Beef Barbecue Chicken Tinola
Monday Scrambled Eggs Pork Cubes in Sweet Tilapia (Inihaw)
Sour Sauce
Tuesday Longganisa Meat Loaf Shrimp Chop Suey
Wednesday Poached Eggs Mami Soup and Siopao Beef Sarciado
Thursday Fried Rice w/ Tocino Bits Kare-Kare Chicken Adobo
Friday Champorado and Dilis Fish Sinigang Seafood Creole
Saturday Bibingka w/ Itlog Maalat Putsero Pancit Canton

A well-balanced meal is necessary for health. Menus should be planned first to meet the needs of the body and to
please the eye and palate. It is also a list of specific foods or dishes that fit the meal pattern. The meal pattern is
something like an outline which lists the parts of the meal, called courses

Example of Meal Pattern for A day’s Meal

Breakfast:

Fruit Juice Bread or Cereal

Main dish or Protein dish Beverage

Lunch:

Soup Vegetable dish Dessert

Main dish or Protein dish Cereal

Dinner:

Appetizer Cereals Beverage

Main dish or Protein dish Salad

Vegetables Desserts
 Meals of the Day

1. Breakfast or “Almusal” meal served in the morning; the first meal during the day.
2. Lunch or “Tanghalian” a meal often served at mid-day; consisting of food light in bulk and content.
3. Supper or “Hapunan” light meal served late in the afternoon.
4. Dinner heavy meal served at mid-day or evening.

 Appetizers – a small serving of food or beverage served before the meal or vas the first course to stimulate the
appetite to eat. Kinds of appetizers include canapes, cocktails, fruits and relishes.
 Canapes are small open-faced sandwiches which may be fried or toasted or ant crispy cereal product like crackers
with a topping or a spread.
 Cocktail is an alcoholic beverage served before dinner or during cocktail party.
 Relishes are crispy vegetables, usually raw, or pickles, olives, and the like, to serve as appetizers.
 Fruits are serves as the first course for breakfast. It may either be served as is or made into juices. Fruits are the
fleshly, young product of plant which when riped is edible without cooking. Examples of ripe fruits to be served for
breakfast are: banana, papaya, pineapple, avocado, mango. Pineapple and orange juices are common at the
breakfast tables.
 Soup is a liquid dish made generally by stewing meats and vegetables with various flavoring agents. Often the first
course of the menu as an appetizer. Soup is easy to prepare, cheap, well-liked, easily varied, digestible, suitable for
all the members of the family. The two kinds of cooking soups cream and stock. The common methods of cooking
soup are boiling, sautéing, and simmering.

Good soup has these qualities:

1. a pleasing color
2. a satisfying flavor
3. an appetizing aroma
4. a consistency in keeping with its type
5. no free-fat floaty on top
 Main dish is the heart of the meal. It is made up of fish, meat and poultry. It also builds, reapirs and maintains body
tissues. The main ingredients are important constituents of body cells. Main dish makes up bulk in the part of the
meal. Since main dish comprises the bulk of the meal, they should be properly prepared. Aside from the correct
ingredients to be used, cooks must select the appropriate cooking method to be used. The following examples are
for chicken and fish.

The two common methods of cooking chicken and broiling and fricasseeing.

Good boiled chicken has these qualities:

1. tender, slightly moist texture

2. savory flavor
3. convenient serving size

Good fricassee chicken has these qualities:

 1. delicious flavor
2. tender meat
3. rich, brown gravy
4. Appetizing aroma

The two methods of cooking fish are baking and frying.

Good baked fish has these qualities:

1. golden brown
2. juicy, tender natural flavor
3. full, rich natural flavor
4. appetizing aroma

Good fried fish has these qualities:

1. golden brown on both sides

2. crisp outer crust
3. moist, tender flaky interior
4. appetizing aroma and well-seasoned flavor
 Vegetables - are plants or parts of plants used as food. Specifically served raw or cooked and generally with an
entrée or in a salad but not as a dessert. The common methods used for vegetable dish are boiling, frying, steaming,
sauteing and broiling.

Well- cooked vegetable dish has these qualities;

1. Unchanged color
2. Retained nutritive value
3. Retained natural forms
4. Retained natural flavors

 Cereal or Bread cooked cereals are only our cheapest source of energy. They provides heat and energy to the
body when individual engages in work or any activity. Cooked cereals are made from rice or wheat and other
starchy foods such as corn, camote, gabi, ubi and potato. The common cooking method for rice is boiling.

Good cooked rice has these qualities:

1. perfect whole, dry grains, distinct and separate
2. full-flavored taste
3. fluffy, snow-white appearance
4. volume of 3 to 4 times the uncooked amount

Good baked bread has these qualities:

1. it should have a yellow-brown crust

2. it should be enriched
3. fine and even texture
4. good flavor and odor
 Salad is a combination of crisp vegetables with other cut-up ingredients served with dressing. It is also used as an
appetizer, main dish (or its accompaniments) or desserts. Usually served cold although in some ways may be served
hot.
Good salad has these qualities:
1. thoroughly chilled, drained ingredients
2. an appetizing and attractive appearance
3. a suitable dressing that contributes to the flavor

Good salad dressing has these qualities:

1. thick characteristics of its type

2. smooth consistency
3. well-blended seasonings
4. accented flavor
5. pleasant color

 Dessert is course served at the end of a meal. It includes candies, frozen desserts, junket, puddings and a variety of
baked foods.
Good fruit dessert has these qualities:
1. appetizing aroma
2. simple attractiveness
3. carefully-washed appearance
4. lightly-chilled temperature
 Beverage is any drink which relieves thirst, nourishes the body, stimulates the appetite or adds to body fluids.
Examples of beverages commonly used are fruit juices, cocoa and chocolate, coffee, tea and milk.
A. A good Cocoa and Chocolate has these qualities:
1. rich chocolate flavor
2. light to darker brown color
3. consistency of light cream
4. no rudiment
5. uniform, well-blended body
B. A good Cup of Coffee has these qualities:
1. no grounds or suspected qualities
2. clear, sparkling brown color
3. full, rich body
4. fresh, mellow stimulating flavor
5. appealing aroma
6. very hot temperature
C. A good Cup of Tea has these qualities:
1. full, rich flavor
2. cloud-ness amber to green color depending on blend
3. inviting aroma
4. no sidement in the cup
 5. piping hot temperature

 Planning meals

Planning meals include not only the listing of food to serve at any one meal, known as menu, but also these activities
as well:

1. Planning the food budget

2. Planning for food purchase, choosing the markets, buying and storing supplies
3. Planning for preparation and serving meals

 Factors to consider in planning meals

1. Nutritional adequacy – the provision of palatable foods that are rich in essential nutrients. Nutrients needs of an
individual are affected by age, sex, body build and activities engaged in by the individual.
2. The food budget – the food budget is influenced by the family income, knowledge of the market shopper’s
shopping skills, family food likes and dislikes and their goals and values.
3. Differences in food habit – this includes the dietary habits of nationality groups, regional food patterns, cultural
and religious food pattern and the socio-economic background.
4. The time and skill of the meal manager – the length of meal preparation, the amount of experience and the
time available are to be considered.
5. Suitability, availability and quality of the food to served.
6. Aesthetic and psychological aspects of food – the proper combination of flavor, texture and shapes as well as
variety in color, form and arrangement.
7. Equipment available for food preparation.

 Principles in planning meals

1. Plan several days’ meals at one time, utilizing simple menus that are easy to prepare and serve.
2. Include more of one-dish meals like sinigang, nilaga, bulanglang, tinola, etc.
3. Plan meals that have interesting variety in color, texture and flavor.
4. Plan to serve foods that are not only in season but also enjoyed by the dinner.
5. Plan dishes that do not entail too much preparation at one time. If possible, preparation can be started the day
before the dish is served.
6. Consider palatable foods that are rich in essential nutrients. Consult the different food guides.
7. Make out a market list to avoid extra trips to the food stores.
8. Utilize left-over and “convenience” foods when necessary.

 MENU – is a list of specific foods or dishes that fit the meal pattern selected.

 MEAL PATTERN – something like an outline which lists the parts of the meal called course.

Organizing meal preparation

Organization is the process of identifying and grouping the work to be performed, defining and delegating
responsibility and authority and establishing relationships for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively
together in accomplishing objectives.

Suggested activities in organizing meal preparation.

 A. Planning
1. Plan a menu, keeping in mind the family’s nutritional needs.
2. Plan the market order.
3. Decide when and where to buy.
B. Selecting the recipes
1. Choose recipes that have been tested.
2. Keep recipes on hand in recipe files.
3. Note any changes made in recipe or recipe card.

C. Marketing
1. Check supply of staples and replenish those that have run out.
2. Buy as large quantities as your budget will allow and as can be used without waste.
D. Scheduling
1. Write down time for serving the meal.
2. Decide what jobs have to be done and when they must be done.
3. Plan a time and work schedule and indicate the time to begin and the time for food to be finished. Start first
with the dishes that take the longest time to prepare. Dovetail jobs when possible.
E. Starting to cook
1. Wash your hands.
2. Collect and have within easy reach the supplies and utensils needed for the preparation of the meal. Use
standard measuring equipment and measure ingredients accurately. Coke at the right temperature. Use
thermometer when available. Keep a tray or dish on work surface to hold spoons, spatula and forks. Clean
up as you work. Use newspapers or paper towels for such jobs as paring fruits and vegetables. Save utensils.
Sift dry ingredients and grate cheese and lemon rind on wax paper or paper towels. Plan ahead and look for
ways of eliminating utensils. Test a small amount of food for flavor. Use a small spoon for testing. Do not
reuse it without washing.
F. Serving the meal
Serve hot foods hot and cold foods cold. Used edible garnishes. Choose a method of serving the meal that is
pleasing but simple. Use a tray to carry dishes, silverware and glasses to the table.

 Control in meal preparation

Three (3) phases

1. Energizing 2. Checking 3. Adjusting

 Three aspects of work simplification techniques

1. Hand and Body Motion

In meal preparation, many motions involving hand and body are made. All of them take a certain amount of
effort.
Eliminating Unnecessary Motions
a. Using a tray to carry a number of items in one trip from the refrigerator to the mark center.
b. Arranging ingredients and utensils all within easy reach.
c. Having a place for everything and keeping everything where it belongs.
 d. Combining several preparation tasks into one careful planning.
2. Work Storage Equipment
The kitchen and its equipment have such important effects on the time and energy spent in getting meals.
Less muscular strain and expenditure of energy are experienced when work surfaces and wall cabinets in the
kitchen are at comfortable heights. A refrigerator for the storage of perishable foods, cabinets for the storage of
staple foods, and utensils in cooking, are needed to make the place a convenient and efficient work center.
Classification of Kitchen Equipment
a. Large equipment or major appliances
Examples: range, refrigerator, cabinets, sinks
b. Small appliances
Examples: toaster, mixer, grills
c. Food preparation utensils
Examples: measuring, mixing, and cooking tools
3. The Food Product
Forms of food
a. Processed foods – convenience foods or quick methods foods. It include canned foods, frozen foods, ready-
to-use and ready-to-eat foods and packages mixes.
b. Fresh foods

 Work simplification techniques in meal preparation

1. Study the menu to determine the tasks to be done: methods to use and time schedule.
2. Choose the simplest method for doing each task.
3. Combine several preparation tasks (dovetailing) into one by careful planning.
4. One task should be completed before another is begun.
5. Use convenience foods if necessary.
6. Assemble all necessary equipment before starting food preparation.
7. Certain tasks may be done sitting down to consume energy.
8. Wash, drain clear and tidy up while food is cooking.
9. Always use and follow the time schedule in food preparation and cooking.
10. Prepare one-dish meals more often.

 Evaluating meals

1. Analyze the results of your efforts.

2. Make a plan to improve your skills in meal management.

INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL COOKERY

A. MISE EN PLACE
 Cooks must have a talent for organization and efficiency.
 Many tasks must be completed over a given time and by a limited number of workers.
 All must come together at one crucial point: service time.
 Chefs take pride in the thoroughness and quality of their advance preparation, or mise en place.
 Mise en place: French term, meaning “everything put in place.”
 B. PLANNING AND ORGANIZING PRODUCTION
Pre-Preparation
Pre-preparation is necessary! You must: 
 Assemble your tools.
 Assemble your ingredients.
 Wash, trim, cut, prepare, and measure your raw materials.
 Prepare your equipment.
The Solution
The Chef must plan pre-preparation carefully:
 Break down each menu item into its stages of production.
 Determine which stages may be done in advance.
 Determine the best way to hold each item at its final stage of pre-preparation.
 Determine how long it takes to prepare each stage of each recipe.
 Plan a production schedule beginning with the preparations that take the longest.
 Examine recipes to see if they might be revised for better efficiency and quality as served.
C. BASIC AND GENERAL SKILLS REQUIRED FOR MISE EN PLACE
Mise en Place: The Required Tasks
 A large part of a cook’s workday is spent doing mise en place.
 A large part of learning how to cook is learning how to do mise en place.
Using the Knife
Keeping a Sharp Edge
1. The Sharpening Stone
Follow these guidelines:
 Hold the blade at a constant 20-degree angle to the stone.
 Make light, even strokes, the same number on each side of the blade.
 Sharpen in one direction only to get a regular, uniform edge.
 Do not over sharpen.
 Finish with a few strokes on the steel (see next slide), and then wipe
the blade clean.

  
2. The Steel 
Follow these guidelines:
 Hold the blade at a constant 20-degree angle to the steel, just as when using the stone.
 A smaller angle will be ineffective. A larger one will dull the edge.
 Make light strokes; do not grind the knife against the steel.
 Make even, regular strokes. Alternate each stroke, first on one side of the blade, then on the other.
 Use no more than five or six strokes on each side of the blade; too much steeling can actually dull the
blade.
 Use the steel often; then, you will rarely have to sharpen the knife on the stone.
HANDLING THE KNIFE
1. The Grip
A proper grip
 Gives you maximum control over the knife. 
 Increases your cutting accuracy and speed.
 Prevents slipping.
 Lessens the chance of an accident.
 The type of grip you use depends, in part, on the job you are doing
and the size of the knife.
 Many Chefs fell that grasping the blade with the thumb and forefinger gives the greatest control.

2. The Guiding Hand

Proper positioning of the hand achieves three goals:
 Hold the item being cut.
 Guide the knife.
 Protect the hand from cuts

D. BASIC CUTS AND SHAPES/CUTTING TECHNIQUES

Cutting food products into uniform shapes and sizes is important for two reasons:
1. It ensures even cooking. 
2. It enhances the appearance of the product.
 Chop: to cut into irregularly shaped pieces
 Concasser:  to chop coarsely
 Emincer: to cut into very thin slices (does not mean “to mince”)
 Shred: to cut into thin strips 

BASIC CUTS AND SHAPES

THE LARGE DICE is a culinary knife cut measuring 3/4 inch × 3/4 inch × 3/4 inch. This square
cut is most often used for vegetables like potatoes, and sometimes fruits such as
watermelon.

THE MEDIUM DICE measures 1/2 inch × 1/2 inch × 1/2 inch, and is a smaller version of the
large dice. This is generally a good choice when recipes don't specify the size of the dice
and the ingredient list just says "diced tomatoes.
The littlest of the dice cuts, THE SMALL DICE measures 1/4 inch × 1/4 inch × 1/4 inch and is
produced by slicing the allumette into 1/4-inch sections.

THE BRUNOISE knife cut (pronounced BROON-wahz) measures 1/8 inch × 1/8 inch × 1/8
inch, which makes it the smallest of the dice cuts. Brunoise is usually used for garnishes.

THE FINE BRUNOISE knife cut (pronounced BROON-wahz) measures 1/16 inch × 1/16 inch ×
1/16 inch. 

Smaller than a fine brunoise, THE MINCE is less precise since it is supposed to be finely cut.
We most often mince garlic, or other aromatics, when we want the flavor to be distributed
more throughout the dish.

THE BATONNET (pronounced bah-tow-NAY) is basically creating a rectangular stick that

measures 1/2 inch × 1/2 inch × 2 1/2 to 3 inches. It is also the starting point for another
cut, the medium dice.

THE JULIENNE cut measures 1/8 inch × 1/8 inch × 2 1/2 inches and is basically the allumette
cut once more lengthwise. You will most often use this cut for carrots, celery, or potatoes,
and see the thin strips used as a garnish.

THE FINE JULIENNE knife cut measures 1/16 inch × 1/16 inch × 2 inches. It is also the
starting point for the fine brunoise cut. This cut is often used for garnishes.

Measuring 1/4 inch × 1/4 inch × 2 1/2 to 3 inches, THE ALLUMETTE is sometimes referred
to as the "matchstick cut." It's also the starting point for the small dice.

THE CHIFFONADE, cut that is mainly used for vegetable leaves and fresh herbs,
in particular, basil. The leaves are stacked, rolled, and then sliced perpendicularly, creating
thin strips.
 TOURNÉ
Football shaped pieces with seven equal sides and blunt ends.

PAYSANNE
½ x ½ x 1/8 

LOZENGES
Diamond-shaped pieces, usually of firm vegetables.

FERMIÉRE

OBLIQUE
Small pieces with two angle-cut sides

E. PRELIMINARY COOKING AND FLAVORING

A. Blanching and Par cooking
 Advance preparation often requires precooking and flavoring of ingredients to make them ready for use in
the finished recipe.
 Partial cooking may be done by any moist-heat or dry-heat method.
The term blanching may mean any of these methods:
 Simmering or boiling (parboiling)
 Steaming
 Deep-frying (especially for potatoes)
There are four main reasons for blanching or par-cooking:
 To increase holding quality
  To save time
 To remove undesirable flavors
 To enable the product to be processed further
B. Marinating
Marinate: to soak a food product in a seasoned liquid 
in order to:
1. Flavor the product 
2. Tenderize the product
Marinades have three categories of ingredients:
 Oil
 Acid from vinegar, lemon juice, wine 
 Flavorings—spices, herbs, vegetables

Kinds of marinade:
 Cooked   Instant 
 Raw  Dry

C. Brining
Brines are similar to marinades.
 The primary use of brines is in curing, but it is also used for
tenderizing. 
 Brines are rarely used for red meats.
 During brining salt interacts with proteins, because of this, the
capacity of the meat to hold moisture is increased. 

D. Breading
Coating a product with bread crumbs or other crumbs or meal before deep frying, pan-frying, or sautéing

The Three Stages of the Standard Breading Procedure

1. Flour
2. Egg wash
3. Crumbs

F. HANDLING CONVENIENCE FOODS

Convenience food: Any product that has been partially or completely prepared or processed by a manufacturer.
 Convenience products are not a substitute for culinary knowledge and skill.
 It takes as much understanding of basic cooking principles to handle convenience products as it does
fresh, raw ingredients.

 Learning Information Sheet M.1.2
SOUP

A. SOUP 
 primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot (but may be cool or cold), that is made by
combining ingredients of meat or vegetables with stock, or water. 
 A soup is a flavourful and nutritious liquid food served at the beginning of a meal or a snack. Great soups can be
made from the finest and most expensive ingredients or from leftovers from the previous evening’s dinner
service and trimmings from the day’s production.
 Soups are similar to stews, and in some cases there may not be a clear distinction between the two; however,
soups generally have more liquid (broth) than stews. 
In traditional French cuisine, soups are classified into two main groups: 
1. Clear Soups 
 The established French classifications of clear soups are bouillon and consommé.
2. Thick Soups
 Thick soups are classified depending upon the type of thickening agent used: purées are vegetable soups
thickened with starch; bisques are made from puréed shellfish or vegetables thickened with cream; cream
soups may be thickened with béchamel sauce; and veloutés are thickened with eggs, butter, and cream.
Other ingredients commonly used to thicken soups and broths include egg, rice, lentils, flour, and grains;
many popular soups also include pumpkin, carrots, potatoes, pig's trotters and bird's nests.
B. DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOUP
A. CLEAR SOUPS
 Clear soups are delicate soups with no thickening agent in them. 
 Consommé, a French clarified meat or fish broth, is a classic version of a clear soup.
 Broth, or bouillon, is another common clear soup. Broths come in a variety of flavours, including chicken,
turkey, beef, vegetable and mushroom. Contrary to perception, clear soups can be full of bold and distinct
flavours. Good clear soups never taste watery.
 Clear soup can offer a wide range of nutritional benefits while keeping your digestive tract clear. This is why
clear soup is so popular in hospitals or as food when you’re feeling under the weather.
1. Bouillon & Broth
 Many cooks and writers treat bouillon and broth interchangeably. This is understandable because they
are essentially the same thing: a soup made from water in which bones, meat, fish or vegetables have
been simmered. Leave broth to simmer for long enough and the gelatin begins to thicken it, creating an
intensely flavourful stock.
 A broth is a stock-based soup, which is not thickened. It is served unpassed and garnished with chopped
herbs, vegetables, or meats. For example, minestrone, scotch broth, etc. 
 Clear soups are thin like liquid; they never coat the back of the spoon. It is important to have full-bodied
thin soups; otherwise they would taste like water.
 The difference between a stock and a broth or bouillon as commonly referred to in French. While
serving broths as soups, one should add reduced stock or glaze to give body to the soup.
2. Consommé
 A consommé is made by adding a mixture of ground meats, together with mirepoix (a combination of
carrots, celery, and onion), tomatoes, and egg whites into either bouillon or stock.
 The secret to making a high-quality consommé is in the simmering. Simmering and stirring bring
impurities to the surface, which are further drawn out due to the presence of acid from the tomatoes.
 A consommé is a clear soup which is clarified with egg whites. It is an old saying that if one can read the
date on the dime thrown in four liters of consommé, then it is a good consommé. It is named after the
garnish used in the soup.
 B. THICK SOUPS
 Thick soups are soups that are thickened using flour, cornstarch, cream, vegetables and other ingredients.
Depending on how you thicken a soup, you can get different textures and flavours.
1. Puree
 Puree soups are thick soups made by cooking and then pureeing vegetables or ingredients used in the
soup. For example, lentil soup, potato soup, etc. One can roast the vegetables to give a better flavour.
2. Velouté
 A velouté is a thick soup, which is thickened with a blond roux, passed and finished with a liaison. They
may be vegetable or chicken stock based, for example, velouté of chicken. A roux is made by cooking
equal amounts of flour and butter over a medium heat. The degree of cooking of the flour gives its name
to the roux. A blonde roux is obtained by cooking roux until it turns blonde in colour. The texture of
velouté is smooth and velvet like.
3. Cream
 “Cream of…” soups come in a variety of flavours and are the main type of soup found in our Campbell’s
Condensed Soup cans. Cream soups are traditionally a basic roux, thinned with cream or milk and
combined with a broth of your preferred ingredient.
 Typical flavours include cream of tomato soup, cream of mushroom soup and cream of chicken soup.
The addition of cream creates a thick and satisfying soup that is filling and flavour some.
 A cream soup is a passed thick soup. It may be vegetable based or even meat based; but most
commonly vegetables are used to prepare cream soups. In classical recipes it is thickened with béchamel
and finished with cream. Examples include cream of tomato, cream of mushroom, cream of chicken, etc.
Modern trends, however, avoid usage of béchamel sauce because of health reasons and to retain the
delicate flavours of the vegetables.
4. Bisque
 A bisque is a creamy, thick soup that includes shellfish. Bisque is a method of extracting flavour from
imperfect crabs, lobsters and shrimp that are traditionally not good enough to send to market. It is a
shellfish-based soup, which is passed and may be garnished with dices of the seafood used. Traditionally
it is thickened with rice and finished with cream, for example, lobster bisque.
 In an authentic bisque, the shells are ground to a fine paste and added to thicken the soup. Bisques are
thickened with rice, which can either be strained out, leaving behind the starch or pureed during the
final stages.
5. Chowder
 Chowders are not strained and traditionally they are seafood-based soups thickened with potatoes and
finished with cream or milk, for example, clam chowder, seafood chowder, etc. 
C. COLD SOUPS
 As the name suggests, these soups are served cold but not chilled. Chilling would dull the flavours and the
soup would taste bland. They do not form a separate classification, as they may again be thin or thick,
passed or unpassed. Examples of cold soups include jellied consommé, gazpacho, vichyssoise, etc.
THE IMPORTANCE OF SOUP IN OUR DIET
 Soup can be a nutrition powerhouse, packed with carbohydrates, protein, vitamins and minerals, fiber, and
antioxidants. Soup is easy to prepare. After putting all the ingredients in the slow cooker in the morning, a
steaming pot of soup will be waiting for the entire family in the evening.
Here are some of the attributes that make soup an asset to any diet:
1. Soup is comforting – A warm pot of soup can soothe the taste buds and the soul. There’s nothing better than a
bowl of hearty soup on a cold evening. Since soup is flexible, you can add your favorite ingredients to a basic
recipe. You can modify an existing recipe or start from scratch, using your creativity and imagination.
2. Soup is good for health – Eating a bowl of soup is an easy way to fill up on your recommended servings of
vegetables for the day.
 3. Soup can help you lose weight – Warm soup can also make you feel full so you aren’t tempted to overeat. An
appetizer soup can curb your hunger at the start of the meal, so you eat less of the other offerings on the table.
4. Soup is affordable – Soup is a great choice for a tight grocery budget. For a limited amount of money, you can
buy soup stock, some vegetables, a little bit of lean meat, and beans. With those ingredients as well as some
herbs and spices, you can make a hearty meal. You can even use leftover meat and veggies as a starting point.
5. Soup can make you feel better –Soup contains important vitamins and antioxidants that can hasten the healing
process.

D. SOUP GARNISHES AND ACCOMPANIMENTS

 Garnishes for soups may be part of the soup, added into the soup, served on top or accompany the soup.
They may even play a role in thickening the soup. Garnishes should go together or contrast with the colour,
flavour, shape and texture of the soup ingredients. Accompaniments are served with the soup.
Below are some of the garnishes and accompaniments
Soup garnishes Soup accompaniments

 Toasted and garnished  Bread

bread
 Fried bread cubes and pieces  Crackers
 Nuts  Croutons
 Fried onion  Fried bacon
 Chopped herbs and spices  Toast
 Yoghurt  Fried onion
 Cream  Cream
 Sour cream  Yoghurt
 Fried garlic

 Cheese

E. RULES AND PREPARATION OF SOUP

 Great soup always begins with great ingredients. 
1. Start with good stock. Don’t just add bouillon cubes to flavour water. There is nothing like homemade stock,
especially one made from scratch. This turns soup into a fine art. The bottom line is that good soup takes time.
2. Keep on adding layers of flavour. First you season and marinate the meat or poultry. Then flavour stock by
adding aromatics like carrots, onions, green onions, garlic and celery as well as herbs like parsley and thyme and
spices like black pepper, allspice and whole chilies. 
3. Let it rest. Always try to let soup rest for at least 30 minutes and preferably for at least an hour. In fact, a little-
known secret is that soup is often even more delicious the next day. This is because all those scrumptious layers
of flavour get to sit and meld with each other into pitch perfect palate harmony. 
Procedure for Preparing Consommés
1. Start with cold; grease-free stock
2. Add clear meat or clarification
3. Slowly bring to a simmer
4. Clear meat will form a raft
5. Create a hole in the raft to allow liquid to bubble through
6. After simmering, carefully strain through several layers of cheesecloth.
Procedure for Preparing Thick Soups
1. Cream Soups – Thickened with a roux or other starch
 2. Puree Soups
3. Rely on a puree of the main ingredient to thicken
4. Some puree soups are finished with cream
5. Some puree soups are thickened slightly with roux
Key Steps for Vegetable Soup
1. Dice up the vegetables: Cut about a pound of vegetables into a medium dice — about an inch across — or
smaller if you’re using a hard, dense vegetable, like potato or winter squash.
2. Cook hard vegetables until softened: Sauté the chopped vegetables in a little olive oil or butter, keeping the
heat to low and letting the veggies really cook and develop flavor. Brown the vegetables if you want to. After the
vegetables have softened and developed some fragrance and flavor, add about 4 cups of stock, cover, and
simmer.
3. Simmer the soup until tender: Simmer for about an hour or until all the vegetables are soft. Purée the soup in a
blender or with an immersion blender for a creamy soup, if you like.
Guidelines for Garnishing Soups
 The garnish should be attractive.
 The meats and vegetables used should be neatly cut into an appropriate and uniform shape and size.
 The garnish texture and flavor should complement the soup.
 Starches and vegetables use as garnishes should be cooked separately.
 Garnishes should be cooked just until done; meat and poultry should be tender but not falling apart.
Soup Service
 Serve cold soup cold
 At a temperature below 41°F
 Often served in an ice bowl with an iced spoon
 Serve hot soup hot
 Near boiling, 210°F is ideal
Learning Information Sheet M.1.3
APPETIZER

A. APPETIZERS 
 are usually reserved for formal meals and when guests come over. An appetizer is a small serving of food – just a
few bites – meant to be eaten before an entrée, and often shared by several people.
 is part of a meal that’s served before the main course.
 small amount of food eaten before a meal or as the first part of it.
 small portion of a food or drink served before or at the beginning of a meal to stimulate the desire to eat.
The first course of the meal is called an appetizer, and the finger foods served at receptions with cocktails are called
hors d’oeuvres.
There are many points that should be kept in mind when planning this style of service and these are:
 Each item should be small enough to be eaten in one or two bites.
 Each item should be easily handled by the guest. Canapes or other food that can be picked up without soiling
the fingers are ideal. For doo with a moist or oily surface, offer picks that guests can use to handle the food
without touching it. Cocktail napkins should always be offered. Food requiring a plate are better served on a
cocktail buffet.
 Appetizers should be flavorful and well-seasoned without being overpowering.
 Attempt for simple, attractive arrangements on the tray. The food should look appetizing even when only a few
items are left. Trays that no longer look appealing should be brought back to the kitchen or pantry area to be
refreshed and refilled.
 Ideally, each tray should hold only one food selection. For simple items, two or three selections can be
presented on a single tray, but avoid making the tray too overcrowded or overloaded.
  Avoid presenting hot and cold items on the same tray. Cold items are easiest to serve. Hot items should be
brought back to the kitchen or pantry area as soon as they are no longer warm.
 For items to be offered with dips, a small bowl of the dip can be presented on the same tray as the individual
hors d’oeuvres.
In buffet style service, 
 Hors d’ Oeuvres are arranged attractively on one or more tables, and guests help themselves. Small plates can
be offered on buffet tables so it is not necessary to confine the food selections to finger foods. Cold hors
d’oeuvres are usually presented arranged on trays, which can be easily replaced when they become worn-out. 
 Canapes and similar items are best arranged in neat rows, circles or other arrangements.
 Raw vegetables may be piled in neat stacks, with bowls of dips placed with them.
 Hot items should be offered in chafing dishes, which keep them hot. They should complement whatever foods
may follow without duplicating their flavors. These foods are usually small items that may be served at a formal
reception preceding a meal, as part of a separate event not connected with a meal or simply as accompaniments
to beverages at an informal gathering.
The two most common ways of serving hors d’oeuvres are:
1. Butler-Style service where butler carries small trays as they pass among the assembled group and the hors
d’oeuvres selections are offered to guests by service staff.
2. Buffet style like in Cocktail Buffet.
Characteristics of Appetizers:   Appetizers should be big on flavor, small on size and price.
B. CLASSIFICATION OF APPETIZERS
1. COCKTAIL – consist of several bite size pieces of fish, shellfish, drinks and fruits served with tangy flavour sauce. They
must be fresh in appearance and arranged attractively to have an eye appeal. Various cocktails are-Juices of orange,
pineapple, grapefruit or tomato served with cold salad dressings.  
2. HORS D’OEUVRES - are small portions of highly seasoned foods formerly used to precede a meal served either
hot or cold. Simplicity should be the main criteria for making the hors d oeuvres. Although most hors d oeuvres
are served cold, there are also hot ones.

3. CANAPE - a bite sized or two bite sized finger food consisting of three parts: a base, a spread or topping and
garnish or garniture. They are savoury tit bits of food. They could be served hot or cold. The items should be
dainty, petite, fresh, having an eye appeal and colour contrasts. There are no set recipes for the making canapes.
Individual or a combination of several different coloured items are used on the small fancifully cut pieces of
bread, toasted or fried and biscuits etc.
A. BASE
Canape bases may be made from several items. The following suggestions are:
 Bread cut-outs Toasted pita wedges
 Toast cut-outs Tortilla chips or cups
 Crackers Tiny biscuits split in half if necessary
 Melba Toasts Polenta cut-outs
 Tiny unsweetened pastry shells
 Miniature pancakes
Many of these items such as crackers and Melba Toasts, can be purchased readymade, but bread and toast cut-outs are
the most widely used and offer the lowest food cost, though they require more labor. Untoasted bread for canapes
should be firm enough to allow the finished product to be handled easily. It may be cut thick and flattened slightly with a
rolling pin to make firmer. Toast is of course, firmer and it gives a pleasing texture and crispness to the canapes.
B. SPREAD
Canape spreads may be as simple as butter or softened cream cheese but it is better to use a more highly
flavored spread because sharp or spicy flavors are better for stimulating appetite. The spread should be thick enough to
cling well to the base and so the garnish sticks to it without falling off.
Three basic categories of Spreads
a. Flavored Butters – basic procedures for making flavored or compound butter. Most flavored butters are made
simply by blending the flavoring ingredients with the softened butter until completely mixed. Solid ingredients
should be pureed or chopped very fine so the butter can be spread smoothly. Proportions of flavoring
ingredients to butter can be varied widely according to taste.
Popular and versatile flavors for butter spreads include:
 Lemon Caviar Shrimp
 Parsley Mustard Olive
 Tarragon Horseradish Shallot or Scallion
 Chive Pimiento Curry
 Anchovy Blue Cheese Caper
b. Flavored Cream Cheese – It is made like flavored butter except cream cheese is substituted for the butter.
Alternatively, use a mixture of cream cheese and butter blended together well. Flavor variations are the
same as those listed above for butter.
In addition, cream cheese is often blended with sharper, more flavorful cheese that have been mashed
or grated. Adding crema cheese to firmer cheese helps make the latter more spreadable. A liquid such as milk,
cream or port wine may be added to make the mixture softer. Such cheese spreads are often flavored with
spices and herbs such as paprika, caraway seeds, dry mustard, parsley or tarragon.
c. Meat or Fish Salad Spreads – You can use many cold meat or fish mixtures, such as cooked salads to make
canape spreads. Popular examples include tuna salad, salmon salad, shrimp salad, chicken salad. Deviled
ham and liver pate.
To convert a salad recipe to s spread recipe, you may need to make one or more of the following
modifications:
 Chop the solid ingredients very fine, or grind or puree them so the mixture is spreadable and not
chunky.
 Do not add the liquid ingredients and mayonnaise all at once. Add them a little at a time, just
until the mixture reaches a thick, spreadable consistency.
 Check the seasonings carefully. You may want to increase the seasonings to make the spread
more stimulating to the appetite.

C. GARNISH
The garnish of a canape is any food item or a combination of items placed on top of the spread. It may
be a major part of the canape such as slice of ham or cheese, or it may be small tidbit that is selected for color,
design, texture or flavor accent.
Some of the many food items that may be used alone or in combination to decorate canapes:
Vegetable, Pickles and Relishes
 Radish Slices  Pickles Asparagus tips
 Pickled Onions  Marinated Mushrooms
 Cherry Tomato slices or  Capers cucumber slices
halves parsley
 Olives Chutney  Pimiento
 Watercress leaves

Fish
 Smoked oysters and clam’s caviar
 Smoked salmon or tuna  Herring lobster chunks
flakes or slices
 Smoked trout crab  Shrimp sardines
meat  Rolled anchovy fillets
5. RELISHES/CRUDITES - they are pickled item and raw, crisp vegetables such as julienne carrots or celery sticks.
relishes are generally placed before the guest in a slightly, deep, boat shape dish.
6. PETITE SALAD - they are small portions and they are usually display the characteristics found in most salad. 
7. SOUPS AND CONSOMMES - are include in the appetizer category because they are served in this course more
than ever before.
8. CHIPS AND DIPS - savory dips are popular accompaniments to potato chips, crackers, and raw vegetables.
Proper consistency is important for many dips you prepare. It must not be so thick that it cannot be scooped up
without breaking the chip or crackers, but it must be thick enough to stick to the items used as dippers.
Some of the classical appetizers are the following: 
 Caviar: The roe of sturgeon fish served with its own accompaniments.
 Escargots: Snails served with toasted white bread and garlic butter.
 Shellfish cocktail: Prawns on a bed of shredded lettuce and coated in mayonnaise.
 Huitres: Oysters served with its own accompaniments.
 Smoked salmon: Smoked fish served along with brown bread and lemon segments.
 Jus de tomate: Tomato served with salt and Worcestershire sauce.
C. TOOLS USED IN MAKING APPETIZERS
BALL CUTTER
Sharp Edge Scoop for cutting out
balls of fruits and vegetables.

RUBBER SPATULA/SCRAPPER
Use to scrape off contents of bowls

CHANNEL KNIFE
Small hand tool in making garnishes

SPATULA
Used for manipulating foods like
spreading.

WIRE WHIP
Used for mixing thinner liquids.

Used to remove zest or citrus peels

in thin strips.
FRENCH KNIFE
For chopping, slicing and dicing.

PARING KNIFE
Used for trimming and paring fruits
and vegetables.

BUTTER CURLER
Used for making butter curls.

CUTTING BOARD
Board for cutting fruits and
vegetables.
 

KITCHEN SHEARS
Cutting device for ingredients like
scissors. 

POTATO MASHER
Designed to press potato and
cooked vegetables.

CHILLER
For keeping cold foods chilled for
service.
 OVEN
For baking.

Learning Information Sheet F. 1. 1

POULTRY

A. POULTRY
 refers to several kinds of fowl that are used as food and the terms includes chicken, turkey, duck, pigeon and
quails. These are usually domesticated birds raised mainly for meat and /or eggs. Poultry is generally the least
expensive and most versatile of all main-dish foods.
B. MUSCLE COMPOSITION
 Contains no intramuscular fat  Contains more myoglobin
 Fat is stored under the skin and in the  Contains more fat and connective tissue
abdominal cavity.  Longer cooking time
 Poultry fat has a lower melting point than  White meat
other animal fats.  Breast and wing of flightless birds
 Dark meat  Larger muscle mass
 Thigh and leg of flightless birds  Contains less fat
 Full body of flight birds  Can dry out if over cookery

C. NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY

 Poultry, like fish and red meat, contains an abundance of high-quality proteins. The Food Composition Table
Recommended for use in the Philippines (1968) shows that the proximate composition of chicken, turkey, duck
and pigeon do not vary significantly except for the fat content. The mineral and vitamin content of poultry is
similar to that of fish and red meats. 
 Generally young poultry contains less fat and fewer calories than most meats especially if the skin is removed.
Therefore, poultry is a good source of protein for people on diet. Fat of poultry resides mainly under skin so that
a fatty chicken may be stripped off its skin to make it less fatty.
D. STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MEATS
 The structure and composition of poultry meat is similar to those of red meats. Hence, its main discussion has
been included in that chapter. Their nutritive values are similar, poultry meat being also a good source of high-
quality proteins. B-vitamins and minerals.
 Poultry meat has distinct dark and white muscles. The dark muscles are those which are more active. Hence,
wild birds, which are very mobile, consist only of dark chicken meat is richer in riboflavin, poorer in niacin and
has more fat and connective tissues than white meat. This is quite obvious in the preparation of chicken, ham
wherein the white meat does not develop any pink color even after thorough curing. In contrast to many other
cultures, Filipinos generally prefer dark chicken meat over the white. Chicken fat is yellow mainly because of the
presence of the carotenoids, xanthophyll and carotene.
E. POSTMORTEM CHANGES IN POULTRY MUSCLES
 The essential biophysical changes that poultry undergoes during the postmortem period are the same for those
of red meats. It should be noted that the undesirable effects of cooking during rigor and freezing prior to rigor
are not as drastic in the case of poultry as compared to that of red meats.
IN THE HOME
In the countryside, poultry is still slaughtered in the home, a ritual that is associated with guests and relatives
coming for a visit. The steps are as follows: 
1. SLAUGHTER AND BLEEDING 
 Proper handling prior to slaughter is essential to prevent bruising and injury to the bird. Live birds are not fed 8
to 24 hours prior to slaughter to allow easy removal of entrails. This also improves the flavor and tenderness of
the meat. Weight of the animal at this stage is called live weight.
 Slaughtering is done with the least struggle of the fowl in order to effect proper draining of tis blood. Blood is a
good source of bacterial spoilage hence it should be drained well. Slaughtering is therefore done by slitting the
large or jugular vein in the animal’s throat with one big stroke using a sharp knife. The bird is then held by the
feet or placed in a killing funnel upside down to restrict the movement of the struggling bird. Bleeding may take
about 1 to 3 minutes depending upon the sharpness of the knife used, type and size of the bird and the method
of the slaughter.
2. SCALDING 
 The bled birds are then scald by dripping in hot water about 60°C (140°F) for 30 to 75 seconds depending upon
the size of the bird. Scalding is done to facilitate the removal of feathers and pin feather. Pin feathers are those
which have not quite emerged. Care must be taken that the hot water does not reach 71°C (160°F) since at this
temperature poultry since at this temperature poultry skin may be torn and the meat becomes doughy and
discolored. Ducks are scalded in water at 66° to 71°C (150° to 160°F) for 1½ to 2½ minutes. A thermometer
would be most handy in this step.  
3. DEFEATHERING 
 Feathers are then removed by rubbing not by picking. The poultry at this staged is called dressed poultry.
Dressed weight is approximately 70 to 75% of the live weight.
4. EVISCERATION 
 Evisceration is done by slitting the abdominal cavity and pulling out the entrails in one piece. When this is
accomplished, the poultry is called drawn poultry. Some of the poultry viscera is edible and in fact considered as
choice parts among Filipino consumers. 
 The head and feet are cut off cleanly and the oil glands are removed the head and the feet are also
edible. At this stage the poultry is classified as ready-to-cook weight of poultry of approximately 50% of
the live weight. If hair or pin features persist, they may be removed by singeing over an open flame of a
gas burner.
 The gizzard, heart and liver are edible parts of the viscera which must be carefully separated from the
rest of the entrails. The gizzard is the thick packet of poultry waste which must be carefully cleaned by
cutting it into half but being careful not to rupture thin remembrance inside that contains the waste
matter. This membrane is then carefully removed. To ensure cleanliness it is recommended to soak the
washed gizzard in vinegar prior to cooking.
F. MARKET FORMS OF POULTRY
1. LIVE POULTRY – In the Philippines all types of poultry and games are generally in this form when marketed
except in Grater Manila where chickens are mostly sold dressed. When selecting live poultry, choose those birds
that are alert, healthy, well-feathered and well formed. They should have a good fat covering, free of tears,
broken bones, bruises and blisters.
2. WHOLE POULTRY – This is similar to the form of live poultry but it is no longer alive. Some games are hunted
and are available in this form.
3. DRESSED POULTRY – These are slaughtered birds that have been bled and defeathered. The head, feet and
viscera are still intact. When buying dressed poultry, it should be clean, well fleshed, have a moderate fat
covering, free from pin-feathers and show no cuts, tears or missing skin. Those with missing parts, broken bones
and discoloration should be avoided. Those with slime or off flavors should not be purchased. Most of all, care
must be taken to avoid purchasing dressed poultry from unscrupulous vendors who inject water into the weight
 of one carcass. This practice serves the purpose of cheating the consumer. The consumer should be able to
detect dressed poultry that has died of disease or pest which is called "dobleng-patay".
4. DRAWN POULTRY – These are slaughtered birds that have been bled, defeathered and the visceral organs are
removed. Dressed poultry sold as such may be drawn by the market vendor upon request. This is where there is
the danger of not discovering the malpractice of adding another set of visceral organs into the poultry carcass.
Beware!
5. READY-TO-COOK – These are slaughtered birds that have been bled, defeathered and the visceral organs, feet
and head removed and are ready for cooking. Ready-to-cook chickens are available in the supermarkets in
bigger cities in the Philippines either chilled or frozen. In the case of chicken this is done by several respectable
large poultry industries with high quality standards. Hence, there are no malpractices to be emphasized in this
market form of poultry. However, frozen poultry with freezer burns should be avoided. 
 FREEZING OF READY-TO-COOK POULTRY is done by a process called quick freezing. This is quite
different from the freezing procedure done in the freezer compartments of a regular home refrigerator.
Quick freezing is the commercial process of freezing food in 30 minutes or less and in the of poultry it is
accomplished by immersion in a vat of liquid refrigerant. Quick freezing is more advantageous than slow
freezing in terms of quality of the poultry. This is due to rapid but very small crystal formation of the
water inside the poultry cells in quick freezing. In slow freezing there are larger crystal formed which
cause rupture to the cells, excessive exudation and drip upon thawing and eventually less juicy meat
upon cooking. 
6. POULTRY PARTS – In this form, several pieces of single poultry part are usually packed in one carton, wrapped
and chilled or frozen. The various poultry parts are divided into either:
 Dark meat – Drumsticks, thighs, wings, neck, backs and rib cage
 White Meat – breasts
 Variety Meat – gizzard, heart and liver
G. PROCEDURE FOR CUTTING A BIRD IN HALF
1. Place the chicken, breast side down, on a cutting board with the neck end pointing away
from you.

2. To make the first cut to the chicken, insert the knife into the front of the chicken. Work
the knife from the neck to the tail of the chicken, and cut along one side of the
backbone. It is important to cut as close to the bone as possible.
Cut from neck to tail along
one side of the backbone.

3. Cut down the other side of the backbone and remove it.
Remove both the breastbone
and the cartilage.

4. With the breast of the chicken still meaty side down, cut a small slit through the
membrane and cartilage at the "V" of the neck end.

5. Grasp the breast with both hands and gently bend both sides backward to snap the breastbone. With fingers,
work along both sides of the breastbone to loosen the triangular keel bone; pull out the bone.
6. With the tip of a sharp knife, cut along both side of the cartilage at the end of the
breastbone; remove cartilage

7. Turn the chicken, skin side up. Cut lengthwise down the center of the chicken to split it
into halves.
 Split the chicken lengthwise down
the center to make halves.

8. To cut into quarters, cut through the skin separating the thighs from the breast.
Separate the chicken into leg-thigh and
breast-wing sections for quarters.

H. PROCEDURE FOR CUTTING A BIRD INTO PIECES

Step 1
Lay the bird on its back. Wiggle a wing to determine where the joint attaches to the breast. To
separate the wing from the breast, use a sharp knife to cut through the ball joint where it meets
the breast. Repeat with the other wing.

Step 2
Pull a leg away from the body to see where it attaches. To remove the whole leg, first cut
through the skin between the thigh and the breast

Step 3
Continue to pull on the leg and wiggle it a bit to determine where the thigh meets the socket in
the back. Use a boning knife or paring knife to cut through that joint. Repeat with the other leg.

Step 4
Place each leg skin-side down. With your hand and knife, bend the leg to feel for the ball joint.
That's where the drumstick and thigh are connected. Then, look for the thin line of fat that runs
along the ball joint. Cut through the line of fat to separate the thigh and drumstick. Wiggle the
joint as needed so it's easy to cut. Repeat with the other leg. 

Step 5
To remove the backbone, start at the head end of the bird and cut through the rib cage on one
side of the backbone with kitchen shears or a sharp knife. Repeat on the other side of the
backbone to remove it completely. (Reserve the backbone and neck for chicken stock, if
desired.

Step 6
Now cut the breast into two halves. Place the breast skin-side down. To protect your hand, fold
a kitchen towel and place it on top of a heavy, sharp knife. Use your weight to cut through the
breast bone and cartilage down the center of the breast.

Step 7
Now that you have two breast halves, cut each breast half in half again, crosswise. The
wishbone is located at the thick part of the breast. If you want, you can tease the meat away from
the two pieces of wishbone using your hands and/or a sharp knife to scrape the meat from the bone.

STORING POULTRY
 Poultry is a potentially hazardous food.
  It is highly perishable
 Particularly susceptible to contamination by salmonella bacteria.
 Store on ice or at 32°F - 34°F.
 Thaw under refrigeration.
SANITATION ALERT
 Be sure that all equipment used in the preparation of poultry are sanitized before and after coming in contact
with poultry.
 Be careful that juices and trimmings from poultry do not come into contact with other foods.
 Rinse poultry in cold running water and dry before cooking to remove collected juices.
I. POULTRY CLASSES
 Chickens and other poultry may be divided into classes which are essentially of the same physical associated
with age, sex, live weight and/or breed.
1. ROCK CORNISH GAME HEN OR CORNISH GAME HEN. A Rock Cornish game hen or Cornish game hen is a young
immature chicken (usually 5 to 7 weeks’ age) weighing not more than 0.9 kg ready-to-cook weight, which was
prepared from a Cornish chicken or the progeny of a Cornish chicken crossed with another breed of chicken.
While It is not well-known in the Philippines, it is considered a choice buy in the U.S.A.
2. BROILER OR FRYER. A broiler or fryer is a young chicken, usually 9 to 11 weeks of age, of either sex, is tender
meated with soft, pliable, smooth-textured skin and flexible breastbone cartilage.
3. ROASTER. A roaster is a young chicken, usually 3 to 5 months of age, of either sex, of either sex, is tender
meated with soft pliable, smooth textured skin and breastbone cartilage that may be somewhat less flexible
than that of a broiler or fryer.
4. CAPON. A capon is a surgically de-sexed male chicken usually under 8 months of age and is tender meated with
soft, pliable, smooth-textured skin.
5. STAG. A stag is a male chicken, usually under 10 months of age, with coarse skin, somewhat toughened and
darkened flesh and considerable hardening of the breastbone cartilage. Stags show a condition of fleshing and a
degree of maturity intermediate between that of a roaster and a cook or rooster.
6. HEN OR STEWING CHICKEN OR FOWL. A hen or stewing chicken or fowl is a mature female chicken, usually
more than 10 months of age, with meat less tender than that of a rooster, and non-flexible breastbone tip.
7. COCK OR ROOSTER. A cock or rooster is a mature male chicken with coarse skin, toughened and darkened meat
and hardened breastbone tip.
8. JUMBO BROILER. On sale especially during Christmas holiday are large chicken about 4 kg dress weight. They are
worth the trouble and cost of buying them for a large family or for a company dinner. Their size is equivalence of
a small turkey.
OTHER POULTRY
1. PECKING DUCK. This is a breed of duck that originated from China and is noted for its tender and flavorful meat.
It is different from the local duck called itik, which is raised mainly for eggs.
2. SQUAB. This is a young immature pigeon of either sex and is extra tender meated.
J. POULTRY COOKERY
 Poultry is cooked to improve palatability and tenderness and to destroy any bacteria or parasites present. It
should be noted that poultry should always be cooked thoroughly.
 Poultry. Like fish and red meats, may be cooked by either dry or moist heat cookery. The choice of method
depends mainly upon the age of the bird instead of location of the part in the carcass as in the case of red
meats. Fat content should also be taken into consideration.
MOIST HEAT COOKERY
 All classes of chicken and other poultry for that matter may be cooked by moist-heat cookery. 
Examples: tinola, sinampalukang manok, steaming, manok na pinaupo, putserong manok and relyeno.
 Relyeno is an interesting Filipino chicken recipe which is actually a form of stuffed chicken and is practically
boneless. The stuffing consists of its own meat which is minced and mixed with onions, eggs, peas, raisins,
spices, etc. Its parallel in other cookery is boned chicken stuffed with forcemeat.
  Among Filipino family the rooster that lends well to moist heat cooking is called talunan which takes time to
cook because the fighting cock has had much activity before losing at the cockpit.
DRY-HEAT COOKERY
 This method of cookery is NOT applicable to all classes of poultry. The dry method is usually reserved for
young tender poultry whose quality is best appreciated when cooked by this method (ex. barbecue and fried
chicken).
 The poultry class of these chickens is specifically termed “broilers and fryers”. Somewhat older but still
immature birds such as capons and roasters are suitable for roasting. They are still tender but have more fat
than the broilers or fryers. An oven temperature of 135° to 165° (275° to 325°F) is recommended for
roasting poultry, using the lower temperature for bigger birds. 
 Capons needs to be basted with drippings which accumulate in the roasting pan (Charley, 1982). It should be
noted that roasted or broiled poultry contains less calories that fried chicken. In dry-heat cookery, care must
be taken that the bird is cooked evenly throughout all the way to the bone but at the same time it must
retain its juiciness and tenderness. In the case of stuffed poultry particularly turkey, care must be taken that
the bread stuffing is thoroughly heated to the center to avoid food poisoning.
One point to remember in poultry cookery: moist heat cookery may be applied to all classes and kinds of poultry but
not in the case of dry-heat cookery!
K. SOME PROBLEMS IN POULTRY COOKERY
1. PINK MEAT – Sometimes we observe some pink coloration in chicken meat which is more obviously seen in
white meat. This occurs after thorough cooking of chicken but its appearance gives the impression of uncooked
meat. This occurs when gas-fired oven is used for cooking. The carbon monoxide and nitric acid of the cooking
flame reacts with the hemoglobin of the chicken blood forming carboxyhemoglobin and nitric oxide hemoglobin
which are pink in color even after heating. Mounteney (1966) stated that this pink color does not affect the
quality of the poultry meat. Pink meat also occurs in chicken boiled with some cured meats such as ham or
chorizo in the case of nilagang manok.
2. MEAT AND BONE DARKENING IN COOKED FROZEN POULTRY – When young chicken is frozen, thawed and
cooked, their bones may be darkened as well as the meat next to the larger bones. This occurrence may be
cause of alarm to the inexperienced cook. Freezing and thawing release hemoglobin from the red cells in the
bone marrow. This problem is actually an undesirable side effect of the genetic milestone of the poultry industry
wherein a broiler chicken maybe produced in eight weeks from the time it was hatched as a chick. The poultry at
this stage in mature only from the meat development standpoint but its bones are still young, soft and porous. 
3. RANCIDITY – Fresh pure poultry is almost odorless and tasteless. Any rancidity of poultry is believed to be
oxidative rancidity as its fat mainly polyunsaturated. Rancidity with increase in storage temperature. Turkey fat
is more stable than chicken fat.
4. OFF FLAVORS – These may be caused by rancidity, putrefaction, contamination of feed and absorption of odors
during storage.
FREEZING AND THAWING POULTRY IN THE HOME
 To wrap properly for freezing, it should be tightly wrapped in a moisture vapor proof film, foil or paper and then
frozen at 17°C (0°F) or lower. Although no abrupt changes in quality occur during the first few months of poultry
storage, it is good practice always to use those chickens first which have been in storage longest and those with
torn wrappers.
 It is possible, but not considered desirable to refreeze poultry a second time. Freezing and thawing release fluids
called drip and the chances of bacterial spoilage are increased.
 For thawing it is advisable to thaw slowly to give the tissues a better chance to rehydrate and to cook
immediately the thawed bird since bacterial growth is rapid upon thawing. Slow thawing may be affected by
placing the 1kg to 2kg chicken in the refrigerator for 12hrs to 24hrs or to place in under running tap water for ½
to 1 hour, in both cases in their original wrap (Montney, 1966). However, frozen poultry or any other market
forms of poultry should not be allowed to thaw or soak in a bowl of water unwrapped.
  It should be noted that frozen poultry may be cooked by moist and dry methods without thawing. Although in
the latter at least partial thawing is recommended. The cooking time should be definitely longer in both cases
than for unfrozen poultry. The danger in cooking frozen unthawed poultry is the miscalculation of the
appearance seems well done. 
 Freezer burn is one problem that must be avoided on freezing poultry. These are the light-colored sports around
feather follicles when the bird has been frozen for some time. It is accompanied by loss of flavor, tenderness and
juiciness, which is particularly an extreme case. 
L. CURED POULTRY
 Cured poultry in the form of duck and chicken are fast becoming important poultry products particularly in
Metropolitan Manila during the Christmas holidays. Ducks and chicken ham are ideal substitute for pork ham
because:
 They are easier to prepare in the home or cottage industry since the animal involve is smaller than the
pig
 They are less expensive
 They contain less calories and saturated fats than pork ham per unit weight of meat consumed
 Hence, duck and chicken ham are preferred by dieting people and those concerned about their saturated fat
intake. For further details on the preparation of cured poultry, the bureau of animal industry gives
demonstration and hand-outs upon request.
M. RABBIT MEAT
 Rabbit meat is discussed because its taste and texture are similar to that of chicken meat.
 Rabbits are expensive to raise because they feed mainly on weeds and grasses with only small amount of grain
needed for the pregnant or nursing rabbit. In addition, they are joy to raise being such a friendly house pet.

The steps involve in the preparation of rabbit for cooking are:

 Bleeding, cutting off the head, tail, rear paws and saddle
 slitting the abdomen and removing the entrails
 cutting off the front paws and pulling off the skin like a tube, noting that the rabbit skin or fur is attached
only in a few parts to its body so it can be removed like a piece of clothing from its carcass
 cutting into desired serving pieces.
 Rabbit meat may be cooked just like chicken. The most common cooking methods are frying, roasting and
braising. It should be noted that some consumers detect a peculiar taste in rabbit but one’s taste for it could be
developed.

Learning Information Sheet F. 1. 2

FISH & SHELLFISH

A. DEFINITION
THE TERM FISH 
 Encompasses a wide assortment of aquatic animals. 

1. FISH refers to vertebrate or finfish. 

2. SHELL FISH which have instead of skeleton or vertebrate, a hard shell on the outside of the soft tissues. They are
crustaceans and mollusks. 
a. Crustaceans like crabs, lobster and shrimps are encased in a chitinous armor which being segmented gives the
creature power of locomotion.
 b. Mollusks have soft unsegmented body in a calcified shell. Most mollusks are bivalves – abalone, clams,
mussels (tahong) and oyster. The snails are mollusks although not a bivalve. Other mollusks include octopus,
cuttlefish, squids and sea cucumber (balatan)

Finfishes are broadly classified into three groups

a. Rounded Demersal Fish
 live or near the sea bed and which include round fish like cod, haddock, whiting
b. Flat Demersal Fish
 as sole, plaice and many more

c. Pelagic Fish
 which swim near the surface of the sea include those fish known as 'fat fish'

B. FISH RESOURCES AND PRODUCTION IN THE PHILIPPINES

 Fish are aquatic resources. Those obtained from salt water are called marine fish; those from lakes, ponds, river
and other inland bodies of water are called inland fish. 
 Most fish are caught in the open seas and their availability is not dependent on man’s productive efforts, unlike
in agriculture or farming, but rather on his ability to detect and catch large schools of fishes. However, man has
learned to culture some marine fish which in the
 Philippines bangus is the foremost example and which has been traditionally raised in fish ponds. Recently
bangus has also been cultured in pens in Laguna Lake. This act of culturing fish in inland waters is called
agriculture.
 The culture of fish in salt water bodies such as in coves and shores is called mariculture. Mariculture is presently
applied to tahong and oysters and is relatively in its infancy in the Philippines.

C. NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE OF FISH

 Fish is an excellent source of protein, and is interchangeable with meat in both quantity and quality. 
 Fish is rich in fat and provides energy for work, fish is easy to digest. 
 Marine fishes are a good source of iodine and phosphorus but low in iron and in calcium.
 Canned fish which undergoes long processing at 15lbs steam pressure contain an appreciable amount of
calcium.
FINFISH
 In a regular sized fish such as bangus, bisugo, and tilapia the edible portion consists of the fleshy meat on either
side of the vertebral skeleton. The tail, fins, head and entrails are usually discarded as waste but with some
people, these parts or some of those parts may be consumed. 
 Also, for small types of fish such as dilis, biya and some goby. The whole fish is edible. In the case of bangus, it
was found that the fleshy edible portion ranged from 54 to 65% of the whole weight of the fish which increases
with increasing whole weight until the bangus reaches 600 grams. 
 The fish contains fat although its percentage varies with different fishes but in general it is much less in fish than
in pork, carabeef, beef and chicken. Fat in fish is highly prone to oxidative deterioration due to the highly
unsaturated nature of its fatty acids. The undesirable odor of dried fish stored for long periods is due to this
oxidative deterioration which is also called oxidative rancidity.
 Some fish store fat in their bodies as a reserve to provide them with energy later. This is true those fish that
migrate over vast distances and use their oil reserve as their only source of energy. Fat content may vary with
season, feed, locality, size and age of the fish. Fish may be classified according to their content.

 Fat fish – contains from 5 to 20 percent fat

 Medium fat fish – contains 2 to 5 percent and
 Lean fish – has less than 2 percent fat.
 Using this classification, bangus (5.7 percent fat) and talakitok (6.1 percent fat) would be considered as fat fish.
D. DETERIORATIVE CHANGES AFTER DEATH
 Most fish caught from the sea die even while still in the net in the water. Those caught or harvested from inland
waters also die shortly after there are taken from the water. An exception are those fish with accessory
breathing organs such as hito and dalag which stay alive after catch.
 The deteriorative changes after the death of the fish is important to its acceptability as food. Immediately after
death, the fleshy portion or muscle of fish is soft, gel-like and sticky. When the rigor has passed, spoilage starts.
This caused mainly by fish enzymes and bacteria. The bacteria come from the slime of the fish skin as well as
from the gills and intestinal tract. The flesh of a healthy fish is actually sterile. The enzymes which are found
mainly in the intestinal organs of the fish start digesting the neighboring flesh. A substance which is found in
living fish flesh called trimethylamine oxide is converted to trimethylamine which imparts the characteristic odor
of stale fish. Oxidative deterioration or rancidity of fish fat follows.

E. DETERMINATION OF FISH QUALITY

 The traditional method of testing fish freshness by the housewife is still the most reliable procedure for
determining fish quality. 
 It simply involves the use of one’s sensory organs which are one’s sight, sense of smell and touch. 
 The criteria of freshness are: a mild seaweed-like odor that is not objectionable; 
 The eyes are clear and full, not sunken; 
 The skin is shiny and tight while the gills are bright red; the flesh is firm. 
 This method has been practiced by our ancestors which they have learned simply by ear. This method although
reliable, could become cumbersome and unreliable when evaluating large quantities of fish at one time such as
those for canning in food factories. Hence new methods of testing-freshness of fish are being devised or
developed but none has been pinpointed to be a reliable sole index of fish quality at the present time. These are
mostly chemical methods, i.e., they are based on the estimation of the quality of some products of/or
accompanying spoilage.
F. MARKET FORMS OF FIN FISH
The various forms by which fresh and/or frozen fish may be purchased in the market are called market forms. The
following are the market form of finfishes.
1. LIVE FISH
 Fishes that can be marketed alive because they live after catch. Good example of these are dalag and hito. 
 Hito has an extra breathing organ while dalag can use atmospheric air for respiration.

 Live fish have the advantage of being exempted from deteriorative changes during handling and marketing
hence, there is no need of icing provided they are kept alive. They are usually killed only shortly before cooking.
If such is the case, they need not be eviscerated prior to cooking.
2. WHOLE or ROUND FISH
 This is the form in which freshest fish is distributed in local market fish stalls. It is the form of the fish as it comes
from the water but it is no longer alive. Shortly after catch they are usually mixed with ice to prevent spoilage.
They must be eviscerated prior to cooking or storage in the freezer. They are usually scaled prior to cooking but
not in the case of fish intended for boiling, paksiw, daeng, and daing.
3. DRAWN FISH
 This is a whole fish with only the entrails removed preparation for cooking is the same as that for a whole or
round fish except evisceration. Most frozen fish in modern supermarkets are also available in this form.
A note about frozen whole fish: Filipinos in general are averse to buying frozen whole fish because it has been a
traditional practice by fish vendors to freeze left-over fish that has not been marketed for the day. Hence the frozen fish
to start with already has a poor quality. Freezing does not improve the quality of fish! Because of these practice Filipino
consumers have a poor impression of frozen fish. If high quality is frozen properly it should be just as good as whole
unfrozen fresh fish.

4. DRESSED FISH
 This is fish which has been scaled and eviscerated. Sometimes the head, tail and fins are also removed. It is
actually ready-to-cook.
5. FILLETS
 These are two meaty sides of the fish cut lengthwise away from the backbone. If the fish has no intermuscular
bones, it's fillets would be boneless. The skin may not be removed. A cut from one side of the fish is called single
fillet. A butterfly fillet consists of two single fillet he'd by uncut flesh and skin in the belly portion of the fish.
Fillet are ready-to-cook.
6. DEBONED
 This is the form most convenient in the case of bangus. Bangus has many intermuscular bones particularly near
it tails so that eating it can be quite cumbersome and even dangerous for children. Filleting it would not result to
a boneless form. Hence the process of bangus has gained popularity. The preparation is relatively simple
involving only a pair of twizzers or clinical forceps. It takes only about 10 minutes per fish for experienced
worker. The deboned bangus is marketed frozen and particularly ready-to-cook. It may be cooked in any manner
just as any dressed fish.
7. STEAKS 
 These are cross section slices of dressed fish which are relatively of large size e.g. tanigi and tambakol. The
backbone is usually the only bone in a fish steak. Steaks cut one half to two thirds of an inch thick are usually
best. Each steak is usually a single serving portion. Steaks cut away from the visceral cavity are solid slices and
are preferred by discriminating consumers, it is ready-to-cook but may require quick washing prior to cooking. 
8. STICKS 
 These are fillets or steaks cut further into portion of uniform width and length like sticks hence the name. They
are usually frozen and breaded and ready-to-cook.
9. FLAKED
 Fish meat separated from the whole fish is called flaked fish. Labahita is commonly made into flaked fish, it is
sold in the formed of fish ball, kekiyam, and fish lumpia. it consists of flaked fish, flour and seasoning. Kekiyam is
a flaked fish recipe similar to embotido but contains fish instead of pork. Fish lumpia contains flaked fish and
other ingredients for fried lumpia-making. These are usually sold frozen and ready-to-cook.
NOTE: In the purchase of fish, care must be taken that one does not buy fish caught by dynamite fishing. 
 Dynamite fishing is still practiced in the Philippines in spite of the stringent penalties imposed on those caught
doing it. Dynamite fishing involves catching of fish by hurling a dynamite or similar explosive in a school of fish in
the sea. The dull explosion that follows causes the death of multitude of fish by concussion. Soon the area is
littered with floating fish, big or small, while the unscrupulous fisherman retrieves only what he can handle. The
rest sink to the bottom of the sea. The dynamite fish are edible and no evidence has been shown that they are
harmful in themselves. But the means by which they are obtained is a gross violation of the principle of
conservation because it kills the whole school of fish. We must remember, fish in the sea is not an inexhaustible
resource. It can be depleted if we do not allow the small fishes to grow and the mature ones to reproduce.
There are already cases in other countries of their seas being depleted of marine resources. It is therefore
important that the consumer knows how to detect dynamited fish so that he can avoid buying such. Dynamited
fish have broken spines or backbone which results from the concussion of their bodies.
G. FISH COOKERY
 Finfish is cooked to destroy bacteria and any parasite present as well as to improve its taste and tenderness.
Except for a few cases such as in Japan and in some parts of the Philippines where fish is eaten raw, fish tastes
much better when cooked. 
 Fish is actually tender even when uncooked but it tenderizes further with only about 10 to 15 minutes of
cooking in water unlike in the case of beef, pork and chicken cookery which takes much longer.
 Raw fish has a translucent flesh, during cookery, this becomes opaque and the muscles are easily flaked. These
are indications of doneness by moist and dry methods. Cooking beyond this stage may cause overcooking, i.e,
disintegration or drying up. Care must also be taken that fish does not lose its shape.
 In the Philippines there are various fish which may be classified for either dry or moist heat method of cookery.
Some fish recipes are a combination of both.
A. DRY HEAT COOKERY
 These involves no additional of water for the exudation of moisture from the fish which might cook the fish
in it. This include broiling, baking, frying and toasting. In dry heat cookery of fish, it is important that there is
no overcooking, otherwise the fish would be very dry in which case it loses its acceptability the skin must be
crisp but the flesh must be moist and somewhat juicy.
1. BROILING OR IHAW is usually done over smoldering charcoal locally termed uling na bumabaga and
is conveniently done outdoors or in an open shed. Fish to be broiled is commonly wrapped in fresh
banana leaves to prevent it from scorching. If available, aluminum foil may be used but it should not
wrap the fish tightly otherwise the fish would be moist-cooked in its own juices. In this case it is no
longer considered dry cookery. Freshly caught fish lend themselves easily to broiling since they need
not be eviscerated. People living by fishponds commonly enjoy inihaw na bangus and inihaw na
tilapia. Freshly caught marine fish are also commonly broiled in coastal towns.
2. BAKING is usually done in an oven with a temperature from 135° to 177°C (270° to 350°F). whole
dalag with its scales and viscera may be baked.
3. FRYING is cooking in oil. Refined coconut oil is the most commonly used oil for this purpose because
it is the least expensive in the Philippines. Frying is a dry heat method of cookery because it involves
no addition of water and the moisture of the fish does not mix with the oil but rather passes off as
steam. Small fish weighing about a hundred grams or less may be fried in one piece. Larger fish are
usually cut cross-sectionally to pieces prior to frying in order to hasten heat penetration. In addition,
serving size portions are easily provided by this step. The common frying procedure in the
Philippines is pan frying, that is, frying in a small amount of oil just enough to cook one side of the
fish. To completely fry it, the fish must be turned over with a pair of tongs or turner. Deep-fat frying
is not commonly done in the Philippines.
B. MOIST HEAT COOKERY
 Moist heat cookery of fish involves the addition of water or the exudation of moisture from the fish in which
it is cooked. Examples of this type of cookery are paksiw, sinigang and pesa. It is very important that the fish
is not overcooked in moist heat cookery otherwise fish by this method is the falling off of the eyes.
1. PAKSIW NA ISDA is cooking fish in vinegar, some water, sliced ginger, salt, pepper and other spices.
It is actually a form of picking. It is served best after the vinegar has penetrated the fish for some
time. Due to its acidic nature is does not spoil easily.
2. SINIGANG NA ISDA is cooking in considerable amount of water, some vegetables and an acidifying
agent such as unripe tamarind. Kangkong is the commonly used vegetable for this recipe. The liquid
portion is large enough to serve as soup out of it.
3. PESA usually consist of dalag, rice washing, ginger and considerable amount of water to make athin
porridge. Vegetables and onion may also be added.
4. COOKING FISH IN GATA (coconut milk) which is very common in the Bicol region is a moist heat
method of cookery.
5. SINAING OR PANGAT is especially known to consumers in the province of Batangas. Tulingan or
tuna are eviscerated and arranged in a claypot (palayok), seasoned with salt and acidified with
kamyas (paasim) it is then cooked slowly in its own juice till dry but not burnt. Since fish is high in
moisture, no addition of water is necessary. Large claypots full of tulingan are seasonally available in
some fish markets. Provided the fish is sold within two days, the fish has high acceptability. This
method of cooking fish could be applied to other fish. In the home, small fish arranged on not more
than two layers and wrapped in banana leaves may be cooked with or without paasim.
 6. STEAMING is obviously a moist heat method of cookery which is appropriate for cooking large fish
such as lapu-lapu, pompano and apahap. Steamed fish is best served with mayonnaise and
garnished with pickles and hard-cooked eggs. 
7. Fish covered completely with foil and allowed to cook in an oven even without the addition of water
would be considered as moist heat cookery. This is actually a form of BRAISING which is cooking
slowly in a covered container with a small amount of liquid. Cooking in the oven of the flatfish dapa
in lemon, butter and seasoning is actually a form of braising provided it does not dry up in the
process.
8. Some local fish recipes involve both frying and moist cookery, e.g., sarciado, escabeche, dalag in
pinakbet, bangus in tausi, relleno and quekiam.
AS A RULE
1. FAT FISH are more desirable for baking. Broiling and planking because their fat would serve to keep the flesh
from drying up. 
2. LEAN FISH are preferred for various moist methods of cookery since their flesh is firm and will not easily fall
apart while cooking. If lean fish is baked or broiled it may have to be coated with bread crumb prior to cooking
or basted frequently while cooking. 
3. An exception would be those fishes which are broiled or baked without removing the scales e.g dalag which has
only 0.1 percent fat. The scales serve as a protective covering to prevent drying up during cookery.

Both fat and lean are suitable. However, thin fleshed ones when fried become dry so that the ratio of flesh to bone
becomes small. Thick fleshed finfishes, even when small in size such as biya lend themselves well to both dry and moist
methods of cooking.
H. PRESERVATION OF FINFISHES

1. DRYING
 Finfish are commonly preserved by during, this consists simply of sun-drying. This consist simply of sun
drying whole fish or butterfly filleted fish. The reduction of moisture content of the fish by drying makes the
fish a poor medium for bacterial growth., Hence spoilage is retarded, dried fish can be stored for months at
a room temperature. This is the basis for the preservative action of drying. However, sun drying is not
exactly a very hygienic method since the fish is open to flies, other insects, dust and rain. Dehydration which
is drying by artificial methods such as by the use of cabinet dryers is a more sanitary procedure but it is
hardly employed in the Philippines because it requires the use of fuel to effect drying. Certainly, fuel is more
expensive compared to the solar heat energy which is free and abundant in our country. Smaller fish are
dried whole while larger fish are butterfly filleted prior to drying.
2. SMOKING
 Smoking is another preservation method of fish but it's shelf-life is only a few days at a room temperature
since the fish is not extensively dried. Smoking preserve the fish somewhat but mainly it imparts some
desirable characteristics to the fish. Smoked fish are locally called tinapa, tamban, silinyasi, tunsoy, lapad,
salinas, bangus and alumahan are examples of fish that may be made into tilapia. Tinapa making is actually
a combination of salting, smoking, cooking and drying. 

Briefly the procedure is as follows: 

a. The washed fish are placed in a vat of saturated salt solution for 5 to 10 minutes or even up to two
hours depending upon the size of the fish. This step serves to clean the fish and as spoilage preventive
measure while the fish await the next step. 
b. The fish are then cooked in boiling brine while suspended in wooded or bamboo immersion baskets.
Brine cooking last until the fish eyes turn white and fall apart, the duration varying from 1 to 10 minutes
depending again on the size of the fish. 
 c. The fish is then drained, cooled and smoked over bamboo smoking trays. Between brine-cooking and
smoking the fish maybe allowed to stand overnight during which partial drying takes place. This
somewhat hardens the fish flesh, preventing it from disintegration during handling into the smoking
bamboo trays.
3. FREEZING
 This does not improve the quality of fish but preserves only as nearly as possible the quality of fish had
before freezing. Bacterial action is practically stopped, enzymatic action is greatly slowed down and
oxidative rancidity of the fat is somewhat reduced. 
a. Fish purchased from the market may be preserved by freezing in the home until ready for cooking. 
b. Use fresh fish, dress them quickly, wash, wrap in plastic bags or aluminum foil, label properly and freeze. 
c. Be sure that the temperature in the freezer is at most 0°C and does not fluctuate. 
d. When taking out frozen items from the freezer, be sure to take out the older items first and the newer items last
or first in, first out.
4. CANNING
 Is preserving food by heating in hermitically, sealed containers. Spoilage of canned food occurs if the
processing is not adequate and the seal is not hermitic. 
 Canned fish can keep at room temperature and have a shelf life of several years. Canned fish is a common
food item to stock as it serves as a very convenient food to serve at unexpected situations.
I. TYPES OF SHELL FISH
 Shellfish are those fishes with bodies more or less completely covered with shell. There are two types:
crustacean and mollusks.
A. CRUSTACEANS
 Crustaceans are shellfish with hard shell over the back of the body and along the claws but have softer shells
covering the lower part of the body and legs. Crabs and shrimps are two important crustaceans.
 During cooking, an interesting color change in most crustaceans occur. Shrimps and crabs change from
their natural dull, dark blue-green color to an attractive orange color.
 This change is due to the release of the orange pigment astaxanthin, one of the many carotenoids found
in foods like mango, egg yolk and papaya. In some crustaceans the color change may be from grey to
brown or pink, but the reaction must be essentially the same. 
 On the other hand, the horseshoe crab of Palawan remains dark green even when cooked. It is
interesting to note that when the author tasted this horseshoe crab it was unappetizing even if it was
actually delicious because of the dull dark green color of its huge shell.
1. CRABS 🡪 In the Philippines various types of crabs commonly served on the table are alimango or
mangrove mud crab, alimasag or blue crab and the small talangka. The talangka or kap-I is unique
for its small size, about 1/6 the size of a regular crab. It is a fresh water crab obtained from rivers. Its
shells covering the lower part of the body is soft enough to be eaten. Hence, its edible portion
includes its lower shell. 
a. The carapace or hard shell covering its back contains “fat” or aligi which may be separated and preserved. It is
called taba ng talangka and is eaten as a sauce. Due to the laborious and painstaking procedure of its
preparation, it is prized as a delicacy. The bigger crabs alimango and alimasag. Also contain aligi which is
normally eaten with the meat.
b. Peddlers sell cooked aligi of talangka which is well-liked by the fish gourmet.
c. Canned aligi is now available as a gourmet item.
Crabs are usually boiled in a small amount of brine for 10 to 20 minutes depending upon the size until the shell is orange
or bright red. Care must be taken that overcooking does not take place or else, they become watery.
2. SHRIMPS & LOBSTER🡪 Shrimps are commonly eaten than lobsters. Lobster are exorbitantly
expensive. Like crabs, some shrimps such as hibe and alamang are also small and would normally be
eaten whole with their shells. Suahe is a salt water shrimps while ulang and tagunton are fresh
water shrimps.
 B. MOLLUSK
 There are two types of mollusks: the univalves with only one shell and bivalves with two shells. 
 The shells of mollusks are usually hard all over so that they are not in any case eaten. 
Examples:
 univalve is kuhol 
 bivalves are clams (halaan, kabibi, and tulya), oyster (talaba) and mussles (tahong).
 The composition of the edible portion of mollusks is quite different from finfishes and crustaceans even if their
shells are not normally eaten. Their flesh is generally leathery in texture. They are comparatively high in
glycogen content. For instance, in the case of oysters, the pH does not rise after death but decreases down to as
low as 4.8 due to the formation of lactic acid from glycogen, the pH serves as an index of freshness for oyster.
 Tahong is a salt water mussels’ cultures in Bacoor, Cavite. Its meat is considered more delicious than that of
oysters by many people. More common is in the green mussel in contrast to the brown mussel.

J. MARKET FORMS OF SHELLFISH

1. LIVE
 Crabs, clams, mussels, oysters, snails, and lobster should be alive if purchased in the shell except for boiled crabs
and lobster. Ideally shrimps should also be marketed live although many times it is not possible.
 A live crab is indicated to be fats if its claws do not have sharp teeth, rather the teeth are sunken in the claws
like molar teeth in humans.
2. WHOLE
 Most shrimps marketed locally are whole i. e, in the form they were caught but are no longer alive with the
head and thorax intact. Filipinos are generally fond on eating the shrimp head.
3. SHUCKED
 These are bivalves or mollusks which have been removed from the shell. Oyster, clams and scallops may be
marketed in this manner. Fresh shucked oyster has a translucent appearance. They become opaque when
not-so-fresh
4. HEADLESS
 Most shrimps, prawn and lobster for export are marketed in the headless form i.e. The head and thorax are
removed. The head is removed mainly because it is the main source of bacterial spoilage during transport
and also because it does not appeal to most foreign palates. 
5. COOKED SHELLFISH
 Shrimps, crab and lobster may be cooked in the shell prior to marketing.
6. COOKED MEAT
 The meat of shrimps, crabs and lobster may be marketed cooked, usually in cans. Consumer acceptance test
of canned smoked tahong was shown to be highly acceptable (Franco 1971). At the present time only a
small volume of cooked canned shellfish is consumed in the Philippines most of which is imported. The
potential of shellfish canning has not been fully exploited.
K. BY PRODUCTS
PATIS AND BAGOONG
 Patis and bagoong are fermented products manufactured by mixing finfishes or tiny shrimps, called
alamang with about 1/3 its volume of solar salt and allowing the mixture to ferment for month. 
 Patis is the fish protein hydrolyzate resulting from fermentation. It is clear supernatant liquid
that may be scooped from the upper portion of the fermenting mixture. It has a yellow Amber
to brown color. 
 The disintegrated fish flesh that settles in the bottom is the bagoong. It may be said that
bagoong is a by-product of patis. Patis and bagoong are well-accepted sauces in many parts of
the Philippines.  
 Alimasag – crab
Alimango – mangrove or mud crab
Alumahan – Indian mackerel
Apahap – Sea bass
Ayungin – grunt silver
Banak – mullet
Bangos – milk fish
Bacoco – porgy
Bisugo – threadfin breams
Biya – gobies
Dalag – mudfish
Dalagang bukid – fusilier
Dapa-dapa - Sole fish
Galonggong - round scad
Hasa-hasa - cub mackerel
Halaan - cockles
Hipon puti - white shrimps
Hito - cat fish
Kuhol - snails
Labahita - surgeon fish
Lapu-lapu - grouper
Maya-maya - snapper
Pusit - squid
Silinasi - herring (young)
Tonigi - Spanish mackerel
Tilapia - tilapia
Tursilyo - barracuda
Tulingan - frigate tune
Talangka - small crabs

MEAT and MEAT COOKERY

A. DEFINITION
MEAT
 Meat refers to the parts of the animal that are used as-food. It includes pork, beef, mutton and lamb, goat
meat or chevon, carabao meat or carabeef, also horse meat and dog meat. Other mammalian species are
eaten in different parts of the world according to availability, for example, polar bear in Alaska, kangaroo in
Australia and whales in Norway and Japan. Rabbit are usually considered separately with poultry.
 Meat sundries or meat specialties is a term applied to the edible organs and glands of meat animals. They
include tongue, liver, kidney, sweetbread, heart, brains, lungs, tripe and small intestines.
B. STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF MEATS
 Meat is widely variable in composition. 
 A carcass consists mainly of three kinds of tissues:
 Muscular tissues
 Fatty tissues and 
 Bone. 
 The percentage of each varies with the overall fatness of the carcass.

C. POST MORTEM CHANGES IN MEAT

After slaughter, the animal undergoes changes particularly in the muscular tissues which affects, meaning changes after
death. They are as follows:
 Immediately after death the muscle is pliant, soft, gel-like and extensible as it was in the relaxed living state. It is
quite sticky when touched. Meat is in an excellent condition for cookery at this stage because it is most tender.
In smaller communities of towns and farm houses, this is the state at which meat is cooked where the process of
slaughter, cooking and consumption were all done within a narrow radius, if not in the same household.
However, cooking of meat at this stage is not possible nor practical in commercial scale. Besides, meat at this
stage should not be frozen since a condition called thaw rigor would take place, which is characterized by
excessive muscle shortening and drip upon thawing.
 Occurrence of rigor mortis during which the muscle fibers shorten and become rigid, hard and inflexible. The
meat at this stage is very tough and should therefore bot be cooked. Rigor mortis has been shown to accompany
the depletion of adenosine triphosphate in the muscle and to bring about shortening and rigidity of the muscle
proteins, actin and myosin. Rigor of the muscle should be allowed to pass before cooking.
 Passing of rigor in which the meat, if held at temperatures above freezing gradually tenderizes and a desirable
flavor develops. This is the time to cook, age or freeze meat if cooking cannot be done prior to rigor mortis. The
rigidity of actin and myosin weakens resulting into tenderization.
 Bacterial and enzymatic deterioration takes place leading to meat spoilage. This rate of spoilage depends upon:
a. Conditions of slaughter. The animals should not be allowed to lay on the floor where sources of contamination
are very great. The water for washing and the utensils must be clean.
b. Health of the animal prior to slaughter. Unhealthy animals are more prone to spoilage than healthy ones.
c. Temperature and relative humidity conditions of storage. Rate of spoilage increases with temperature.
d. pH of the meat. Rate of spoilage increases with pH
D. NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE OF MEAT
 Lean meat is an important source of high-quality protein which amounts on the average to 18% of the meat.
 High quality protein means that all the essential amino acids are present in meat. Essential amino acid contents
of meat as with other nutrients vary with species (e.g. beef vs pork), with breed (e.g. Hereford vs Angus beef) or
with specific muscles within the same carcass (e.g. Longisimus dorsi vs Rectus femoris)
 Meat can be regarded as an important source of vitamins B1 and B2, pork exhibiting much higher percentage of
B1 (1mg per 100g) than other meats (.07 to .15 mg/100g.). It is also an excellent source of iron and phosphorus.
Liver is especially rich in iron and is a concentrated source of vitamin A. it also contains the unsaturated fatty
acids although plant sources are better.
 Calories supplied by meat vary with the fat content which can range from 5 to 40% according to animal species,
breed, feed and age of the animal (Lawrie, 1974). 
E. MEAT CUTS
1. PRIMAL CUTS OF BEEF

CHUCK is from the front upper section of the cow, which gets a lot of
movement. As such, the chuck cut of meat is a very lean, non-fatty cut that can
be pretty tough. You usually see chuck cut as chuck eye steak, shoulder steak,
chuck 7-bone, and boneless short ribs. These cuts are not so great for grilling
or searing, as they’d be too tough to chew through. What they are good for,
though, is a pot roast.
RIB has a good balance of muscle and fat, which creates a lot of flavor and
juiciness.
SHORT LOIN cut makes up the upper, middle section of the cow and it’s also
another cut that makes for a great steak. This is where you see Porterhouse, T-
Bone, and Top Loin steak, all of which has a similar makeup to ribeye, with a
good combo of muscle and fat. Short loin also makes for a good roast, so you’ll
also see tenderloin roast fall into this cut.
SIRLOIN is also on the upper, middle section of the cow, but it sits slightly
behind the short loin. The three main cuts that you get from sirloin are: top
sirloin steak, tri-tip steak, and tri-tip roast. Tri-tip steak is similar to the
tenderloin on a porterhouse, but not as good quality. Tri-tip roast is obviously
good for roasting, and top sirloin steak works well when it’s pan fried (just be
careful not to overcook it).
THE ROUND CUT of meat consists of the rear section of the cow. This area gets
a lot of work from the animal, so it’s understandably a tougher cut of meat.
Like the chuck, you’re going to want to use this for roasts, stews, and anything
that you can cook for a long period of time at a lower temperature. This is also
where butchers will get hamburger meat, since it’s lean and easy to ground
up.
BRISKET is found at the front, lower section of the cow – just under the chuck.
This cut is very tough and basically produces a brisket flat cut. And again,
cooking it for a long time at a lower temperature is going to be your best bet.
Brisket, however, can be delicious is cooked properly, as this is what pastrami
is made from.
THE FORE SHANK is a primal cut of meat right underneath the front legs,
behind the brisket. This cut is made up almost entirely of muscles and tendons
and is not going to work well as a grilled pan-fried steak. For this cut, your best
bet is to braise it, as a long slow cook time is really the only way to get the
meat tender enough to be easy to chew.

THE SHORT PLATE PRIMAL CUT is basically the underbelly of the cow. It
stretches from the front legs to just before you hit the hind legs on the lower
section of the animal. While these cuts tend to also be a little tough, they’re
extremely rich in flavor because of its location on top of the side rib bones and
its generous fat layers. 

The last primal cut is the FLANK, and it sits behind the short plate just behind
the hind legs. The flank cut is where you get flank steak. Easy enough, right? If
cooked properly, the flank steak can be just as flavorful as a ribeye, and it
usually costs a lot less. Flank steak is great marinated overnight (which can
help tenderize it a little before you cook it) and grilled or pan fried.

2. PORK PRIMAL CUTS

The pork shoulder primal has sub-primal of shoulder blade, shoulder picnic, jowl, foot, and hock
The pork leg primal includes the leg butt portion, leg shank portion, ham, hock, and foot.
The pork loin primal includes the loin rib end, loin center, and sirloin.
The pork belly primal has no sub-primal.
 3. LAMB PRIMAL CUTS

Unlike beef, which is divided into sides before being broken down into its basic primal cuts, and pork, which is
butchered into its primal cuts straight away, lamb is first divided into front and rear sections called the fore
saddle and hind saddle. From there it is then fabricated into the four basic lamb primal cuts.
1. The FORESADDLE includes the rack primal and chuck primal which are broken down into sub-primal of
shoulder, rib, breast, neck, and fore shanks.
2. The HINDSADDLE includes the leg primal and loin primal which are further broken down into the sirloin, flank,
leg of lamb, and hind shanks sub-primal.

F. MEAT SUNDRIES OR MEAT SPECIALTIES

The meat specialties of pork and beef, their local names and suggested recipes/cooking methods are listed in
Table. The reader will find that tongue, brain, heart, lungs and kidney are self-explanatory terms.
Variety Meats from Pork and Beef
Organ Local Name Source Suggested Recipes of Cooking Merhod
Tongu Dila Beef and Pastel de lengua (pie)
e pork
Tripe Tuwalya Beef Menudo, Goto, Callos, Kilawin.
Librilyo Libro-libro o
tuwalya
Liver Atay Beef and Sarsang lechon, braising, kilawen, binangis,
pork batsoy
Brain Utak Beef and Misua soup
pork
Heart Puso Beef and kilawen, batsoy
pork
Lungs Baga Beef and Kilwen, bopis
pork
Kidney Bato Beef and Batsoy, binagis, bopis
pork
Blood Dugo Beef and Dinuguan
pork
Ears Tenga Beef and Tokwa atbaboy, kilawen
pork
Skin Balat Beef and Sitsaron
pork
*Dictionary of Foods by Claudio and de Leon. 1986.
1. The LIVER is the largest gland of the animal body and performs varied functions including the storage of
nutrients in the live animal. Hence, it is extremely nutritious.
 2. TRIPE is actually a part of the digestive tract of the cattle and carabao. It is the inner lining of the stomach. It is
found only in ruminants which have peculiar digestive systems. The local names “tuwalya” and “libro-libro” are
such because of the resemblance of some parts of the tripe to towel with its nap3. and pages of a book,
respectively. The preparation of tripe for cooking is quite a laborious process, unless it is cleaned before it
reaches the market and sold just like the imported tripe that is available in many supermarkets.
3. BRAIN, LIVER AND KIDNEY are generally tender and therefore may be cooked by dry heat. Like egg, liver should
be cooked briefly otherwise it becomes tough. If liver is to be ground such as for sarsa ng lechon it should be
first broiled for easier grinding. Tripe, tongue, heart and lungs are considered less tender and therefore should
be cooked by moist heat.

 Meat specialties should be cooked until well-done to destroy any parasitic organisms present. They are more
prone to spoilage than red meats and should not be stored for long periods even in the freezer.
 Dinuguan is a well-known native dish consisting of diced and/or beef and pork-beef blood. The protein
of blood is mainly hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is red when freshly obtained. It coagulates and darkens
upon exposure to air. Upon cooking it further darkens to almost black. Hemoglobin is a high-quality
protein and contains iron, but the iron is not in a form readily absorbed by the body.
 Tokwa at baboy and kilawin are snacks items. They are made with sliced cooked pig’s ear, tokwa,
vinegar, uncooked onions and pepper.
G. MEAT TENDERNESS
 Tenderness is a much-desired attribute of meat, the impression of which involves three aspects
1. The initial penetration of the meat by the teeth
2. The ease with which the meat breaks into fragment 
3. The amount of residue left after chewing
1. AGING
 Aging is a practice in most developed countries of storing meat carcasses usually beef at chill temperature just
above 0°C for 10-14 days at 70% relative humidity prior to cutting. This practice has been shown to increase beef
tenderness. Pork and lamb are usually not aged. In the Philippines this can be very expensive and in fact is not a
usual practice. A specialty meat shop in Quezon city however claims that they age the beef sold in their shop
(Espinoza 1985)
H. METHODS OF TENDERING TOUGH MEAT CUTS
Tough cuts of meat may be made more tender by one of the following methods:
1. MECHANICAL METHODS. Included in this category are beating the meat using a device called meat tenderizer or
a plain pestle as is practice in making Indonesian or Chinese tapa or dried meat; cutting into small portions so
that long strands of connective tissues are cut as is done in many Filipino dishes; slicing into very thin wide
sections as is done when making tapa; and by grinding. Tough beef cuts are made into hamburger mixes by
grinding through a fine grinder, plate or even grinding twice.
2. MARINADING. This is done by soaking in a solution made up of vinegar or other acids such as kalamansi, salt
and seasoning. Sometimes wine is also added.
3. USE OR PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES. Certain plant bacterial and fungal enzymes have been used to tenderized,
papain from papaya, bromelin from pineapple and ficin from figs. The bacterial and fungal enzymes are protease
15, rohzyme, fungal used for meat tenderizing.

JUICINESS
 Another important quality factor in meat is juiciness. A tender meat may be unacceptable if it is dry. Juiciness is
associated with the water-holding capacity of meat. This is the ability at hold its so called free water which
makes up about four to five percent of the total moisture in meat. Since meat is about 75.5% water, then this
free water should be 3 to 3.8% of the uncooked meat.
Meat would be less juicy if it is:
1. Overcooked
 2. Cut to small and cooked extensively by dry heat
3. Frozen for long periods especially if stored without a wrapper
4. Repeatedly heated as a left-over

Two meat samples that are cooked properly may have different degrees of juiciness. Complicated factors
beyond the control of home kitchen conditions are involves which includes:
1. The initial pH of meat and rate of decline of pH after slaughter. A rapid rate of decline of pH and a low ultimate
pH of the meat lowers the water holding capacity and juiciness.
2. Aging improves water holding capacity.
3. Intramuscular fat or marbling. This somewhat retains the meat fluids hence increases juiciness. Fat in meat also
stimulates salivation during chewing effecting sustained juiciness.
4. Method of commercial freezing. Quick freezing of meat helps retain the fluids in meat and minimize drip loss
during thawing.
5. Species, beef is more prone to loss of juiciness than pork.

I. GRADING OF MEAT
INSPECTION AND MEAT GRADING
 Inspection is a guarantee of wholesomeness, not of quality or tenderness. It means the animal was not diseased
and the meat is clean and fit for human consumption.

QUALITY GRADING
 Grading is a quality designation. Quality grading is based on the texture, firmness, and color of the lean meat,
the age or maturity of the animal, and the marbling.

YIELD GRADING
 In addition to quality grading, beef and lamb are graded according to how much usable meat in proportion to fat
they have. This process is called yield grading. The meatiest grade is Yield Grade 1. Poorest Yield (much exterior
fat) is Yield Grade 5. Pork is yield-graded from 1 to 4, but most pork is sold already cut and trimmed. Veal which
has little fat, is not yield-graded.

USDA QUALITY GRADES

 BEEF – USDA Prime, Choice, Select, Commercial, Utility, Cutter, Canner
 VEAL – USDA Prime, Choice, Good, Standard, Utility
 LAMB – USDA Prime, Choice, Good, Utility
 PORK – USDA No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, Utility
USDA QUALITY GRADE STAMP
In the Philippines, it is the National Meat Inspection Service (NMIS) who is the sole national controlling/competent
authority attached to the Department of Agriculture charged by the government with the control of meat hygiene and
meat inspection.
J. MARKET FORMS OF MEAT
 1. FRESH MEAT. This is meat immediately after slaughter without undergoing chilling. Most of the meat sold in
public markets in this country is in this form.
2. CHILLED MEAT. Is meat that has been cooled to a temperature just above freezing. 1-3°C within 24 hours after
slaughter. Supermarkets and specialty meat shops sell this form.
3. FROZEN MEAT. Are meat cuts frozen to an internal temperature of -20°C (-4°F) imported meat is sold in this
form. 
4. CURED MEATS. Are meat products that have been treated with a curing agent or solution. Originally only salt
was used for curing but by the end of the 19 th century nitrite has been indispensable in curing solutions as well
as other seasoning. Cured products may or may not be smoked. Examples of cured meat are corned beef, ham,
bacon, tapa, tocino, sausages, etc.
5. PROCESSED MEAT. In this category may be included only the heat processed hermitically sealed meat
preparation but also preparations that are frozen meat pies, frozen morcon and others in the convenience food
shelves. Canned meat products such as corned beef and luncheon meat, adobo and other local food preparation
are quite popular while frozen preparations have very limited availability.
MEAT COLOR AND MEAT CURING
 The color of fresh meat is principally due to myoglobin and to a lesser extend hemoglobin. Myoglobin is a
red soluble protein present in the muscle cell while hemoglobin is the red protein in blood. The biological
functions of these two pigment proteins is to continue reversibly with the oxygen thereby supplying oxygen
for the various body activities of the animals while alive. During cookery or upon freezing for long periods
they become brown. Meat may remain pink even upon cookery by curing this is the process of mixing it with
saltpeter or potassium nitrate, locally called salitre, salt and sugar. This is true in the case of ham, bacon and
tocino. Nitrite which is produced by oxidation of potassium nitrate reacts with the myoglobin to form
nitrosomyoglobin which remains pink even upon cooking. Hence cured meats are pink in color even after
cooking. In recent years there have been warning on the use of excessive salitre in cured meats which might
be detrimental to one’s health. Lustre (1973)
L. MEAT COOKERY
Meat is cooked for various reasons:
1. To improve its palatability quality
2. To increase tenderness 
3. For sanitary purposes
 Cooking develops flavors in the meat; some methods yield more flavors than others. Changes in the fat and in
the protein due to heating contribute to the distinct of cooked meat. It also brings about changes in meat
pigments, making meat more appetizing.
 Tenderization of meat us cooking is brought about by the disintegration or solubilization of the collagen fibers in
the connective tissues. Heat, however, toughens the muscle fibers. 
 Cooking destroys microorganisms and parasite which may have contaminated the meat surface.
 Cooking does not appreciably lower the nutritive value of meat.
M. METHODS OF COOKING MEAT
Methods of cooking meat can either be dry heat or moist heat. In moist heat cooking, the meat is cooked in a
covered utensil with or without added water.
MOIST HEAT COOKING
 BRAISING AND BOILING are moist cooking methods. In braising, the liquid released from the meat provides the
steam that cooks it. Pot roast are examples of braised meat. Less tender cuts of meat are usually cooked by this
method because cooking time can be long enough to solubilize the collagen without danger of scorching.
Philippine recipe that are cooked by braising include adobo and sarciado.
 STEWING IS BOILING OR SIMMERING slowly in large amounts of water enough to cover the meat pieces.
Sinigang, nilaga and putsero are common Filipino dishes cooked by this method. This method is also used
specifically for tendering as in the preliminary preparation of beef tail or pata for kare-kare and tripe for callos
wherein these tough cuts are allowed to simmer for several hours to attain sufficient tenderization. For the
 same purpose, a pressure cooker may be used to shorten the tenderizing time. Food cooked under pressure
cooks faster because steam under pressure has higher temperature than boiling water.
B. DRY HEAT COOKING
Dry heat cooking method applied to meat include broiling, roasting, pan broiling, pan frying or deep fat frying. These are
usually applying to tender meat cuts.
 BROILING OR GRILLING is cooking by radiant energy. This can be accomplished in an over and over smoldering
charcoal bricks. Inihaw is the local term for broiling and is highly popular in this country. In many street corners
in Metro Manila are barbecue or inihaw stand offering pork barbecues or grilled entrails and other chicken parts
even the feet. The piece de resistance in every Philippines fiesta is the lechon which is cooked by broiling or
roasting over live charcoal.
 ROASTING refers to cooking foods uncovered in an oven with no liquid. It is the same as baking except that large
pieces of meat and whole birds are roasted while other foods are baked. Roasted items are never covered while
baked items may be covered. Meats are placed for roasting on a rack over the roasting pan to achieve uniform
cooking.
 IN PAN-BROILING, the meat is place on a cold skillet and heated so that the meat cooks slowly. Accumulated
melted fat is poured off. In pan frying a small amount of fat is added to the skillet or else the melted fat from the
meat is allowed to accumulate so that the meat eventually is cooked in the fat. Deep fat frying uses enough pre-
heated fat to cover the meat completely. Crispy pata and lechon kawali are two popular Filipino pork dishes that
are deep fat fried. In the case of crispy pata the tough pig’s knuckle is first tenderized by boiling before deep fat
frying. However, with the use of the Turbo broiler, the pre-boiled pork may be broiled, thus saving on cooking
oil.
N. STORAGE AND CARE OF MEAT
 Fresh meat spoils quickly so it must be stored immediately. If the meat is going to be used within a few days (2-4
days) it must be kept in the chiller section of the refrigerator. If you intend to keep it longer, store in the freezer.
 Do not wash meat before storing, but wipe the surface with a damp clean cloth to remove surface dirt. Make
sure it is dry before wrapping. It is good idea to portion meat needed for one cooking into individual wraps. This
way you avoid refreezing portions that will be cooked at a later time.