Drafting Methods

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CHAPTER 3 DRAFTING: FUNDAMENTALS AND TECHNIQUES; REPRODUCTION PROCESS In this chapter you will learn the fundamental and basic techniques associated with the use of drafting equipment and accessories commonly used by the EA in preparing drawings and charts. The techniques are applied using standard drawing format, line conventions, and lettering described in detail in two of the publications you will use most often: DoD-STD-100C, Engineering Drawing Practices, and MIL-HDBK-1006/1, Policy and Procedures for Project Drawing and Specification Preparation. It is your responsibility to keep up to date on these publications and other applicable reference materials to ensure that your drawings are prepared according to the latest revisions. This chapter also covers the procedures related to the safe use and maintenance of the typical reproduction equipment and discusses the different methods of reproducing drawings and the types of drawing paper used. This training manual will not cover specific reproduction responsibilities since each command may have different reproduction equipment depending on its mission and the size of its engineering department. When you are assigned this responsibility, you will be given additional on-the-job training. WORK PREPARATION Before you begin to work, you should devote some time and thought to organizing your working area. Drafting furniture should be arranged so you can work comfortable y without fatigue or eyestrain. Be sure to check the lighting before you set up your drafting table. You can devise a system of stowing your equipment and supplies so that they are handy and in order. WORK AREA Your immediate work area should be large enough to allow sufficient freedom of movement, but not so large that you waste time reaching for equipment, supplies, and reference publications. An ideal working area allows each draftsman approximately 90 sq ft of space, although you may actually have more or less depending on the total area of the drafting room and the number of draftsmen who will work there. If you are easily distracted, do not butt your drafting table up against and facing another draftsmans table. Ensure that you have adequate lighting. The best light for drafting is natural light coming over the left shoulder and from the front left to avoid shadows cast by your hands, T square or parallel ruling straightedge, and triangles. Avoid a glaring light as it will cause eyestrain. Use the drafting lamp that was described in chapter 2. Your drafting table height should be from 36 to 40 in. above floor level. Your drafting chair or stool should be high enough that you can see the whole drawing board, but not so high that you have to lean over uncomfortably to draw. As mentioned in chapter 2, the board may be inclined or left flat according to your preference. A slope of 1 to 8 works well for the inclined position. By shifting your body or head slightly, you should be able to look directly at any point on an average-sized drawing sheet; that is, your line of sight should be approximately perpendicular to the drawing surface. Before you begin to draw, arrange your equipment in an orderly manner. Place each article so that you can reach it easily, and keep it in place when you are not using it. A systematic arrangement is timesaving and efficient. You decrease the likelihood of accidentally dropping your tools or pushing them off the table if you keep them in order. You will find it very convenient to have a small worktable adjacent to your drafting board. Placing your drafting tools and reference publications on the worktable leaves you with an uncluttered drawing board surface. When you use the drafting board in the inclined position, a separate worktable becomes a necessity. 3-1
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YOUR EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS Selection of drafting equipment and materials will depend largely upon each of your drafting assignments. Let your good judgment and common sense guide you in their selection. After some experience, you will automatically select proper equipment and materials as they are required. Until you become proficient, dont hesitate to seek the advice of your drafting supervisor or an
experienced draftsman. Assign- ments to staff and support billets within the Naval Construction Force (NCF) will expose you to modern drafting equipment and materials, such as the adjustable drafting board with a drafting machine attached. Drafting Board As a SEABEE draftsman, you will probably not be able to select your drafting board. Unless the board is new, it will probably be marred and full of small pinholes. To obtain a smooth drawing surface, you should cover the board with a vinyl material or heavy manila paper. Laminated vinyl covering minimizes pencil scoring, is non- glaring, and is easily kept clean by wiping with a damp cloth. Heavy manila paper will serve the same purpose, but must be replaced when it becomes soiled or marked with use. Drafting Paper Most of the drawings that you will prepare will be drawn on tracing paper, which was described in chapter 2. You will use tracing paper to copy or trace drawings either in pencil or in ink. You will also prepare most of your original pencil drawings on tracing paper. This type of paper is especially suited for reproduction of blueprints. However, it tears easily and becomes soiled after repeated handling. When making a drawing directly on tracing paper, you should place a smooth sheet of white paper below it (detail paper works well). The whiteness of this sheet (called a platen sheet) gives better line visibility, and its hard surface makes it possible to draw good pencil lines without grooving the tracing paper. Do not usc gritty erasers on tracing paper, especially when ink is to be applied. If erasures must be made, use a green or red ruby eraser, which is only slightly abrasive. Abrasive erasers wear away the surface. Erase carefully so you dont tear the drawing. A light back-and-forth motion works best. If the surface of the drawing becomes scratched by erasing, it can be partially smoothed by burnishing the damaged area with a hard, smooth object or your thumbnail. Avoid using the electric eraser on tracing paper, as it will quickly burn a hole through the paper. To clean up smudges and dust, use a soft art gum eraser or sprinkle pounce on the drawing and rub lightly with your hand or a triangle. Water, perspiration, or graphite from your pencil will ruin drawing paper. In order to keep moist hands or arms from marring the drawing, use a clean sheet of paper as a mask to protect the drawing surface next to the work area. Between drawing sessions you should protect unfinished drawings by covering them. Tracing paper must not be folded. The crease marks will damage the lines on the drawing and cause blurred prints when the drawing is reproduced. For that matter, no drawing should ever be folded. Drawings and tracings should be either stored flat or rolled and placed in cylindrical containers. Prints or drawings larger than 8 1/2 in. by 11 in. may be folded so that they can be filed in standard filing cabinets. Besides tracing paper, you will select other types of paper for special uses. You will be mainly concerned with the gridded papers described in chapter 2. The quality of the gridded paper that you will use is similar to that of tracing paper and should be used in the same manner. As you gain experience, you will learn which type of paper to use for each drafting assignment. Of course, you will be limited by the types of paper available and the guidelines given to you by your drafting supervisor. Drafting Pencils For the average drafting assignment, three or four pencils are usually sufficient. A hard pencil, 4H or 5H, should be used to lay out the drawing in light construction and projection lines. A medium pencil, H or F, is then used to darken the required lines and to make arrowheads and lettering. The grade of drawing paper you use will also determine which pencil you choose for making a drawing. A soft, rough-textured paper usually requires a softer pencil for layout work, since a hard pencil would leave indentations in the paper and thus spoil the appearance of the drawing. One way to find out if you are using the proper pencils on a drawing is to make a blueprint (reproduction) of the drawing. If the reproduced 3-2
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lines do not appear, or appear too light, use a softer pencil. If, on the other hand, lines appear too dark in relation to other lines, use a harder pencil. You may be able to vary the weight of lines by the amount of pressure exerted on the pencil, but this should not be attempted without experience. Bearing down on a hard pencil to produce darker lines may cause grooves in the paper. Another way to find out if you are using the proper pencil is to hold your drawing up to a light and view it from the back side. Pencil adjustment is the same as in the previous method. Of course, both methods apply only when transparent drawing paper is used. To sharpen a pencil, cut the wood away from the unlettered end (fig. 3-1, view A) with a draftsmans pencil sharpener or a penknife. The lettered end should be left intact so that the grade of pencil can always be identified. The cut should be started about 1 1/2 in. from the end, leaving a half inch of lead exposed. To produce a conical or needlepoint (fig. 3-1, view B), which is best for general use, rotate the pencil between the fingers at the same time as the exposed lead is rubbed back and forth across the full length of the sandpaper pad (fig. 3-1, view C). Many draftsmen prefer to use a mechanical lead pointer instead of the sandpaper pad. The mechanical pointer quickly produces a uniform conical or needlepoint. However, the sandpaper pad must still be used to produce other types of points. The resulting needlepoint should be dulled slightly by drawing it lightly across a piece of scrap paper several times. Avoid sharpening pencils near your drawing. Graphite particles will cause smudges that are difficult to erase. A cloth or tissue should be used to wipe away graphite particles that cling to the pencil after it is sharpened. A wedge point (fig. 3-1, view D) will aid an experienced draftsman in the extensive drawing of straight lines. This point is produced by sharpening a pencil to the conical point just described, then flattening both sides on the sandpaper pad. For an elliptical point, hold the pencil firmly with thumb and fingers and cut the lead on the sandpaper pad by a back-and-forth motion, keeping the pencil at an angle of about 25 degrees to the pad. Continue until a flat ellipse is formed, as shown in figure 31, view E. A good draftsman never uses a dull pencil. Some draftsmen prefer to use mechanical drafting pencils instead of wooden pencils. The lead of a mechanical pencil is sharpened in the same manner as the lead of a wooden pencil. However, the length of the mechanical pencil is not depleted as the lead is sharpened. This is an advantage over wooden pencils that become difficult to use when they are less than 3 in. in length. When leads for the mechanical pencil are exchanged, ensure that the changeable lead grade designator on the mechanical pencil corresponds to that of the lead used. BASIC DRAFTING TECHNIQUES You should practice handling and using drafting instruments before attempting complex drawing problems. Developing correct drawing habits will enable you to make continuous improvement in the quality of your drawings. The Figure 3-1.-Sharpening pencil points. 3-3
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main purpose of making your first drawings is to learn to use instruments. Each drawing will offer an opportunity for practice. Later on, good form in the use of instruments will become a natural habit. Accurate pencil drawings are of first importance since all inked drawings and tracings are made from finished pencil drawings. It is a mistake to believe that a poor pencil drawing can be corrected when you make the ink tracing. Any drawing important enough to be inked or traced in ink must be accurate, legible, and neat. Because most military and commercial blueprints are made from pencil drawings, ambitious trainees will work to acquire skill in pencil drawing as they perfect their technique. Good technique and skillful pencil drawing are basic to proficiency in drafting. The following sections will guide you in attaching your drawing paper to the board and in drawing basic lines with the T square, triangles, and pencil. ATTACHMENT OF PAPER TO THE BOARD Now that you have become relatively familiar with your equipment and materials, it is time to get started by attaching your drafting paper to the board. The sheet should be placed close to the left edge of the drafting board. Working in this area makes the T square easier to handle and reduces the likelihood of error because of T square swing. The drafting sheet should be far enough from the bottom of the board (about 3 in.) to ensure firm support for the head of the T square when you are drawing at the lower part of the sheet. A drawing sheet properly attached to the board on which a T square is used is shown in figure 3-2. After aligning the drawing sheet, smooth out any wrinkles and fasten the four corners with short strips of drafting tape. If you are attaching large sheets, you should place additional strips of tape at the top and bottom edges of the sheet. Drafting tape has a lighter coating of adhesive than does masking tape. Consequently, it will hold the drawing firmly, yet can be removed without tearing or marring the drawing. If you use masking tape or transparent tape, leave a large margin in the event you tear the paper when removing the tape. When placed
diagonally across the corners of the sheet, as shown in figure 3-2, the drafting tape offers little obstruction to movement of the T square and triangles. Avoid the use of thumbtacks; they will eventually ruin the drafting board. If you are using a parallel straightedge or drafting machine instead of a T square, the procedure just described is the same with one exception. Instead of placing the paper close to the left edge of the board, you should place it approximately at the midpoint of the length of the parallel straightedge or in the center of the drawing board surface when you are using a drafting machine. HORIZONTAL LINES by The draftsmans horizontal line is constructed drawing from left to right along the working Figure 3-2.-Attaching drafting paper to the board. 29.275 Figure 3-3.-Construction of basic lines. 3-4
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edge of a T square, as shown in figure 3-3, view A. This working edge, when true, is perpendicular to the working edge of the drafting board. When you draw horizontal lines, keep the working edge of the T square head in firm contact with the working edge of the drafting board. The pencil should be inclined to the right at an angle of about 60 degrees, with the point close to the junction of the working edge and the paper. Hold the pencil lightly and, if it was sharpened with a conical point, rotate it slowly while drawing the line to achieve a uniform line width and preserve the shape of the point. Normally, when a series of horizontal lines is being drawn, the sequence of drawing is from the top down. VERTICAL LINES Vertical lines are produced parallel to the working edge of the drafting board by using triangles in combination with a T square. One leg of a triangle is placed against the working edge of the blade and the other faces the working edge of the board to prevent the draftsman from casting a shadow over his work. Lines are drawn from the bottom up, as shown in figure 3-3,
view B. The pencil is inclined toward the top of the working sheet at an angle of approximately 60 degrees, with the point as close as possible to the junction of the triangle and the drafting paper. Sequence in drawing a series of vertical lines is from left to right. At no time should the lower edge of the T square blade be used as a base for triangles. Figure 3-4.-Using T square (or parallel straightedge) and triangles to draw lines at different angles to the horizontal. Arrows indicate the direction in which the lines should be drawn. INCLINED LINES The direction or angle of inclination of an inclined line on a drafting sheet is measured by reference to the base line from which it is drawn. Inclined lines at standard angles are constructed with the T square as a base for triangles used either singly, as shown in views C and D of figure 3-3, or in combination, as shown in view E of figure 3-3. Used in combination with the T square as a base, the triangles serve as guides for producing lines at intervals of 15 degrees, as shown in figure 3-4. Used singly, the 45-degree triangle will divide a circle into 8 equal parts; the 30/60 triangle will divide a circle into 12 equal parts. For drawing lines at angles other than those described above, you should use a protractor. PROTRACTION OF ANGLES To measure an angle, place the center mark of the protractor at the vertex of the angle, with the 0-degree line along one side. Then note the degree mark that falls on the side. To lay off an angle, position the protractor as above and use a needlepoint or a sharp-pointed pencil to mark the desired values. Then project lines from the vertex to these marks. Using only the three points on the protractor, as described above, may result in considerable inaccuracy, particularly if the lines of an angle are to be extended for some distance beyond the protractor. A refinement of the procedure is indicated in figure 3-5. Suppose angle BOA is to Figure 3-5.-Protracting an angle. 3-5
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be measured. Extend line AO on to C; extend line BO on to D. When you set the center of the protractor at O, make sure that both points c and a are on line AC. Take your reading at point d as well as at point b when you measure the angle. If you are laying off the angle BOA, protract and mark point d as well as point b; this gives you three points (d, O, and b) for establishing line DB. If you are using a semicircular protractor, you cant, of course, locate point d; but your accuracy will be improved by lining up c, O, and a before you measure or lay off the single angle BOA. PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES To draw a line parallel to a given line (fig. 3-6, view A), adjust the hypotenuse of a triangle in combination with a straightedge (T square or triangle) to the given line; then, holding the straightedge firmly in position, slip the triangle to the desired position and draw the parallel line along the hypotenuse. To construct a line perpendicular to an existing line, use the triangle and straightedge in combination, with the hypotenuse of the triangle resting against the upper edge of the straightedge (fig. 3-6, view B). Adjust one leg of the triangle to a given line. Then slide the triangle along the supporting straightedge to the desired position and draw the line along the leg, perpendicular to the Figure 3-6.-Drawing parallel and perpendicular lines. leg that was adjusted to the given line. In the same manner, angles with multiples of 15 degrees may be drawn, using the triangle combinations shown in figure 3-4. CURVED LINES Many drawings that you will prepare require the construct ion of various curved lines. Basically there are two types of curved lines: circles and segments of circles, called arcs, which are drawn with a compass; and noncircular curves, which are usually drawn with french curves. In this chapter we will discuss only techniques for using the compass and the french curve. Application of compass techniques in geometric construction will be covered in chapter 4. Use of the Compass When you are drawing circles and arcs, it is important that the lines produced with the compass are the same weight as corresponding pencil lines. Since you cannot exert as much pressure on the compass as you can with pencils, you should use a compass lead that is Figure 3-7.-Sharpening the compass lead and adjusting the point. 3-6
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about one grade softer than the pencil used for corresponding line work. For dim construction lines, use 4H to 6H leads. Avoid using leads that are too short. The compass lead should be sharpened with a single elliptical face, as shown in figure 3-7, view A. A sandpaper pad works best for sharpening compass leads. The elliptical face of the lead is normally placed in the compass so that it faces outward from the other compass leg. Adjust the shoulder-end needlepoint so that the point extends slightly farther than the lead (fig. 3-7, view B). With the needlepoint pressed lightly in the paper, the compass should be centered vertically when the legs are brought together. Bow compasses and pivot joint compasses are used in the same manner. To draw a circle with a compass, lightly press the needlepoint into the drawing paper and rotate the marking leg around it. Always rotate the compass clockwise. As you rotate, lean the compass slightly forward. With a little practice, you will find that you can easily draw smooth circles using only the thumb and forefinger of one hand. It is important that you use an even pressure as you rotate the compass. You may find it necessary to rotate the compass several times to produce a circle with a uniform dense black line. When you wish to set the compass to draw a circle of a given diameter, use a piece of scratch paper and follow the steps listed below, referring to figure 3-8. 1. Draw a horizontal line with a straightedge. 2. With the straightedge as a base, use a triangle and draw a vertical line intersecting the horizontal line (fig. 3-8, view A). 3. Measure the radius of the circle with a scale, as shown in figure 3-8, view B, and draw a second vertical line from this point. 4. Set the needlepoint at the intersection of the first vertical line and the horizontal line (fig. 3-8, view C). This is the center of the circle. 5. Set the marking leg to fall on the intersection of the second vertical line and the horizontal line (fig. 3-8, view D). 6. Draw a half circle with the compass fig. 3-8, view E). 7. Check your diameter established (fig. 3-8, view F). work by measuring the by this half circle with a scale Figure 3-8.-Drawing a circle of a given radius. 45.157 Once You have set the compass to the exact radius of the circle, handle it very carefully so that you dont disturb the setting. Set the needlepoint at the center of the circle and carefully rotate the compass to draw a line describing the circumference of the circle. Do not apply too much pressure on the needlepoint or it will bore a hole in the paper and you will lose the accurate center mark. To keep the diameter of the hole to a minimum, you may set the needlepoint of the compass on a small strip of paper or thin cardboard over the drafting sheet at the center of the circle. When you are using the pencil leg to draw circles smaller than 1 in. in radius, keep the adjustable pencil and needle legs straight. For larger circles,
both legs should be adjusted so that they are perpendicular to the paper. On the other hand, when you are using the compass with the pen leg, you MUST adjust it at the hinge joint to keep it perpendicular to the paper for all size 3-7
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sharper the curve, the more points you need) and by drawing in shorts steps. Figure 3-10 shows how a smooth line is drawn through a series of plotted points. The french curve in view A matches points 1, 2, 3, and 4. Draw a line from 1 to 3 only (not to 4). At B, the curve matches points 3 to beyond 4. Draw a line from 3 to 4 only (not to 5). At C, it matches points 4, 5, and 6. Draw a line from 4 to just short of 6. At D, it matches a point short of 6 to beyond 7. Draw a line from 6 to 7. At E, it matches a point short of 7 to beyond 9. Draw a line from 7 to 9. At F, it matches a point short of 9 to beyond 11. Draw a line from 9 to 11. You will probably notice how the french curve is turned over and reversed to find portions that fit the points on the line with increasing or decreasing changes in curvature. When you are drawing a curved line that extends into a straight line, the curve should be drawn first, and the straight line joined to it. USE OF DRAFTING TEMPLATES Drafting templates should be used only when accuracy can be sacrificed for speed. Circles or arcs, for example, can be drawn more quickly with a template than with a compass. Templates must be used properly to be effective. To draw a circle with the circle template (fig. 3-11), lay out center lines on the drawing where Figure 3-11.-Use of the circle template. the circle is to be drawn. Then place the correct circle opening over the center line so that the quadrant lines on the template coincide with the center lines on the paper. Draw the circle, using a sharp, conical point on the pencil. Allowance must always be made for the width of the pencil line in placing the template opening in the right position on the drawing. To draw an arc, lay out tangent lines on the drawing. Then place the correct size circle of the template on the paper so that the template quadrant lines coincide with the tangent lines, and draw the arc. When using a template, you must hold it down firmly to keep it from slipping out of position. Figures or circles from the template must be drawn with the correct line weight on the first setting as it is difficult to reset the template in the exact position. USE OF THE DIVIDERS As we stated in chapter 2, dividers are used to transfer measurements, to step off a series of equal distances, and to divide lines into a number of equal parts. Dividers are manipulated with one hand. In setting dividers (fig. 3-12, view A), hold Figure 3-12.-Use of the dividers. 3-9
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45.159 Figure 3-9.-Drawing a circle in ink. circles. (See fig. 3-9, view A.) If the pen is not perpendicular to the paper, ink will not flow properly. To draw large circles, insert the extension bar in the pen or pencil leg, as shown in figure 3-9, view B. When the extension bar is used to draw large circles, the process of using the compass with only one hand becomes awkward. You should use both hands, as shown in figure 3-9, view B. Use of the French Curve The french curve is used to draw a smooth line through predetermined points. After the points are plotted, a light pencil line should be sketched to connect the points in a smooth flowing line. To draw the finished line over the freehand line, match the various parts of the french curve to various segments of the freehand curve. Avoid abrupt changes in curvature by placing the short radius of the french curve toward the short radius portion of the line to be drawn. Change your position around the drawing board when necessary so that you can work on the side of the french curve that is away from you. You should avoid working on the under side of the french curve. Place the french curve so that it intersects at least two points of the line. When drawing the line along the edge of the french curve, stop short of the last point intersected. Then move the french curve along to intersect two or three more points and make sure that the edge of the curve connects smoothly with the line already drawn. When using the irregular curve, you can draw a perfectly smooth curved line by plotting enough points (the Figure 3-10.-Use of the french curve. 3-8
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one leg between the thumb and the first and second fingers, and hold the other leg between the third and fourth fingers. Place the second and third fingers on the inside of the legs; the dividers are opened by spreading these fingers apart. Dividers are closed by squeezing the thumb and first finger toward the fourth finger while gradually slipping out the other two fingers. To transfer measurements on a drawing, set the dividers to the correct distance, then transfer the measurements to the drawing by pricking the drawing surface very lightly with the points of the dividers. To measure off a series of equal distances on the line, set the dividers to the given distance. Then step off this distance as many times as desired by swinging the dividers from one leg to the other along the line, first swinging clockwise 180 degrees, then counterclockwise 180 degrees, and so on. In dividing either a straight line (fig. 3-12, view B) or a curved line (fig. 3-12, view C) into a given number of equal parts (for example, four) by trial, open the dividers to a rough approximation of the first division (in this case, one quarter of the line length) and step off the distance lightly, holding the dividers by the handle and pivoting the instrument on alternate sides of the line at each step. If the dividers fall short of the end of the line after the fourth step, hold the back leg in place and advance the forward leg, by guess, one quarter of the remaining distance. Repeat the procedure until the last step falls at the end of the line. Be careful during this process not to punch holes in the paper, but just barely mark the surface for future reference. To identify prick marks made with small dividers for future reference, circle the marks lightly with a pencil. USE OF THE DRAFTING SCALE Accuracy in drawing depends to a great extent upon correct use of the scale in marking off distances. You should place the edge of the scale parallel to the line being measured (fig. 3-13). To eliminate shadows cast by your body or hands, point the desired scale face away from you for horizontal measurements and toward your left for vertical measurements. With a sharp pencil, mark off short dashes at right angles to the scale at the correct distances, aligning the mark carefully with the scale graduation. Have your eye approximately over the point being measured, Figure 3-13.-Use of the drafting scale. and make light marks to denote the point of measurement. When setting the compass to a given radius or when setting divider points, never place the sharp points of these instruments on the scale. Lay out the desired radius or distance on a straight pencil line by using the scale in the manner described above. Then adjust the compass or dividers to the indicated length by using the measured line. A scale surface marred by pinpricks is difficult to read and is unsuitable for accurate work. In making successive measurements along the same line, make as many measurements as possible without moving the scale. If a number of distances are to be laid out end to end, hold the scale in one position and add each successive measurement to the preceding one. If the scale is moved to a new position each time, slight errors in measurement may accumulate. For example, four successive measurements of 1 5/8 in. each should give an overall length of 6 1/2 in., not 6 9/16 in. Therefore, make as many measurements as you can without changing the reference point. This will avoid cumulative errors in the use of the scale. Note that your pencil touches the scale only for the purpose of marking a point on the paper. Never use a scale as a straightedge for drawing lines. A typical office ruler has a metal edge; it is a scale and straightedge combined. But a draftsmans measuring scale is for measuring only; it is not a ruler. A scale properly used will last for decades, but a scale used as a straightedge will soon have the graduations worn away. 3-10
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DRAWING FORMATS Drawing format is the systematic space arrangement of required information within the drafting sheet. This information is used to identify, process, and file drawings methodicaly. Standard sizes and formats for military drawings are arranged according to DoD-STD-100C, Engineering Drawing Practices, and MIL-HDBK-1006/1, Policy and Procedures for Project Drawing and Specification Preparation. With the exception of specific local command requirements, DoD-STD-100C and MIL-HDBK-1006/1 are your guidelines for preparing SEABEE drawings. Most of the documents applicable to these standards have recently been revised and updated in order to gain like information and to share uniformity of form and language within the Naval Construction Force and between DoD organizations. Other influencing factors are the current widespread use of reduced-size copies of both conventional and computer-generated drawings and exchange of microfilm. SHEET SIZES Standard drawing sheet sizes are used to facilitate readability, reproduction, handling, and uniform filing. Blueprints produced from standard size drawing sheets are easily assembled in sets for project stick files and can readily be folded for mailing and neatly filed in project letter size or legal size folders. (Filing drawings and folding blueprints will be covered later in this training manual.) Finished format sizes for drawings shown in figure 3-14, view A, are according to ANSI Y14.1 45.857 Figure 3-14.-Guide for preparing horizontal and vertical margins, sizes, and finished drawing format. 3-11
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(1980), approved and adopted for use under DoD-STD-100C. Flat size refers to drawings that, because of their relatively small size, should be stored or filed flat. Roll size refers to drawings that, because of their lengths, are filed in rolls. Finished format sizes for a drawing refer to the dimensions between trim lines (X and Y in figure 3-14, view A). The TRIM LINE is the outside line of either the vertical or horizontal margin. The inside lines of the margins are called BORDERLINES. Width (X) is always PARALLEL to the working edge of the drawing board; length (Y) is always PERPENDICULAR to the working edge of the drawing board. Notice, in figure 3-14, view B, that 2 in. should be added to the left margin and to the right margin for protection of roll-size drawings. The edge of a drawing prepared on tracing paper will tear easily after it is rolled and unrolled several times. SHEET LAYOUT Sheets of drafting or tracing paper are cut slightly larger than their required finished sizes and are fastened to the drafting board as previously described. Using a hard (4H to 6H) pencil and a T square (or parallel straightedge), draw a horizontal trim line near the lower edge of the paper. Then draw a vertical trim line near the left edge of the paper with a T square (or parallel straightedge), pencil, and triangle, as previously described. Dimensions establishing the finished length of the sheet (distance between vertical trim lines) and the location of the vertical borderlines are marked off on the horizontal trim lines. A full-size scale should be used when you are laying off a series of measurements along a line. Dimensions establishing the finished width of the sheet (distance between horizontal trim Figure 3-15.-Preparing title block for A-, B-, C-, and G-size drawings. 3-12
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Next Figure 3-17.-Example of vertical title block prepared by NAVFACENGCOM.
lines) and the location of the horizontal borderlines are marked off on the vertical trim lines. Dimensions may be scaled along the borderlines. After the drawing is completed, borderlines are given the required weight. After the completed drawing has been removed from the board, it is cut to its finished size along the trim line. If blueprints are to be made on paper that is not precut to the standard drawing size, you may find it necessary to leave an extra margin outside the trim lines. By leaving an extra margin, you can darken the trim lines. The darkened trim lines, when reproduced, will provide a visible line for trimming the blueprints to size. The extra margin will also help protect the drawing when it is repeatedly handled or attached to the drawing board later for revisions. BASIC FORMAT The following discussion deals with the basic drafting format. By basic format, we mean the title block, revision block, list of materials, and other information that must be placed on applicable size drafting sheets. Although you may find slight variations on local-command- prepared drawings, the basic format specified in MIL-HDBK-1006/1 is required on all NAV- FACENGCOM drawings. Title Block The primary purpose of a drawing title block is to identify a drawing. Title blocks must be uniform in size and easy to read. They may be mechanically lettered, neatly lettered freehand, or preprinted commercially on standard size drafting sheets. Generally, the title block is placed in the lower right-hand corner of the drawing sheet, regardless of the size of the drawing (except for vertical title block). There are three sizes of title blocks: a block used for A-, B-, C-, and G-size drawings (fig. 3-15), a slightly larger block for D-, E-, F-, H-, J-, and K-size drawings (fig. 3-16), and a Figure 3-16.-Preparing title block for D-, E-, F-, H-, J-, and K-size drawings. 3-13
Back BASIC FORMAT
Next Figure 3-18.-Use of continuation sheet title block and multiple sheet numbering.
Figure 3-17.-Example of vertical title block prepared by NAVFACENGCOM. vertical title block (fig. 3-17). The vertical title block The letter designations shown in figure 3-16 are format must be used for all 22-in. by 34-in. (Dsize) used to locate the following title block information: drawings and is optional for 28-in. by 40-in. (F-size) drawings. Record of preparation. This information will In a multiple-sheet drawing, either the basic title vary with each command or activity, but will normally block or a continuation sheet title block format (fig. include the dates and the surnames of the persons concerned with the preparation of the drawing. The 3-18) may be used for second and subsequent sheets applicable work request number or locally assigned provided all sheets are of the same size. Certain drawing number may also be placed in the upper prtion information common to all drawings in the basic title of this space. This block is optional for continuation block is optional in the continuation sheet title block. sheets. 3-14
Back Figure 3-17.-Example of vertical title block prepared by NAVFACENGCOM.
Next Examples of title blocks used on drawings prepared by Naval Construction Battalion
Figure 3-18.-Use of continuation sheet title block and multiple sheet numbering. @ Drawing title. In the space provided for the drawing title, the general project and the specific features shown on the drawing should be included. Example 1: Example 2: The general project (RESTROOM FACILITIES, SEABEE PARK, in example 1) once entered in the title block of sheet 1, is not to be repeated on each sheet of a set of multipleproject drawings. Example 2 is the title taken from the title block of a drawing contained in NAVFAC P-272, Definitive Designs for Naval Shore Facilities. In this example the general project or common title, DEFINITIVE DRAWING, appears as the top line title on all drawings in NAVFAC P-272. This block is optional for continuation sheets. @ Preparing activity. This space is reserved for the name and location of the activity preparing the drawing. In addition, the words DEPART- MENT OF THE NAVY are placed in this space. This block is optional for continuation sheets. The information placed in spaces @ and @ (fig 316) varies with each command and the 3-15
Back Figure 3-18.-Use of continuation sheet title block and multiple sheet numbering.
Next Satisfactory To Block
Figure 3-19.-Examples of title blocks used on drawings prepared by Naval Construction Battalion and Naval Construction Regiment. purpose of the drawing (fig. 3-19). One space is usually reserved for the signature of (APPROVED BY) your commanding officer or officer in charge, and the other space is for the signature of the commander of the activity or command requiring the drawing (SATISFAC- TORY TO). As shown in the examples in figure 3-19, these two spaces may be used inter- changeably. This is acceptable as long as consistency is maintained. It is also acceptable to use only space @ when a SATISFACTORY TO space is not required for the drawing, as shown on the NAVFAC title blocks in figures 3-20 and 3-21. In this case the @ space is extended upward or the @ space may be extended downward if additional space is required. These blocks, if not required, may be absorbed into block @ far continuation sheets or used for other purposes. @ Code identification number. The federal supply code for manufacturers (FSCM) is a five- digit number used to identify the government design activity; that is, the activity having responsibility for the design of an item. For most of your drawings, NAVFAC has the ultimate design responsibility. Therefore, the identification number 80091 is to appear in the title block of all NAVFACENGCOM drawings. You may choose to use either FSCM or Code 10 (the terms are interchangeable) in the title block. @ Drawing size. This space is reserved for the letter designating the drawing format size. @ Drawing number. If the drawing is prepared for or by NAVFACENGCOM, a NAVFAC drawing number will be assigned. Assignment of NAVFAC drawing numbers is covered in MIL-HDBK 1006/1, Policy and Procedures for Project Drawing and Specification Preparation. If the drawing does not require a NAVFAC drawing number, this space will be left blank, and a local command drawing number will be placed in space @. Occasionally, blocks require the drawing number to in space @. (Refer to fig. 3-19.) local title be placed 3-16
Back Figure 3-18.-Use of continuation sheet title block and multiple sheet numbering.
Next Satisfactory To Block
Figure 3-19.-Examples of title blocks used on drawings prepared by Naval Construction Battalion and Naval Construction Regiment. purpose of the drawing (fig. 3-19). One space is usually reserved for the signature of (APPROVED BY) your commanding officer or officer in charge, and the other space is for the signature of the commander of the activity or command requiring the drawing (SATISFAC- TORY TO). As shown in the examples in figure 3-19, these two spaces may be used inter- changeably. This is acceptable as long as consistency is maintained. It is also acceptable to use only space @ when a SATISFACTORY TO space is not required for the drawing, as shown on the NAVFAC title blocks in figures 3-20 and 3-21. In this case the @ space is extended upward or the @ space may be extended downward if additional space is required. These blocks, if not required, may be absorbed into block @ far continuation sheets or used for other purposes. @ Code identification number. The federal supply code for manufacturers (FSCM) is a five- digit number used to identify the government design activity; that is, the activity having responsibility for the design of an item. For most of your drawings, NAVFAC has the ultimate design responsibility. Therefore, the identification number 80091 is to appear in the title block of all NAVFACENGCOM drawings. You may choose to use either FSCM or Code 10 (the terms are interchangeable) in the title block. @ Drawing size. This space is reserved for the letter designating the drawing format size. @ Drawing number. If the drawing is prepared for or by NAVFACENGCOM, a NAVFAC drawing number will be assigned. Assignment of NAVFAC drawing numbers is covered in MIL-HDBK 1006/1, Policy and Procedures for Project Drawing and Specification Preparation. If the drawing does not require a NAVFAC drawing number, this space will be left blank, and a local command drawing number will be placed in space @. Occasionally, blocks require the drawing number to in space @. (Refer to fig. 3-19.) local title be placed 3-16
Back Examples of title blocks used on drawings prepared by Naval Construction Battalion
Next Format used in preparing revision blocks
Figure 3-20.-Example of a title block prepared by an activity not requiring NAVFACENGCOM approval. Figure 321.-Example of a title block used on drawings prepared by NAVFACENGCOM. @ Scale. This space is reserved for the scale to which the drawing is prepared. When more than one scale is used on the drawing, the words AS SHOWN or AS NOTED are entered after the word SCALE in the space @. If the drawing was not to scale, the word NONE is entered. @ Specification number. On drawings that are prepared for or by NAVFACENGCOM, this space is reserved for the project specification or contract number. If the drawing does not pertain to a particular project specification or contract, this space will normally be left blank. @ Sheet number. On a single construction drawing, SHEET 1 of 1 will be entered in this space. For numbering of second and subsequent sheets in a multiple-sheet drawing (fig. 3-18, view C), similar drawing numbers appear in both basic and continuation sheet title blocks; however, the total sheet number is entered on sheet 1 while the specific sheet number is entered on each subsequent sheet. Satisfactory To Block In addition to spaces @ and @ on the title block, which are provided for approval signatures, a second SATISFACTORY TO block may be required when an outside activity requests a drawing. The extra SATISFACTORY TO block is identical to the SATISFACTORY TO space in the title block but is located adjacent to title block space @. Revision Block A REVISION block contains a list of all revisions made to the drawing. On construction drawings, the revision block is placed in the upper right-hand corner. Basically, all revision blocks provide the same information; only the 3-17
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Next Use of line characteristics and conventions
Figure 3-22.-Format used in preparing revision blocks. sizes of the blocks differ (fig. 3-22). Revision A brief description of each change is information is entered chronologically starting at the top of the revision block. Revision letters are used to identify a change or revision to a drawing. Uppercase letters are used in alphabetical sequence, omitting the letters I, O, Q, S, X, and Z. The first revision to a drawing is assigned the A. On a drawing, all changes that are incorporated at one time are identified by the same revision letter. The changes may be numbered sequentially to permit ready identification of a specific change. In this case, the appropriate serial number will appear as a suffix to the revision letter (for example, A1, A2, A3, etc.). Whenever possible the revision letter will be placed near the actual change on the drawing. It should be placed so it is not confused with other symbols on the drawing. Usually, the revision letter is placed inside of a circle or triangle If a circle or triangle is used on the drawing, it should also be used in the revision block. made in the description column, adjacent to its revision letter, in the revision block. The approval signature and date of revision are also entered in the appropriate columns. For all drawings prepared by Architect/Engineer (A/E) firms, the revision block should include a separate PREPARED BY column (fig. 3-22, view B). The zone column on the standard revision block is normally omitted on construction drawings but may be used in reviewing maps. Zones are indicated by alphabetical or numerical entries and are evenly spaced in the margin for locating an object on the drawing or map. Use of zoning is described in DoD-STD-100C. Like title blocks, revision blocks may vary with each command, and you will be required to follow command guidelines. The procedure for making revisions to drawings is covered in DoDSTD- 100C. 3-18
Back Format used in preparing revision blocks
Next Use of line characteristics and conventionsContinued
Bill of Materials a separate list of materials is prepared by an estimator. When a BILL OF MATERIALS block is used on a construction drawing, it is placed directly above the title block against the right-hand margin. A bill of materials is a tabulated list of material requirements for a given project. The size of the BILL OF MATERIALS block will depend on the size of the drawing and the number of material items listed. On most construction projects, it is impossible to list all items in a single BILL OF MATERIALS block; LINE CONVENTIONS When you are preparing drawings, you will use different types of lines to convey information. Line characteristics, such as widths, breaks in the line, and zigzags, all have definite meanings. Figure 3-23, taken from DoD-STD-100C, shows the different types of lines that should be used therefore, it is omitted from the drawings, and on your drawings. Figure 3-23.-Use of line characteristics and conventions. 3-19 142.46.1
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Next CONSTRUCTION LINES
142.46.2 Figure 3-23.-Use of line characteristics and conventionsContinued. The widths of the various lines on a drawing required for borderlines, outline of principal are very important in interpreting the drawing. DoDSTD-100C specifies that three widths of line should be used: thin, medium, and thick. As a general rule, on ink drawings, these three line widths are proportioned 1:2:4, respectively. However, the actual width of each type of line should be governed by the size and the type of drawing. The width of lines in format features (that is, title blocks and revision blocks) should be a minimum of 0.015 in. (thin lines) and 0.030 in. (thick lines). To provide contrasting divisions between elements of the format, thick lines are blocks, and main divisions of blocks, whereas thin lines are required for minor divisions of title and revision blocks and bill of materials. Use of medium line width for letters and numbers is recommended. The width of lines drawn with a pencil cannot be controlled as well as the width of lines drawn with pen and ink. However, pencil lines should be opaque and of uniform width throughout their length. Cutting plane and viewing plane lines should be the thickest lines on the drawing. Lines used for outlines and other visible lines 3-20
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Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural
Next DIMENSION
Continued
engineering guide book
LINES
should be differentiated from hidden, extension, dimension, or center lines. CONSTRUCTION LINES Usually the first lines that you will use on a drawing are construction lines. These are the same lines that you used to lay out your drafting sheet. They will also be used to lay out the rest of your drawing. Line weight for construction lines is not important since they will not appear on your finished drawing. They should be heavy enough to see, but light enough to erase easily. A 4H to 6H pencil with a sharp, conical point should be used. With the exception of light lettering guidelines, all construction lines must be erased or darkened before a drawing is reproduced. CENTER LINES Center lines are used to indicate the center of a circle, arc, or any symmetrical object. (See fig. 3-24.) Center lines are composed of long and short dashes, alternately and evenly spaced, with a long dash at each end. They should extend at least one-fourth in. outside the object. At
intersecting points, center lines should be drawn as short dashes. A very short center line may be drawn as a single dash if there is no possibility of confusing it with other lines. Center lines may also be used to indicate the travel of a moving center, as shown in figure 3-24. VISIBLE LINES The visible edge lines of the view are drawn as solid, thick lines. These include not only the outlines of the view, but lines defining edges that are visible within the view. (See fig. 3-25.) HIDDEN LINES Hidden edge lines are drawn with short dashes and are used to show hidden features of an object. A hidden line should begin with a dash in contact with the line from which it starts, except when it is the continuation of an unbroken line. (See fig. 3-26.) To prevent confusion in the interpretation of hidden edge lines, you must apply certain standard techniques in drawing these lines. A hidden edge line that is supposed to join a visible or another hidden line must actually contact the line, as shown in the upper views of figure 3-27; Figure 3-25.-Use of visible edge lines. Figure 3-26.-Use of hidden edge lines. Figure 3-24.-Use of center lines. Figure 3-27.-Correct and incorrect procedures for drawing adjoining bidden lines. 3-21
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Next BREAK LINES
the incorrect procedure is shown in the lower views. Figure 3-28 shows an intersection between a hidden edge line and a visible edge line. Obviously, on the object itself the hidden edge line must be below the visible edge line. You indicate this face by drawing the hidden edge line as shown in the upper view of figure 3-28. If you drew it as indicated in the lower view, the hidden edge line would appear to be above, rather than beneath, the visible edge line. Figure 3-29 shows an intersection between two hidden edge lines, one of which is beneath the other on the object itself. You indicate this fact by drawing the lines as indicated in the upper view of figure 3-29. If you drew them as indicated in the lower view, the wrong line would appear to be uppermost. EXTENSION LINES Extension lines are used to extend dimensions beyond the outline of a view so that they can be read easily. These thin, unbroken lines are started about one sixteenth of an inch from the outline of the object and extend about one eighth of an inch beyond the outermost dimension line. They are drawn parallel to each other and perpendicular Figure 3-29.-Correct and incorrect procedures for drawing intersecting hidden edge lines that are on different levels. Figure 3-30.-Use of extension lines. to the distance to be shown. (See fig. 3-30.) In unusual cases, extension lines may be drawn at other angles if their meaning is clear. As far as practical, avoid drawing extension lines directly to the outline of an object. When it is necessary for extension lines to cross each other, they should be broken, as shown in figure 3-31. DIMENSION LINES A dimension line, terminating at either end in a long, pointed arrowhead, is inserted between each pair of extension lines. It is a thin line, and, Figure 3-28.Correct and incorrect procedures for draw- except in architectural ing a hidden edge line that intersects a visible edge is usually broken to line. dimension numerals. 3-22 and structural drafting, it provide a space for the Occasionally, when the
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Next PHANTOM LINES
Figure 3-31.-Breaking extension lines and leaders at points of intersection. radius of an arc is to be indicated, there is an arrow at only the end of the line that touches the arc. The other end, without an arrow, terminates at the point used as the center in drawing the arc. The arrowhead on a dimension or leader line is an important detail of a drawing. If these arrowheads are sloppily drawn and vary in size, the drawing will not look finished and professional. The size of the arrowhead used on a drawing may vary with the size of the drawing, but all arrowheads on a single drawing should be the same size, except occasionally when space is very restricted. The arrowheads used on Navy drawings are usually solid, or filled in, and are between one eighth and one fourth of an inch long, with the length about three times the spread. (See fig. 3-32.) With a little practice, you can learn to make good arrowheads freehand, Referring to figure 3-32, first define the length of the arrowhead with a short stroke as shown at A. Then draw the sides of the arrowhead as indicated at B and C. Finally, fill in the area enclosed by the lines, as shown at D. LEADERS Leaders are used to connect numbers, references, or notes to the appropriate surfaces Figure 3-32.-Method of drawing an arrowhead. or lines on the drawing. From any suitable portion of the reference, note, or number, a short line is drawn parallel to the lettering. From this line the remainder of the leader is drawn at an angle (dog leg) to an arrowhead or dot. In this way, the leader will not be confused with other lines of the drawing. If the reference is to a line, the leader is always terminated at this line with an arrowhead, as shown in figure 3-33. However, a reference to a surface terminates with a dot within the outline of that surface. BREAK LINES The size of the graphic representation of an object is often reduced
(usually for the purpose of economizing on paper space) by the use of a device called a break. Suppose, for example, you want to make a drawing of a rectangle 1 ft wide by 100 ft long to the scale of 1/12, or 1 in. = 1 ft. If you drew in the full length of the rectangle, you would need a sheet of paper 100 in. long. By using a break, you can reduce the length of the figure to a feasible length, as shown in figure 3-34. Figure 3-33.-Use of a leader. Figure 3-34.-Use of proper line conventions for (A) short break, and (B) long break. 3-23
Back BREAK LINES
Next VIEWING OR CUTTING PLANE LINES
On the original object, the ratio of width to length is 1:100. You can see that on the drawing the ratio is much larger (roughly about 1:8). However, the break tells you that a considerable amount of the central part of the figure is presumed to be removed. The thick, wavy lines shown in view (A), figure 3-34, are used for a short break. A short break is indicated by solid, freehand lines, and is generally used for rectangular sections. For wooden rectangular sections, the breaks are made sharper (serrated appearance) rather than wavy. For long breaks, full, ruled lines with freehand zigzags are used, as shown in view (B), figure 3-34. For wider objects, a long break might have more than one pair of zigzag lines. For drawings made to a large scale, special conventions are used that apply to drawing breaks in such things as metal rods, tubes, or bars. The methods of drawing these breaks are shown in figure 3-35. PHANTOM LINES Phantom lines are used most frequently to indicate an alternate position of a moving part, as shown in the left-hand view of figure 3-36. The part in one position is drawn in full lines, while in the alternate position it is drawn in phantom lines. Phantom lines are also used to indicate a break when the nature of the object makes the use of the conventional type of break unfeasible. An example of this use of phantom lines is shown in the right-hand view of figure 3-36. Figure 3-36.-Use of phantom lines. SECTION LINES Sometimes the technical information conveyed by a drawing can best be shown by a view that represents the object as it would look if part of it were cut away. A view of this kind is called a section. The upper view of figure 3-37 shows a plan view of a pipe sleeve. The lower view is a section, Figure 3-35.-Use of special breaks. 3-24 Figure 3-37.-Drawing of a plan view and a full section.
Back PHANTOM LINES
Next ORDER OF PENCILING
showing the pipe sleeve as it would look, viewed from one side, if it were cut exactly in half vertically. The surface of the imaginary cut is crosshatched with lines called section lines. According to DoD-STD-100C, section lining shall be composed of uniformly spaced lines at an angle of 45 degrees to the baseline of the section. On adjacent parts, the lines shall be drawn in opposite directions. On a third part, adjacent to two other parts, the section lining shall be drawn at an angle of 30 to 60 degrees. The cross-hatching shown in figure 3-37 could be used on any drawing of parts made of only one material (like machine parts, for example, which are generally made of metal). The cross-hatching is the symbol for metals and may be used for a section drawing of any type of material. A section like the one shown in figure 3-37, which goes all the way through and divides the object into halves, is called a full section. If the section showed the sleeve as it would look if cut vertically into unequal parts, or cut only part way through, it would be a partial section. If the cut followed one vertical line part of the way down and then was offset to a different line, it would be an offset section. VIEWING OR CUTTING PLANE LINES VIEWING PLANE LINES are used to indicate the plane or planes from which a surface or several surfaces are viewed. CUTTING PLANE LINES are used to indicate a plane or planes in which a sectional view is taken. Section views are used to give a clearer view of the interior or hidden feature of an object that normally cannot be clearly observed in conventional outside views. A section view is obtained by cutting away part of an object to show the shape and construction at the cutting plane. Notice the CUTTING PLANE LINE AA in figure 3-38, view A. It shows where the imaginary cut has been made. The single view in figure 3-38, view B, helps you to visualize the cutting plane. The arrows point in the direction in which you are to look at the sectional view. 65.25 Figure 3-38.-Action of a cutting plane. Figure 3-38, view C, is a front view showing how the object would look if it were cut in half. The orthographic section view of section A-A, figure 3-38, view D, instead of the confusing front view in figure 3-38, view A, is placed on the drawing. Notice how much easier it is to read and understand. Note that hidden lines behind the plane of projection are omitted in
the sectional view. These lines are omitted by general custom, the custom being based on the fact that the elimination of hidden lines is the basic reason for making a sectional view. However, lines that would be visible behind the plane projection must be included in the section view. Cutting plane lines, together with arrows and letters, make up the cutting plane indications. The arrows at the end of the cutting plane lines are 3-25
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Next ORDER OF INKING
used to indicate the direction in which the sections are viewed. The cutting plane may be a single continuous plane, or it may be offset if the detail can be shown to better advantage. On simple views, the cutting plane should be indicated as shown in figure 3-38, view A. On large, complex views or when the cutting planes are offset, they should be shown as in figure 3-39. All cutting plane indications should be identified by use of reference letters placed at the point of the arrowheads. Where a change in direction of the cutting plane is not clear, reference letters may also be placed at each change of direction. Where more than one sectional view appears on a drawing, the cutting plane indications should be lettered alphabetically. The letters that are part of the cutting plane indication should always appear as part of the title; for example, SECTION A-A, SECTION B-B, If the single alphabet is exhausted, multiples of letters maybe used. The word SECTION may be abbreviated, if desired. Place the title directly under the section drawing. DATUM LINES A datum line is a line used to indicate a line or plane of reference, such as the plane from 65.26 Figure 3-39.-Use of an offset section. which an elevation consist of one long (medium thickness), is measured. Datum lines dash and two short dashes equally spaced. Datum lines differ from phantom lines only in the way they are used. STITCH LINES Stitch lines are used to indicate the stitching or sewing lines on an article. They consist of a series of very short dashes (medium thickness), approximately half the length of the dash of hidden lines, evenly spaced. Long lines of stitching may be indicated by a series of stitch lines connected by phantom lines. MATCH LINES Match lines are used when an object is too large to fit on a single drawing sheet and must be continued on another sheet. The points where the object stops on one sheet and continues on the next sheet must be identified with corresponding match lines. They are medium weight lines indicated with the words MATCH LINE and referenced to the sheet that has the corresponding match line. Examples of construction drawings that may require match lines are maps and road plans where the length is much greater
than the width and it is impractical to reduce the size of the drawing to fit a single sheet. ORDER OF PENCILING Experience has shown that a drawing can be made far more efficiently and rapidly if all the lines in a particular category are drawn at the same time, and if the various categories of lines are drawn in a specific order or succession. Figure 3-40 shows the order in which the lines of the completed drawing (shown in the last view) were drawn. This order followed the recommended step-by-step procedures, which is as follows: 1. Draw all center lines. 2. Draw the principal circles, arcs, fillets, rounds, and other compass-drawn lines. A fillet is a small arc that indicates a rounded concave joint between two surfaces. A round is a small arc that indicates a rounded convex joint between two surfaces. 3-26
Back Up Next ORDER OF PENCILING Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book FREEHAND LETTERING
45.161 Figure 3-40.-Order of penciling a drawing. 3. Draw the horizontal and vertical outlines, visible lines, and hidden lines. 4. Draw the nonhorizontal and nonvertical outlines, visible lines, and hidden lines. 5. Clean up the drawing, erasing all excess lines and construction lines. A construction line is a light line used as a drawing guide only. 6. Draw extension lines, dimension lines, section lines, and any other lines required. 7. Inscribe the dimensions and lettering. To a limited extent you can vary the thickness of a pencil line by varying the extent to which you bear down on the pencil. However, you cant bear down very hard without troughing the paper. Therefore, you cant get much variety in line weight with a pencil. For a drawing that will be inked over, this doesnt make any difference. However, for one that will not be reproduced, or which will be reproduced directly from the pencil original, you must follow, as nearly as you can, the line conventions. ORDER OF INKING The beginner is usually frightened at the prospect of trying to ink a drawing without spoiling it. Once you have learned how to use drawing instruments and to follow a definite order of inking, you will have greatly reduced the danger of spoiling a drawing. Nowadays, draftsmen prefer the reservoir pen or rapidograph to the ruling pen for inking straight and curved lines and even for lettering. On the other hand, the ruling pen should NEVER be used to ink freehand lines. One good way to avoid smeared ink lines is by using SPACE BLOCKS. These strips of tape or thin pieces of plastic, when fastened to both faces of the triangles, french curves, or templates (fig. 3-41), raise their edges from the surface of the drafting paper and prevent ink from running under the edge. When you use a rapidograph or reservoir pen with a T square or parallel straightedge, make long lines with a whole arm movement and short lines with a finger movement. Draw horizontal lines from left to right, starting at the top of the drawing and working down. (If you are left-handed, you will, of course, draw these lines from right to left, and similarly reverse many of the directions given in this training manual.) Figure 3-41.-Use of space blocks. 3-27
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Next Ames Lettering Instrument
Vertical lines are usually drawn in an upward direction, moving from left to right across the drawing. However, when you have to draw a number of vertical lines or lines slanted in the same direction, the way you draw them will be governed by the source of your light and the way you have found that you can draw vertical lines with greatest control. Let the first lines dry before starting to draw any intersecting lines. Watch carefully when you draw one line across another line. You vary the thickness of ink lines by selecting a pen unit that matches your desired application and/or line convention. The order generally recommended for inking is as follows: 1. Inking of a drawing must start from the top of the paper and progress toward the bottom. 2. Start inking all arcs of circles, fillets, rounds, small circles, large circles, and other compass-drawn lines. 3. Ink all irregular curves, using a french curve or a spline as a guide. 4. Ink all thick horizontal lines, then all medium and thin lines. 5. Start at the left edge and ink the thick first, the medium next, and finally the thin
vertical lines from left to right. 6. Follow the same procedure described in (4) and (5) for slanting. 7. Ink section lines, dimensions, and arrowheads. 8. Ink notes and title, meridian symbol, and graphic scales. 9. Ink borders and check inked drawing for completeness. 10. Use an art gum or a kneaded eraser to erase pencil marks or for final cleanup of the drawing. LETTERING The information that a drawing must present cannot be revealed by graphic shapes and lines alone. To make a drawing informative and complete, you must include lettering in the form of dimensions, notes, legends, and titles. Lettering can either enhance your drawing by making it simple to interpret and pleasant to look at, or it can ruin your drawing by making it difficult to read and unsightly in appearance. Therefore, it is essential that you master the techniques and skills required for neat, legible lettering. FREEHAND LETTERING As you work with experienced draftsmen, you will notice that their freehand lettering adds style and individuality to their work. They take great pride in their freehand lettering ability. By learning basic letter forms and with constant practice, you will soon be able to do a creditable job of lettering and acquire your own style and individuality. Anyone who can write can learn to letter. As you practice you will steadily improve both your style and the speed with which you can letter neatly. Dont give up if your first attempts do not produce neat lettering. Dont be afraid to ask your supervisor for a few pointers. An understanding of the letter shapes and the ability to visualize them can be accomplished by drawing them until the muscles of your hand are accustomed to the pattern of the strokes that make up the letters. You should be able to draw good letters without consciously thinking of this pattern. Your position and how you hold your pencil will greatly affect your lettering. You should sit up straight and rest your forearm on the drawing board or table. Hold the pencil between the thumb, forefinger, and second finger; the third and fourth fingers and the ball of the palm rest on the drawing sheet. Do not grip the pencil tightly. A tight grip will cramp the muscles in your fingers, causing you to lose control. If you get writers cramp easily, you are probably holding your pencil too tightly. The pencil should be kept sharpened to produce uniform line weights. A conical-shaped pencil point works best for most lettering. Usually, an F or H pencil is used for lettering. A pencil that is too hard may cut into the paper, or it may produce lettering that will not reproduce easily. A pencil that is too soft will require frequent sharpening, and it will produce lettering that may smear easily on a drawing. GUIDELINES Figure 3-42, view A, shows the use of light pencil lines called guidelines. Guidelines ensure consistency in the size of the letter characters. If your lettering consists of capitals, draw only the cap line and base line. If lowercase letters are included as well, draw the waist line and drop line. The waist line indicates the upper limit of the lowercase letters. The ascender is the part of the lowercase letter that extends above the body of the letter; for example, the dot portion of the 3-28
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Next Spacing Between Guidelines
Figure 3-42.-Laying off guidelines. character i in figure 3-42, view A. All ascenders are as high as the caps. The drop line indicates the lower limit of the lowercase letters. The descender is the part of the lowercase letter that extends below the body of the letter, an example being the tail of the character g in figure 3-42, view A. The vertical distance from the drop line to the base line is the same as the vertical distance from the waist line to the cap line. It is about one third of the vertical distance between the base line and the cap line, or about one half of the vertical distance between the base line and the waist line. Figure 3-42, view B, shows an easy way to lay out guidelines for caps and lowercase. Let the height of a capital be 1 1/2 times the distance a. Set a compass or dividers to distance a, and lay off distance a above and below the midline selected for the guidelines, The method locates the cap line and the drop line. Then set the compass or dividers to one half of a, and lay off this distance above and below the midline. This method locates the waist line and the base line. To help you keep your lettering vertical, it is a good idea to construct vertical guidelines, spaced at random along the horizontal guidelines. For inclined lettering, lay off lines inclined at the angle you wish your lettering to be slanted. (See fig. 3-43, view A.) Inclined lines are known as 29.275 Figure 3-43.-Laying off lines for lettering. direction lines and are normally slanted at a maximum of 68 degrees. Ames Lettering Instrument If you have many lines of lettering to do, you will find a lettering instrument, such as the Ames lettering instrument, shown in figure 3-43, view B, quite useful and timesaving. The topleft section of figure 3-43, view B, shows how to use this instrument in conjunction with a T square to draw properly spaced horizontal guidelines. You insert the point of your pencil through one of the holes, and the instrument slides along the T square as you move the pencil across the page. The enlarged drawing of the instrument in the lower part of the figure shows the details of how the instrument is used. Notice the three rows of holes in the circular disc of the instrument. The holes 3-29
Back Up Next Ames Lettering Instrument Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book Straight-Line Capitals
in the center row are equally spaced guidelines. The two outside rows are used for drawing both capital and lowercase guidelines. The left row gives a proportion of 3 to 5 for lowercase and capital letters, and the right row gives a proportion of 2 to 3. The design of the Ames lettering instrument permits you to use it for lettering ranging in height from 1/16 to 5/16 in. These various heights are attainable by rotating the circular disc within the outer section of the instrument. The numbers along the bottom edge of the disc are used to set the instrument for a particular letter height. A number aligned with the index line on the outer section of the instrument indicates the height of the lettering in 32ds of an inch. In figure 3-43, view B, the number 8 is aligned with the index; therefore, the distance between the capital letter guides produced by this setting is 8/32 in. or 1/4 in. By standing the Ames lettering instrument on its greater sloping side, you can use it for drawing guidelines for inclined lettering that slope at an angle of 67 1/2 degrees with the horizontal. (See the upper-right portion of fig. 3-43, view B.) Spacing Between Guidelines The spacing between two lines of capitals may vary from one half of the height to the full height of a capital. Two thirds of the height is customarily used. The spacing commonly used between lines of lowercase letters is shown in figure 3-44. The space indicated by the letter S equals the vertical distance between the waist line and the cap line. VERTICAL SINGLE-STROKE GOTHIC LETTERING The generally accepted style of lettering for SEABEE drawings is the single-stroke Gothic 45.214 Figure 3-44.-Spacing between lines of lowercase letters. 45.832 Figure 3-45.-Vertical single-stroke Gothic capitals and numerals. vertical (fig. 3-45) or inclined lettering. The term Gothic refers to the style of letters. Gothic lettering is the simplest style to make and the easiest to read on a drawing. Single-stroke means that each stroke of the letter is made by one stroke of the pencil. Figure 3-46 shows the basic strokes required for single-stroke lettering. Vertical strokes are drawn from the top down with an even finger movement. (Inclined strokes are drawn in the same manner.) Horizontal strokes are drawn from left to right with a complete hand movement, pivoting at the wrist. Curved strokes proceed from above downward, using a combined finger and wrist motion. Lettering strokes are drawn, not sketched. It is important that you use the correct direction and sequence of strokes recommended for each letter. The required shapes of vertical single-stroke Gothic letters and numerals will be shown and discussed in the next several figures and paragraphs. To emphasize the proportions of the letters and numerals, each character is shown in a grid, six units high. The grid serves as a reference for comparing the height of the various characters in proportion to their width as well as locating the individual strokes that compose the characters. 3-30
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Next Curved- and Straight-Line Combinations
45.833 Figure 3-46.-Basic lettering strokes. 45.834 Figure 3-47.-Lettering vertical straight-line capitals. For learning purposes, the characters are grouped Z, X, Y, K. Stroke 2 of the Z is longer by the type of strokes required to form each than stroke 1. The inclined strokes of the X character. are closer together at their starting than at Straight-Line Capitals their finishing points. The three strokes of the Y intersect slightly below the center of The capital letters shown in figure 3-47 are the square. Stroke 2 of the K intersects formed with only straight-line strokes. stroke 1 at a point one third of the distance up 3-31
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Next INCLINED LETTERING
45.836 Figure 3-49.-Lettering vertical numerals. S and &. The upper and lower portions of S are ellipses, the upper slightly smaller than the lower. The ampersand (&) is basically similar despite a greater difference in the sizes of the ellipses. Numerals and Fractions The need for extreme care in drawing numerals cannot be overstressed, particularly in the preparation of construction drawings in which a poorly drawn numeral can cause costly errors and delays. Numerals are drawn using the same size guidelines as the capital letters on a drawing. Vertical guidelines are spaced at random. Numerals should not be made so small or be crowded so closely as to impair their legibility. In figure 3-49 the vertical stroke of the numeral 4 is placed two units from the right side. The horizontal bar is one quarter the height of the number above the base line. Note that the closed curves of 0, 6, and 9 are elliptical, not circular. The 6 is an inverted 9. The 8 is composed of two ellipses tangent slightly above the center point. The top ellipse also is narrower. The 3 is the same as the 8 with the left portions of the loops cut off. elliptical the 5 is The curved lines of 2 follow the contours of 8. The top portion of slightly narrower than the bottom. Figure 3-50.-Vertical fractions. The bottom ellipse is two thirds of the height of the figure from the base line. The division bar between the numerator and denominator of the fractions is always drawn parallel to the guidelines, as shown in figure 3-50. The complete height of a fraction is twice that of a whole number. The division bar is centered midway between the base line and cap line. The top guideline of the numerator and the bottom guideline of the denominator are spaced a full number height from the division bar. The numbers composing a fraction are three quarters of the height of a full number. The clear space on either side of the division bar is one quarter of a full number. Numbers in a fraction are centered about a vertical guideline that cuts the fraction bar in half. Lowercase Letters Lowercase letters are never used on construction drawings, although it is acceptable to use them for notes on maps or similar drawings. 3-33
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45.837 Figure 3-51.-Lettering vertical lowercase letters. Lowercase letters should NEVER be used on drawing title blocks. Figure 3-51 shows lowercase letters along with guidelines and strokes used to form each letter. The crosses of f and t are on the waist line and extend the same distance on either side of stroke 1. The horizontal stroke of e is just above midheight. The bodies of a, b, g, p, and q are circular and vertical strokes of these letters do not increase their width at the points of tangency. The vertical strokes of p and q terminate at the drop line.
The vertical strokes of g, j, and y terminate in curves that are tangent to the drop line. INCLINED LETTERING Inclined single-stroke Gothic lettering is also acceptable on SEABEE drawings, although it is not recommended for the beginner and should not be attempted until you have mastered vertical lettering techniques. Inclined and vertical lettering should never appear on the same drawing. The lettering style used must always be consistent. Figures 3-52 and 3-53 show the required formation of inclined letters. The angle of 45.210 Figure 3-52.Inclined single-stroke Gothic. 3-34
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45.838 Figure 5-53.-inclined letter formation. Figure 3-54.-Letterspacing. inclination is 67 1/2 degrees from the horizontal. Inclined guidelines may be drawn with the lettering triangle as described, or a line at the proper angle may be laid off with the protractor and parallel lines constructed from it. Horizontal guidelines and sequence of strokes are the same as for vertical letters. Rules of stability, proportion, and balance are similar. The circles and circular arcs used in vertical letters become elliptical in inclined letters, their major axes making angles of 45 degrees with the horizontal. Letters such as A, M, V, and Y should be made symmetrically about a guideline. Inclined lowercase letters follow the same principles as inclined capitals. COMPOSITION OF LETTERING Once you have learned the proper shapes and strokes required to form each letter and numeral, you should concentrate on practicing the composition of words and sentences. Proper spacing of letters and words does more for the appearance of a block of lettering than the forms of the letters themselves. But this does not mean 45.215 that you should discontinue further practice of correctly forming each letter. LETTERSPACING In straight-line lettering, determine the spacing between letters by eye after making the first letter and before making each succeeding letter. To give a word the appearance of having uniformly spaced letters, make the areas between the letters nearly equal, as shown in figure 3-54. The areas between adjacent letters in a word vary with respect to whether the letters have straight sides (H, I, M, N) or slanted sides (A, V, W) and whether the letters are round (O, Q, C, G) or open (L, J). Adjacent straight-sided letters are drawn farther apart than are adjacent round letters. Adjacent slant-sided and open letters are drawn nearer together than are adjacent round letters. Where letters L and T, L and V, A and V, and other pairs of like shape come together in a word, the top of one may have to be drawn above the bottom of the other to avoid having the word appear as two or more words. In letterspacing, the six problems listed below are the hardest to solve. The first five problems are solved by 3-35
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moving the letters closer together; the sixth by moving the letters farther apart. 1. Round next to round. (Increasing area at top and bottom where letters curve away from each other, as in figure 3-55A). 2. Round next to slant. (Increasing area at top or bottom where letters move away from each other, as in figure 355B). 3. Vertical next to slant. (Increasing area at top or bottom where one letter slants away from the other, as in figure 3-55C). 4. Slant next to slant. (Increasing area at top or bottom where letters slant in opposite directions, as in figure 3-55D). 5. Round next to vertical. (Increasing area at top and bottom where round letter curves away, as in figure 3-55E). 6. Vertical next to vertical. (Decreasing area at top and bottom where stems move together, as in figure 3-55F.) A good way to evaluate the spacing of letters is to hold the lettering away from you and squint your eyes, observing the gray tone throughout the 45.207 Figure 3-55.-Common spacing problems. lettering. If the tone appears spotty or varies too much, the letters are poorly spaced. WORD SPACING Proper spacing between words is an important factor in making them easy to read. Allow enough space between words and sentences to keep them from running together, but not so much as to cause words to be read one at a time. A good practice to follow is making spaces between words equal to the space that the letter O occupies as shown in figure 3-56. If you prefer, you can use the letter N or a correctly spaced
letter I instead. Naturally, the design of the last letter of a word and of the first letter of the following word must be considered in determining the amount of space you leave between words. You should leave a space equal to a capital O between two full-height straight-stemmed letters, such as H and E or D and B. Of course, if one or both of the letters are curved, the space should be appropri- ately reduced. If the two letters involved are lowercase, use the lowercase o to determine the width of the space. If one letter is full height and the other is lowercase height, such as the words bid now or on him, the space would be equal to half a capital O and half a lowercase o. LINE SPACING In addition to the spacing between letters and words, the spacing between lines of lettering adds to the readability of the lettering. Again your eye and your artistic ability must be your guide. Except when you are trying for a special effect, you should have enough space between the lines to make it easy for the reader to see what he is reading. The distance between lines may vary from 1/2 to 1 1/2 times the height of the letter, but for the sake of appearance, it should not be exactly 45.207A Figure 3-56.-Spacing between words and lines. 3-36
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the same as the letter height. As a general rule, two thirds of the letter height is a good distance between lines. This spacing allows room for descenders of lowercase letters and still maintains a clear space of one third of the letter height between the descenders and capital letters, or ascenders of lowercase letters of the following line. Figure 3-56 shows proper word and line spacing. CENTERING Since the letters of the alphabet vary in width, it is rather difficult to center a line of lettering. Figure 3-57 shows one way of solving this problem. First, take a piece of scratch paper and letter in the required line. Then, place this lettering above the area in which your lettering is to go and center it. Finally, use the sample as a guide to lettering the desired line. Ending a line of lettering at a given point is equally difficult. As in centering, first, letter the line on a piece of scratch paper in order to achieve the proper line length. To make lines of lettering come out to a specified length, you must adjust the word and/or letterspacing. This adjustment in spacing is called JUSTIFYING. A good example of justifying is found in the columns of this manual. Notice how all full lines start and stop on the right- and left- hand margins. Usually, you will only find justified lettering typeset or typewritten by mechanical means. However, if you do have an occasion to justify your lettering, you should try to keep the spacing between the words as uniform as possible. Uneven spacing detracts from the appearance of the job. When it is impossible 45.217 Figure 3-57.-Centering with trial spacing paper. to divide the spacing evenly, insert wider spacing at points where one word ends and the next begins with tall letters, like d, b, and l. If you use too much space between the words, the paragraph will tend to fall apart because it is filled with rivers of white space that will disturb the eye. When a line is so short that it calls for an undue amount of space between words to lengthen the line, allow more space between the letters in each word. This is known as letterspacing. When words are letterspaced, always allow extra space between words so that they will not seem to run together when they are read. Letterspacing makes short words in titles or headings appear longer. Though it frequently improves the appearance of words in caps, letterspacing reduces the legibility of words in lowercase, Therefore, the process must be used with caution. MECHANICAL LETTERING In chapter 2 we discussed pens that are used primarily for freehand lettering. At times, however, you will be tasked with preparing drawings, charts, maps, or signs that require the use of mechanical lettering. When we refer to mechanical lettering, we mean standard uniform characters that are executed with a special pen held in a scriber and guided by a template. Mechanical lettering does not normally require the use of lettering
guidelines. You will use mechanical lettering principally for title blocks and notes on drawings, marginal data for special maps, briefing charts, display charts, graphs, titles on photographs, signs, and any other time that clear, legible, standardized lettering is required. It should be noted that freehand lettering is the required lettering on most of your drawings; mechanical lettering should be confined to special uses similar to those described above. The availability of mechanical lettering devices should not deter you from the daily practice required to execute freehand lettering. With continuous practice you will become proficient with both mechanical and freehand lettering. One of the most popular types of mechanical lettering sets is the LEROY lettering set. A 3-37
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45.839 Figure 3-58.-Leroy lettering set. standard Leroy lettering set consists of a set of templates, a scriber, and a set of pens. (See fig. 3-58. ) TEMPLATES Templates are made of laminated plastic with the characters engraved in the face so that the lines serve as guide grooves for the scriber. The height of the characters, in thousandths of an inch, is given by a number on the upper right-hand side of the template. For example, 3240-500CL indicates a No. 500 template. The entire number and letter designation identifies the template in the manufacturers catalog. The range of character heights offered by a standard set of templates is from 80 (0.08 in. or 5/64 in.) to 500 (0.5 in. or 1/2 in.). The scale at the bottom of each template has the zero in the center and is arranged for proper spacing in relation to character heights. The distance between each scale division represents the center-to-center distance of normal-width letters. PENS A standard set of pens for producing various line weights consists of 11 sizes ranging from 000, the finest, to 8. Each pen is composed of two parts: the ink reservoir and the cleaning pin. The reservoir is a series of connected tubes of decreasing
diameters, the smallest establishing line thickness. The cleaning pin acts as a valve, protruding beyond the edge of the bottom tube when the pen is not touching the drawing surface. In this position, no ink flows. When the pen is resting on a drawing surface, the cleaning pin is pushed up, allowing a flow of ink. Action of the pin in the tube minimizes ink clogging. NOTE: As stated in chapter 2, some reservoir pens are made so the point section will fit in a Leroy scriber. They have become popular with the SEABEEs (and widely used over the standard pens contained in the Leroy especially for long hours of lettering. A SCRIBER holds the pen in lettering set), uninterrupted alignment and controls its motion as the tracing pin is guided through the character grooves of the template. Two types of scribes are available: adjustable and 45.120 Figure 3-59.Leroy scriber and template. 3-38
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fixed. An adjustable scriber produces letters with any slant from vertical to 22 1/2 degrees forward from a single template; a fixed scriber produces only vertical letters. Both scribers consist of a tracing pin, pen socket, socket screw, and a tail pin. Figure 3-59 shows a fixed scriber. The tracing pin on most Leroy scribers is reversible, One point is used with fine groove templates (Nos. 060, 080, and 100), and the other point is for wider groove templates (No. 120 to No. 500). LINE WEIGHTS Recommended combinations of template and pen for best proportion between line thickness and letter size are shown below. Template No. Pen No. 060 000 080 000 or 00 100 00 120 0 140 1 175 2 200 3 240 3 290 4 350 4 425 5 500 6 This list is also found inside the lid of the Leroy lettering set case. OPERATING PROCEDURES A certain technique is required to manipulate the Leroy scriber with the template and, at the same time, hold the template against the working edge of the T square or straightedge without slipping. The T square or straightedge must be held in position with the ball of your left hand resting on the blade, while the fingers of the left hand hold the template against the working edge and change the position of the template when necessary. The scriber is held between the thumb and first three fingers of your right hand. The little finger of the right hand presses the right side of the template against the working edge, preventing the tracing pin from slipping out of the character grooves of the template. Care must be taken to keep the tail pin in the straight-guide groove at the bottom of each template. When you are making long lines of large lettering, you may find it helpful to secure the T square or straightedge at both ends of the drawing board with drafting tape. Using the above techniques to manipulate the scriber and template, follow the steps listed below to form uniform letters, words, and sentences. As you follow the steps, refer to figure 359. 1. Select the template with letters of the desired height. The distance between each graduation at the bottom of the template is equal to the height of the letter that can be made with the template. The numbers in a fraction are made by using a template one size smaller than that used for whole numbers. 2. Lay the template along the top edge of a T square or straightedge. 3. Using the table of recommended template and pen sizes previously mentioned, select the proper pen to give a well-proportioned letter. NOTE: On drawings with a great deal of lettering, the recommended combinations may be altered by one pen size, either under or over the recommended size, for variation and appearance. Never use a pen size more than two over the recommended size. 4. Insert the selected pen into the socket of the scriber arm until the shoulder of the pen rests on the scriber arm. 5. Tighten the screw on the side of the scriber arm. 6. Loosen the locknut on the adjusting screw in the scriber arm. 7. Set the tail pin of the scriber in the straight-guide groove of the template. 8. Set the tracer pin of the scriber in the groove of a character. 9. Lower the pen gently to the drawing surface. 10. Raise or lower the scriber arm by turning the adjusting screw until the tip of the cleaning 3-39
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fixed. An adjustable scriber produces letters with any slant from vertical to 22 1/2 degrees forward from a single template; a fixed scriber produces only vertical letters. Both scribers consist of a tracing pin, pen socket, socket screw, and a tail pin. Figure 3-59 shows a fixed scriber. The tracing pin on most Leroy scribers is reversible, One point is used with fine groove templates (Nos. 060, 080, and 100), and the other point is for wider groove templates (No. 120 to No. 500). LINE WEIGHTS Recommended combinations of template and pen for best
proportion between line thickness and letter size are shown below. Template No. Pen No. 060 000 080 000 or 00 100 00 120 0 140 1 175 2 200 3 240 3 290 4 350 4 425 5 500 6 This list is also found inside the lid of the Leroy lettering set case. OPERATING PROCEDURES A certain technique is required to manipulate the Leroy scriber with the template and, at the same time, hold the template against the working edge of the T square or straightedge without slipping. The T square or straightedge must be held in position with the ball of your left hand resting on the blade, while the fingers of the left hand hold the template against the working edge and change the position of the template when necessary. The scriber is held between the thumb and first three fingers of your right hand. The little finger of the right hand presses the right side of the template against the working edge, preventing the tracing pin from slipping out of the character grooves of the template. Care must be taken to keep the tail pin in the straight-guide groove at the bottom of each template. When you are making long lines of large lettering, you may find it helpful to secure the T square or straightedge at both ends of the drawing board with drafting tape. Using the above techniques to manipulate the scriber and template, follow the steps listed below to form uniform letters, words, and sentences. As you follow the steps, refer to figure 359. 1. Select the template with letters of the desired height. The distance between each graduation at the bottom of the template is equal to the height of the letter that can be made with the template. The numbers in a fraction are made by using a template one size smaller than that used for whole numbers. 2. Lay the template along the top edge of a T square or straightedge. 3. Using the table of recommended template and pen sizes previously mentioned, select the proper pen to give a well-proportioned letter. NOTE: On drawings with a great deal of lettering, the recommended combinations may be altered by one pen size, either under or over the recommended size, for variation and appearance. Never use a pen size more than two over the recommended size. 4. Insert the selected pen into the socket of the scriber arm until the shoulder of the pen rests on the scriber arm. 5. Tighten the screw on the side of the scriber arm. 6. Loosen the locknut on the adjusting screw in the scriber arm. 7. Set the tail pin of the scriber in the straight-guide groove of the template. 8. Set the tracer pin of the scriber in the groove of a character. 9. Lower the pen gently to the drawing surface. 10. Raise or lower the scriber arm by turning the adjusting screw until the tip of the cleaning 3-39
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pin within the pen just touches the drawing surface. Tighten the locknut when the desired height is reached. To prevent blotting, you should make this rough adjustment before you put ink into the pen. 11. Remove the scriber from the template. 12. Remove the cleaning pin from the pen. NOTE: To prevent the ink from flowing straight through the pen, you should not remove the cleaning pin of a Leroy pen No. 4 or larger from the pen. 13. Fill the reservoir of the pen with drawing ink. The Leroy pen should be filled with ink in the same manner as any common drafting inking instrument. The reservoir should be kept from one-fourth to threefourths full; too low an ink level results in irregular lines. 14. If the cleaning pin was removed, reinsert it into the pen. 15. Wipe the lower tip of the pen with a cloth to remove any excess ink that may have been pushed through by the cleaning pin. 16. Draw a test line on a piece of scratch paper to ensure that the ink will flow smoothly. 17. Gently lower the pen to the drawing surface after inserting the tail and tracer pins in their proper grooves. 18. Proceed with the lettering by moving the tracer pin in the grooves of the characters, keeping the tail pin in the straight-guide groove. If the ink does not flow properly, turn the cleaning pin inside the pen and wipe the tip with a cloth; also, make any necessary minor adjustments to the adjusting screw to allow the ink to flow properly. Tighten the locknut. When you will not be lettering for short periods of time, place the tip of the pen, still in the socket of the scriber arm, on a piece of moist cotton. This will prevent the ink from drying around the opening of the pen and will help the ink to flow properly when you begin lettering again. SPACING AND CENTERING The rules for freehand letterspacing and word spacing also apply to mechanical lettering. Guidelines are not necessary for mechanical lettering; however, when you are making more than one line of lettering, you may draw horizontal base lines at intervals to help you maintain the proper spacing between the lines. Spacing between lines of mechanical lettering is the same as for freehand lettering. When lettering must be centered above a certain part of a drawing, or within a certain space, use the scales along the bottom edges of the templates. Each space on the scale represents the center-to-center distance of normal-width letters. For example, to center the words LEROY LETTERING about a certain line, proceed as follows: 1. Count the letters in each word and the spaces between words. Result: 15. 2. Considering the letter I and the space between the words as half value for each, reduce the
total by one. Result: 14. 3. Divide the result of No. 2 above by two. Result: 7. NOTE: If there had been an odd number of half values, you would use the next lower number and allow more space between words than normally required. 4. Set the zero of the scale at the vertical line about which the lettering is to be centered and mark off seven spaces to the left and right of zero. 5. Start the L of the word LEROY in the title at the left mark and continue to the end. The right edge of the G should fall on the mark to the right. MAINTENANCE OF MECHANICAL LETTERING EQUIPMENT Pens should be cleaned thoroughly with water after use and stored properly in the lettering set case. Never wash them under running water in a sink. The pen and cleaning pin may accidentally be washed down the drain. If water does not clean a pen satisfactorily, a diluted solution of ammonia may be used. Commercial pen cleaning solutions and pen cleaning kits are available. Caked or dried ink can be removed by soaking the pens overnight in a cleaning solution; however, the pens may corrode if soaked longer. Cleaning pins should be handled with care because they are fragile and easily bent, especially the smaller ones. The screw that holds the pen in the scriber should never be screwed too tightly, as the fine threads tend to strip very easily. Templates should be cleaned after every use. Dirt and dried-on ink are very easily transferred onto an otherwise clean drawing. You must ensure that the template grooves are kept free 3-40
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from all foreign matter and that the tracer pin does not cut into the sides of the grooves. In order to form perfect letters every time, you must make sure that the tracer pin slides along the grooves smoothly. When small templates are used, a small sharp tracing pin must be inserted in the scriber. If a sharp tracing pin is used in the larger templates, the grooves of the templates will be damaged. LETTERING SYSTEM Todays operating units, training commands, and shore establishments within the Naval Construction Force (NCF) have a great demand for quality graphics to enhance command presentations during management and readiness inspections and during execution and completion reports. The bulk of the job is commonly handled by the engineering department or branch. As an EA, you will be tasked with producing a variety of quality signs, labels, lettering, tags, and other miscellaneous requests. It is likely that your office may already have one of the lettering machines used for this job. The pressure lettering machine (fig. 3-60) is just one of the typical tools that produces high-quality lettering faster than press-on type letters and the mechanical letters. This machine uses a pressure process to transfer dry carbon impressions onto a variety of tapes that are used for producing letters, numbers, and symbols. The impressions are made from raised characters on an interchangeable type of disc available in different styles, ranging in size from 8 points to 36 points Figure 3-60.Typical pressure lettering machine. Table 3-1.-Size Range of Impressions Made from Char- acters Used on a Lettering-System Type of Disc (table 3-1). Overall, this machine is easy to use. Daily operation and on-the-job training will enhance your efficiency. DRAWING REPRODUCTION One of the most important skills an EA needs to learn besides drafting is operating reproduction equipment or machines. The quality of a reproduced copy (usually called BLUEPRINT) measures the accuracy, completeness, and conformance to applicable standards of an original or traced drawing. All EAs therefore should be familiar with the aspects of performing this skill and should develop competency through practice and experience. This section discusses the 3-41
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Next Exploded view of the Blu-Ray Model 842 Whiteprinter
various aspects of the reproduction process and maintenance of a typical reproduction machine. REPRODUCTION ROOM Regardless of the type of reproduction machine used, it should be positioned in a room in such a manner as to ensure the best possible ventilation. The machine should be set against an outside wall and an exhaust tube or an exhaust vent provided with a fan should be installed since ammonia is used in the developing process. If possible, less light is preferable because light-sensitive paper is used. All supplies of sensitized paper and other materials for reproduction should be kept in a dehumidified, cool, and dark storage area. It is good practice to date the supplies so as to use the oldest stock first. Heat is a major factor to consider, no matter what machine is used. Ventilation should be sufficient throughout the room, since the prints, even after they emerge from the machine, are saturated with ammonia fumes. The fumes from ammonia are very powerful, and personnel should avoid excessive inhalation. Chemicals
used in developing solutions that come in powder form should be stored the same as sensitized materials. Ammonia should be stored in shatterproof bottles. CAUTION Ammonia fumes are extremely toxic! Burns, as well as temporary blindness, can result if you are careless while handling the solution. Since reproduction machines are energized with electricity, you need a firm understanding of electrical safety. NEVER touch an energized electrical plug, switch, or any part of electrically operated equipment with wet hands or while standing in water or on a wet floor. If the machine should become wet or be in contact with water while in use, you should disconnect the electrical power source before attempting to clean up the area. It is also important for qualified and certified personnel to inspect electrical outlets and connections frequently for obvious signs of damage. REPRODUCTION MACHINES The process most commonly used for reproducing construction drawings by the Navy is the DIAZO or AMMONIA VAPOR PROCESS. Basically, this process produces prints with a white background and blue or black lines after exposure to light. These prints are then dry developed with ammonia vapor. This process uses aqueous ammonia as a developing agent with water vapor as the carrying agent, causing the paper exiting from the chamber to carry residual ammonia vapor with it. In the diazo process, the ammonia chest is saturated with water vapor at all times to help eliminate the toxic ammonia vapors. Diazo process reproduction machines are made by several manufacturers, such as BluRay Inc. and General Analine Film Corp. (GAF). Machines formerly made by GAF were called Ozalid. The machines presently made are no longer called Ozalid, only labeled GAF. However, old Ozalid equipment is still serviced and repaired by the GAF Corporation. The basic difference between the various types of diazo machines is the size of paper that they can accommodate. Paper that is 9 in. wide can be used on the smallest machine, and paper that is 54 in. wide can be used on the largest machine. Blu-Ray Model 842 Whiteprinter The Blu-Ray Model 842 Whiteprinter, shown in figure 3-61, has most of the capabilities of larger diazo process machines. It is ideally suited for use in battalion engineering offices, because it is easy to set up and is easily moved. It is very simple to operate and easy to maintain. It is important that all EAs thoroughly understand the manufacturers instructions covering the operation and maintenance of the Blu-Ray reproduction machine before attempting to use it. Keep a current file for all reference material available for use by the operators. The machine should be located as close as possible to an electrical outlet that supplies adequate power. (Electrical specifications are given in the operation manual.) After the machine has been assembled and set up according to the manufacturers instructions, the machine must be placed on a level surface, such as a table or a desk. This is very important for proper ammonia drainage and adequate support for the feet on the bottom of the machine. 3-42
Back REPRODUCTION ROOM
Next WARNING
45.866 Figure 3-61.-Exploded view of the Blu-Ray Model 842 Whiteprinter. The ammonia supply bottle must be placed below the machine so that there will be a short, direct, and unkinked run of the large ammonia discharge tube. Only the proper aqueous ammonia, as recommended in the operation manual, should be used. Use only fresh ammonia and change it at least once a month for best operation. NEVER reuse the discharged ammonia. Room temperature is important. Blu-Ray manufacturers recommended a room temperature of 70F be maintained. A drop in room temperature will cause condensation in the chest, giving wet prints and may, if excessive, jam the developer. The Blu-Ray is equipped with an ammonia chest heater, which has an independent heater switch. The heater is used to activate the ammonia vapor to improve development when it is necessary. This may be true especially with long, continuous machine operation. The machine must be kept dust-free and clean. Dust is an abrasive material that can wear out the Teflon gate strips in the developer section, as well as other moving parts. OPERATION. A pilot-lighted switch marked POWER on the instrument panel turns the Blu-Ray machine on and off. When it turns the machine on, it actuates the main drive motor and the ammonia pump motor and fan, and it lights the fluorescent tubes. A pilot-lighted switch marked HEATER on the instrument panel manually turns the heater on and off. Two knobs on the instrument panel marked SPEED and DIRECTION manually will give a stepless speed range from 0 to 12 ft per min in both directions. To select the desired speed of operation, manually turn the knob marked SPEED to a number that experience has shown to be proper for the type of paper being printed. The knob marked DIRECTION has a forward and reverse setting. Keep this knob at forward setting at all times. Use the reverse setting only when the paper is jamming and must be instantly removed. This knob can be snapped from forward to reverse while the machine is running. The Blu-Ray may be turned on and off AT ANY TIME. THERE IS NO WARM-UP OR 3-43
Back Exploded view of the Blu-Ray Model 842 Whiteprinter
Next TROUBLESHOOTING
COOL-DOWN PERIOD REQUIRED FOR THIS MACHINE. Just turn on the power switch, make your print, and turn the machine off. This is recommended for longer machine and lamp life. Making prints is extremely
simple. Place your original tracing or transparency, face up, on the sensitized reproducing paper, chemical (yellow) side up. Adjust the leading edges of both papers so they are even, uncurled, and uncreased. THIS IS IMPORTANT! Place the two adjusted sheets on the feed table and gently feed them evenly into the printer entrance WITH THE GRAIN of the sensitized paper (see package for grain indication) until they are engaged between the rubber belts and the glass cylinder. If for any reason the above described entrance of the paper to the printer is erratic, creased, wrinkled, or uneven, turn the direction knob to reverse and the papers will come out of the printer. As the original and printed sensitized paper exits from the printer over the top of the glass cylinder, manually separate the sensitized paper from the original tracing. Turn the sensitized paper up and into the entrance of the ammonia developing chest. The finished print will exit from the top of the machine. If your print is too light, turn the speed knob to a higher number; if too dark, turn to a lower number. The interior of the ammonia chest of the Blu-Ray machine is readily accessible for inspection or removal of jammed paper. Using finger catches on the top of the machine, lift up the top cover, and the upper chest panel will be exposed. (Before opening, SEE WARNING below.) Two sliding door latch-type fasteners hold the upper chest panel in its closed position. Slide these door latches toward the center of the machine, and open the upper chest panel up and back, exposing the interior of the ammonia chest. WARNING DO NOT OPEN THE AMMONIA CHEST WHILE THE MACHINE IS RUNNING. Be sure that all ammonia has drained from the machine. Stand back from the machine when the chest is open. There is a heavy charge of ammonia in the chamber. Be sure to provide ventilation at all times when the ammonia chest is open. When removing jammed paper from the ammonia chest, do not bend or scratch any of the mechanical parts in the chest. Because of described qualities of the aqueous ammonia, it is important that a NITE-SHEET be run in the developer section when the machine is not in operation for a period of time (nights, weekends, etc.). This nite-sheet can be a wide sheet of sensitized paper long enough to extend from both the entrance and exit of the developer section. Stop the machine when this is accomplished, allowing the sheet to remain. This sheet will absorb the excess vapor and condensation, leaving a dry chamber when the machine is started again. MAINTENANCE. Periodic maintenance and inspection of the Blu-Ray machine are essential. Major maintenance and repairs should be performed only by skilled service personnel. For maximum light exposure, it is very important that the exterior and interior of the glass cylinder be cleaned frequently. When the glass cylinder needs to be cleaned, follow the steps given below. 1. Disconnect the electrical cord from its power source. 2. Remove both end panels from the machine by removing the panel-holding screws. 3. Back off the locking screw and open the drive-section cover. 4. Disconnect the lamp cartridge wiring. DO NOT PULL THE WIRES; grasp the plug. 5. Unfasten the lamp cartridge by removing the screws at the right-hand end of the lamp cartridge frame. Gently remove the lamp cartridge, ensuring that the wires at the left-hand end of the cartridge do not snag. 6. Thoroughly clean the glass-printing cylinder and lamps. Use the manufacturers recommended glass cleaner or an ammonia-water solution. NEVER use an abrasive cleaner on the glass cylinder. It is inherent in the nature of fluorescent lamps to lose brilliancy after months of usage. This requires the machine to be slowed down to produce the desired prints. When this occurs, the lamps should be replaced, Since the lamp cartridge must be removed when the glass-printing cylinder interior is being cleaned, burned out or weak lamps should be replaced at the same time. Lamps, as well as any other parts needed, should be obtained through your supply system. 3-44
Back WARNING
Next Ozalid
It is recommended that the lamp starters be replaced when the lamps are being replaced. The lamp starters are located in the ballast panel in the back of the machine. For ease of removal and replacement, a portion of the ballast panel cover must be removed to expose the starters. Printer feed belts may become slack over a period of time, causing slippage and blurred prints. A simple adjustment may be made as follows: 1. Pull the small Tygon tube out of the ammonia supply bottle cap. 2. Run the machine until the tube is pumped dry and no longer feeding the ammonia tank in the machine. 3. Raise the motor end of the machine a few inches for a moment for complete drainage. 4. Shut off the machine. 5. Tip the machine on its back carefully so the ammonia tubes and power cord that project from the back will not be crushed or kinked. This will expose the two slotted idler take-up brackets. 6. Loosen the two screws in both brackets, and press down approximately one-fourth in, beyond the previous setting to give proper tension to the belts, and re-secure. Make sure that both brackets are set at the same position. The components in the ammonia chest are readily accessible and
easily removed. The top cover is removed by sliding a door-catch type of pivot and then lifting it off of the machine. The back chest panel can be removed independently for internal inspection by removing four screws and sliding the panel out of the machine. Both the upper and lower paper combs are attached to the back chest panel, allowing for inspection and replacement of their combs when the panel is removed. Take out the ammonia tank first. The ammonia tank is independently removed from the ammonia chest by removing the two wing screws on the right-hand end of the machine where the tank drains. Disconnect the Tygon ammonia infeed tube in the motor end of the machine, and slide the tank out to the right. The grid and drive roll assemblies are easily removed as a unit by unscrewing the plastic drive-roll plug at the right end of the drive roll. Slide the drive roll off of a pin slot connector to the drive shaft, and lift the assembly up and out of the chest. After 600 hr of operation, the plastic Tygon tube in the ammonia pump will need to be replaced. Extra tubing is supplied with the machine for this purpose. To replace a tube, remove the left-hand end panel by removing the screws holding down the drive-section top cover. This will expose the pump with its motor and all the tube connections. Study how the tube is placed so that after it is removed you can place the new tube properly. There is a tube coupling on the tube support bracket. Pull the tube lead to the pump from the coupling. Jog the machine by snapping the power switch ON and OFF. The old tube will move out of the pump by normal rotating pump action. Pull this tube off of the ammonia feed pipe leading into the machine. Take a piece of replacement tubing and cut the end on a bias (slant) so it will feed through the pump smoothly. Feed the tubing into the coupling end of the pump and jog the machine (as before) so the tube will be pulled through the pump. When this tube is completely in the pump, cut it to length and reattach as before to the ammonia coupling and ammonia feed pipe. The upper faceplate and the developer feed plate extrusions are removed by removing two screws from each and lifting them off of the machine. This will expose the lower slider gasket. The lower slider gasket is attached to the gasket retainer angle and is removed as a unit by removing the fastening screws. A replacement gasket unit can then be inserted. TROUBLESHOOTING. If the BluRay machine is to operate at peak efficiency, it must be kept in proper working order. In troubleshooting the machine, use the following summary as a guide: Loss of printing speed: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Glass cylinder dirty. Voltage too low. Fluorescent lamps dirty or past useful life. Overage sensitized paper. Machine not level, causing binding. Printer drive belts loose. Air entrance blocked, causing lamp heating. Flickering or burnt-out lamp, check starters. 3-45
Back TROUBLESHOOTING
Next Principles of operation
Starting or stalling difficulties: 1. Voltage too low. 2. Machine not level, causing binding. 3. Wiring loosened or disconnected. Call dealer. Ammonia leakage: 1. Developer chamber top not properly latched after inspection. 2. Ammonia drain tube locked. 3. Machine not level, preventing proper drainage. 4. Ammonia bottle improperly capped. 5. Ruptured pump tubing. Wrinkled prints from developer jamming: 1. Condensation in ammonia chest. 2. Did not use nite-sheet. 3. Sensitized paper damp before using, because of humid storage. 4. Paper placed in developer chamber against the grain. 5. Foreign material in developer chamber. 6. Exit not clear. Lamps burn out prematurely: 1. Improper voltage. 2. Air entrance
blocked causing hot lamps. 3. Improper or defective starters. 4. Shorting in wiring. Prints do not develop: 1. Weak or exhausted ammoniareplace. 2. Sensitized paper old or exposed. 3. Ammonia pump not operating properly infeed tube kinked or pinched. 4. Cold ammonia in supply bottle. Ozalid Every EA should have a basic understanding of the various functions of the Ozalid (fig. 3-62); therefore, in this section we will discuss printing and developing, as well as the operating principles of the cooling and exhaust system. Information is also given on machine operation, adjustments, and maintenance. PRINTING SECTION. Figure 3-63 shows the principles of operation of the printing and 45.296 Figure 3-62.-Ozalid machine. developing sections. Of particular interest at this point is the printing section. This section is divided into four basic units: light source, reflector assembly, printing cylinder, and feed belts. During the reproduction process, the original and a piece of material, such as paper that has been sensitized (coated with a light, sensitive dye), are inserted into the machine. Sensitized material is placed with the emulsion side up on the feedboard, and the original is placed on top. Originals should be of a transparent or translucent nature with an opaque image on one side only. Feed belts carry this material around the revolving printing cylinder where the dye of the treated paper that is NOT covered by the opaque image of the original is desensitized by the ultraviolet light rays emitted from the mercury-vapor lamp. After exposure, the original and print are picked off of the printing cylinder by the pick-off assembly, and directed towards the developing section. After pick-off, the guide roller directs the original and print between a printer and tracing separator belt. These belts cause the print and the original to be delivered to two separator tank assemblies where the original and print are separated from each other. The process of separation is unique and is therefore worthy of further discussion. Critical to the operation of separation are perforations in the walls of the two separator tanks. During 3-46
Back TROUBLESHOOTING
Next Principles of operation
Starting or stalling difficulties: 1. Voltage too low. 2. Machine not level, causing binding. 3. Wiring loosened or disconnected. Call dealer. Ammonia leakage: 1. Developer chamber top not properly latched after inspection. 2. Ammonia drain tube locked. 3. Machine not level, preventing proper drainage. 4. Ammonia bottle improperly capped. 5. Ruptured pump tubing. Wrinkled prints from developer jamming: 1. Condensation in ammonia chest. 2. Did not use nite-sheet. 3. Sensitized paper damp before using, because of humid storage. 4. Paper placed in developer chamber against the grain. 5. Foreign material in developer chamber. 6. Exit not clear. Lamps burn out prematurely: 1. Improper voltage. 2. Air entrance blocked causing hot lamps. 3. Improper or defective starters. 4. Shorting in wiring. Prints do not develop: 1. Weak or exhausted ammoniareplace. 2. Sensitized paper old or exposed. 3. Ammonia pump not operating properly infeed tube kinked or pinched. 4. Cold ammonia in supply bottle. Ozalid Every EA should have a basic understanding of the various functions of the Ozalid (fig. 3-62); therefore, in this section we will discuss printing and developing, as well as the operating principles of the cooling and exhaust system. Information is also given on machine operation, adjustments, and maintenance. PRINTING SECTION. Figure 3-63 shows the principles of operation of the printing and 45.296 Figure 3-62.-Ozalid machine. developing sections. Of particular interest at this point is the printing section. This section is divided into four basic units: light
source, reflector assembly, printing cylinder, and feed belts. During the reproduction process, the original and a piece of material, such as paper that has been sensitized (coated with a light, sensitive dye), are inserted into the machine. Sensitized material is placed with the emulsion side up on the feedboard, and the original is placed on top. Originals should be of a transparent or translucent nature with an opaque image on one side only. Feed belts carry this material around the revolving printing cylinder where the dye of the treated paper that is NOT covered by the opaque image of the original is desensitized by the ultraviolet light rays emitted from the mercury-vapor lamp. After exposure, the original and print are picked off of the printing cylinder by the pick-off assembly, and directed towards the developing section. After pick-off, the guide roller directs the original and print between a printer and tracing separator belt. These belts cause the print and the original to be delivered to two separator tank assemblies where the original and print are separated from each other. The process of separation is unique and is therefore worthy of further discussion. Critical to the operation of separation are perforations in the walls of the two separator tanks. During 3-46
Back Principles of operation
Next COOLING AND EXHAUST SYSTEM
Figure 3-64.-Ammonia flow system. tank through a gravity-feed system (fig. 3-64). This feed system permits a smooth, even flow of ammonia, thus minimizing the possibility of air or vapor locking of the feed tubing. The amount of ammonia fed into the developer is controlled by a feed regulator at a rate of approximately 50 to 60 drops per minute. The ammonia is directed into evaporating drip trays that are suspended in the developer tank. Fastened to these trays are electric heater rods. These rods, in conjunction with a second thermo-switch controlled heater in the developing tank, serve to heat the ammonia and thereby accelerate the formation of ammonia vapors. These vapors activate the image on the print as they escape through the holes in the upper part of the developer tank. Thus, a semi- permanent image of those areas that were NOT desensitized in the printing section is developed on the print as it passes across the vapors. To protect the machine from flooding with ammonia when the machine is secured, an automatic shutoff valve is located in the ammonia feedline. This value shuts automatically when the machine is secured and opens automatically when the machine is turned on, thereby remitting ammonia to the feed tray. A second ammonia supply system being used in some machines is called the anhydrous ammonia system. Cylinders filled with anhydrous ammonia supply the developing section with an ammonia vapor. This vapor is directed into the developer tank where it is distributed with the aid of distilled water that is fed into the drip trays. For safety reasons, cylinders should be stored away from heat and sunlight. Do not allow the temperature of the cylinders to reach a temperature above 125F. Position the cylinders upright, and firmly attach them with a chain or strap to a rigid supporting
member, such as a wall. Cylinders are attached to the developing tank through a system of piping and fittings, When changing a cylinder, close the valve on the expended cylinder tightly by turning it clockwise. Bleed off all pressure remaining in the feed line by turning on the ammonia flow in the machine. Disconnect the fitting or yoke cylinder connection. Replace the cylinder and remove the protecting valve cap. Ensure that a Teflon washer is in place. Connect the fitting or yoke cylinder connection. Make sure all connections are tight. Open the cylinder valve. Check for possible leaks on all connections by holding a piece of unexposed and undeveloped diazo paper close to the connections. If the diazo paper discolors, retighten the connections. A uniform flow of ammonia is maintained by a pressure gauge located between the cylinder and the developing section. In addition, the pressure gauge indicates the amount of available ammonia left in the cylinder. A new cylinder will have a gauge reading of 150, while an empty cylinder will indicate a reading of 50. 3-48
Back COOLING AND EXHAUST SYSTEM
Next Summary
ADJUSTMENTS AND MAINTENANCE. Normally, when the machine is first installed, no adjustments are required. Occasionally, however, some readjustment may be necessary because of atmospheric changes, which may cause shrinkage or expansion of some of the belts. These adjustments should be performed according to the manufacturers instructions and only then by qualified personnel. Maintenance is required on a daily, weekly, monthly, semiannually, annually, and whenever necessary basis. The following guide should be followed: 1. Daily requirements: a. Empty the residue bottle after at least every 8 hours of operation. Never reuse residue water. b. Replenish the ammonia supply. c. Clean the outside of the cylinder with glass cleaner. (Operate the machine at slow speed while cleaning the cylinder. ) d. Clean the feedboard, tracing receiving tray, and print receiving tray. Keep them free of foreign objects. 2. Weekly requirements: Clean the inside of the cylinder when the machine is COLD, using the following procedure: a. Open the door at each end of the lamp housing. b. Remove the lamp connector from each end. c. Swing the triangular stop aside and withdraw the lamp assembly. d. Clean the inside of the cylinderwrap a damp, clean cloth around a swab and wipe the cylinder while it is in slow motion. Repeat the procedure with a dry cloth wrapped around the swab until the cylinder is thoroughly clean. e. Wipe the lamp assembly with a DAMP cloth. f. Reinstall the lamp assembly. IMPORTANT: Handle the lamp assembly with great care, as it is fragile and expensive. DO NOT ATTEMPT TO REMOVE THE LAMP FROM THE MACHINE UNTIL IT HAS COOLED. Always rest the lamp assembly flat on a table; never stand it on end. 3. Monthly requirements: Lubricate the bearings and drive chain assembly sparingly with No. 10 motor oil. 4. Semiannual requirements: Clean all suction holes of the rotating tracing separation drum with pipe stem cleaners. 5. Annual requirements: a. Lubricate the bearings and drive chain sparingly with No. 10 motor oil. b. Remove all hoses of the airflow system and clean out dust and dirt. 6. Whenever necessary: a. If the developer sealing sleeve becomes tacky, remove it from the machine; wash both the inside and the outside thoroughly with soap and water and dry well. NEVER attempt to wash the sealing sleeve while it is in the machine. b. It is advisable to clean the perforated side of the developing tank at the same time. Use any commercial cleaning fluid. This will prevent any smudging of prints because of dirt accumulations on the perforated side. REPRODUCTION MATERIALS Diazo materials are available from various sources under different trade names and designations, such as K&E, 3M, and GAF. Basically, all diazo reproduction materials have been coated with a light-sensitive dye. The two types commonly used for reproduction of original drawings are standard weight blueprint paper and sepia line intermediates. Blueprint Paper Standard weight paper (commonly called blueprint paper) provides a black or blue image on a white background. The printing speed for paper is described as rapid. Paper is available in sheet sizes that range from 8 by 10 in. to 34 by 44 in., or in rolls that range in widths from 11 to 42 in. with lengths of 50 or 100 yd. Colored paper provides black or blue images on blue, green, pink, or yellow stock. Plastic-coated papers are now available that give a slightly glossy print with better line density than the standard paper. Sepia Line Intermediates Sepia line intermediates are used as duplicate originals. These intermediates are prints from which additional prints can be made, saving wear on the original. When you use the sepia inter- mediate, it is possible to keep emulsion-to- emulsion contact in each generation, resulting in a sharper image. In addition, sepia has a greater density and is capable of delivering a darker 3-50
Back COOLING AND EXHAUST SYSTEM
Next Summary
ADJUSTMENTS AND MAINTENANCE. Normally, when the machine is first installed, no adjustments are required. Occasionally, however, some readjustment may be necessary because of atmospheric changes, which may cause shrinkage or expansion of some of the belts. These adjustments should be performed according to the manufacturers instructions and only then by qualified personnel. Maintenance is required on a daily, weekly, monthly, semiannually, annually, and whenever necessary basis. The following guide should be followed: 1. Daily requirements: a. Empty the residue bottle after at least every 8 hours of operation. Never reuse residue water. b. Replenish the ammonia supply. c. Clean the outside of the cylinder with glass cleaner. (Operate the machine at slow speed while cleaning the cylinder. ) d. Clean the feedboard, tracing receiving tray, and print receiving tray. Keep them free of foreign objects. 2. Weekly requirements: Clean the inside of the cylinder when the machine is COLD, using the following procedure: a. Open the door at each end of the lamp housing. b. Remove the lamp connector from each end. c. Swing the triangular stop aside and withdraw the lamp assembly. d. Clean the inside of the cylinderwrap a damp, clean cloth around a swab and wipe the cylinder while it is in slow motion. Repeat the procedure with a dry cloth wrapped around the swab until the cylinder is thoroughly clean. e. Wipe the lamp assembly with a DAMP cloth. f. Reinstall the lamp assembly. IMPORTANT: Handle the lamp assembly with great care, as it is fragile and expensive. DO NOT ATTEMPT TO REMOVE THE LAMP FROM THE MACHINE UNTIL IT HAS COOLED. Always rest the lamp assembly flat on a table; never stand it on end. 3. Monthly requirements: Lubricate the bearings and drive chain assembly sparingly with No. 10 motor oil. 4. Semiannual requirements: Clean all suction holes of the rotating tracing separation drum with pipe stem cleaners. 5. Annual requirements: a. Lubricate the bearings and drive chain sparingly with No. 10 motor oil. b. Remove all hoses of the airflow system and clean out dust and dirt. 6. Whenever necessary: a. If the developer sealing sleeve becomes tacky, remove it from the machine; wash both the inside and the outside thoroughly with soap and water and dry well. NEVER attempt to wash the sealing sleeve while it is in the machine. b. It is advisable to clean the perforated side of the developing tank at the same time. Use any commercial cleaning fluid. This will prevent any smudging of prints because of dirt accumulations on the perforated side. REPRODUCTION MATERIALS Diazo materials are available from various sources under different trade names and designations, such as K&E, 3M, and GAF. Basically, all diazo reproduction materials have been coated with a light-sensitive dye. The two types commonly used for reproduction of original drawings are standard weight blueprint paper and sepia line intermediates. Blueprint Paper Standard weight paper (commonly called blueprint paper) provides a black or blue image on a white background. The printing speed for paper is described as rapid. Paper is available in sheet sizes that range from 8 by 10 in. to 34 by 44 in., or in rolls that range in widths from 11 to 42 in. with lengths of 50 or 100 yd. Colored paper provides black or blue images on blue, green, pink, or yellow stock. Plastic-coated papers are now available that give a slightly glossy print with better line density than the standard paper. Sepia Line Intermediates Sepia line intermediates are used as duplicate originals. These intermediates are prints from which additional prints can be made, saving wear on the original. When you use the sepia inter- mediate, it is possible to keep emulsion-to- emulsion contact in each generation, resulting in a sharper image. In addition, sepia has a greater density and is capable of delivering a darker 3-50

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Back Up Figure 2-34.Engineering Aid 3 Drafting machine Beginning Structural with enclosed engineering guide steel bands.

Next YOUR EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

Back CHAPTER 3 DRAFTING: FUNDAMENTALS AND TECHNIQUES; REPRODUCTION PROCESS

Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book

Next BASIC DRAFTING TECHNIQUES

Back YOUR EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book

Next ATTACHMENT OF PAPER TO THE BOARD

Back BASIC DRAFTING TECHNIQUES

Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book

Next VERTICAL LINES

Back ATTACHMENT OF PAPER TO THE BOARD

Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book

Next PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

Back VERTICAL LINES

Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book

Next Use of the Compass CONTINUED

Back PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book

Next Use of the French Curve

Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book

Next USE OF DRAFTING TEMPLATES

Back USE OF DRAFTING TEMPLATES

Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book

Next DRAWING FORMATS

Back DRAWING FORMATS

Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book

Next BASIC FORMAT

Back SHEET LAYOUT

Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book

Next Figure 3-17.-Example of vertical title block prepared by NAVFACENGCOM.

Back BASIC FORMAT

Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book

Back Figure 3-17.-Example of vertical title block prepared by NAVFACENGCOM.

Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book

Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book

Next Satisfactory To Block

Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural engineering guide book

Next Satisfactory To Block

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Next Format used in preparing revision blocks

Back Satisfactory To Block

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Next Use of line characteristics and conventions

Back Format used in preparing revision blocks

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Next Use of line characteristics and conventionsContinued

Back Use of line characteristics and conventions

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Next CONSTRUCTION LINES

Back Use of line characteristics and conventions

Up Engineering Aid 3 - Beginning Structural

engineering guide book

Back CONSTRUCTION LINES

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Next BREAK LINES

Back DIMENSION LINES

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Next PHANTOM LINES