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C5 EcoEnviron
C5 EcoEnviron
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course.
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Contents
About this course manual 1
How this course manual is structured ............................................................................... 1
The course overview ............................................................................................... 1
The course content .................................................................................................. 1
Resources ................................................................................................................ 1
Course overview 2
Welcome to Economic Environment of Business ............................................................ 2
Economic Environment of Business — is this course for you?........................................ 2
Course outcomes ............................................................................................................... 3
Timeframe ......................................................................................................................... 3
Study skills ........................................................................................................................ 4
Module 1 6
Introduction to the Economic Environment and Understanding the Market Mechanism 6
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 6
Terminology ...................................................................................................................... 7
Introduction to the Economic Environment ...................................................................... 7
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 7
Costs ........................................................................................................................ 8
The economic way of thinking ................................................................................ 9
Rational choices ..................................................................................... 9
Opportunity cost .................................................................................... 9
Benefit: What you are willing to sacrifice ........................................... 10
At the margin ....................................................................................... 10
Responding to incentives ..................................................................... 10
Economic environment of business....................................................................... 11
Making economic choices in business .................................................................. 12
PEST Analysis ............................................................................................. 13
Political/legal/institutional factors ....................................................... 13
Economic factors ................................................................................. 13
Social and cultural factors ................................................................... 13
Technological factors .......................................................................... 13
Government intervention in business .................................................................... 14
Three dominant macroeconomic principles ................................................. 14
Types of economic evaluation............................................................................... 14
Accepted government objectives ......................................................... 15
Economic debate ................................................................................................... 16
ii Contents
Module 2 91
Production, Costs and Profit, and Market Structure ....................................................... 91
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 91
Terminology .................................................................................................................... 92
Production, Costs and Profit ........................................................................................... 93
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 93
Choice of technology ................................................................................... 94
What are costs?...................................................................................................... 95
Opportunity costs ......................................................................................... 96
Distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant cost............................................. 97
Economic profit ........................................................................................... 98
Time as a factor in the determination of relevant cost .......................................... 99
Production in the short run .................................................................................. 100
Total, average and marginal product ................................................................... 100
iv Contents
Module 3 167
The Macroeconomy: Aggregate Demand and Supply .................................................. 167
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 167
Terminology .................................................................................................................. 168
Measures of Economic Question .................................................................................. 169
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 169
Management and measurement ......................................................... 169
Gross domestic product (GDP) .................................................................. 170
Unemployment rate .................................................................................... 170
Measuring economic performance: Output and income ..................................... 172
GDP versus GNP ....................................................................................... 172
Income, expenditure and the circular flow ................................................ 173
Value added and intermediate goods ......................................................... 174
Several measures of income ................................................................................ 176
Potential GDP ............................................................................................ 177
Real versus nominal GDP ................................................................................... 177
Phases of the business cycle ...................................................................... 178
Price indexes and inflation .................................................................................. 179
The consumer price index (CPI) ................................................................ 179
Implicit GDP deflator ................................................................................ 179
Inflation rate ............................................................................................... 180
Unemployment statistics ..................................................................................... 181
Problems with unemployment statistics..................................................... 181
Aggregate Demand, Aggregate Supply and Economic Fluctuation ............................. 182
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 182
Aggregate demand and its components ............................................................... 184
The aggregate demand curve ..................................................................... 184
Changes in aggregate demand ................................................................... 186
Consumption and its determinants ...................................................................... 187
Marginal Propensity to Consume (MPC) .................................................. 188
Marginal Propensity to Save (MPS) .......................................................... 188
Disposable income ..................................................................................... 190
Wealth ........................................................................................................ 190
Consumer expectations .............................................................................. 190
Interest rates ............................................................................................... 190
Investment and its determinants .......................................................................... 191
Nonresidential fixed investment ................................................................ 191
Residential construction ............................................................................. 192
Change in business inventories .................................................................. 192
Investment demand curve .................................................................. 193
Government purchases ........................................................................................ 194
vi Contents
Module 4 222
Government Macroeconomic Policy ............................................................................ 222
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 222
Financial Markets, Monetary and Fiscal Policy ........................................................... 224
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 224
Money.................................................................................................................. 224
Definition and functions of money ............................................................ 224
Means of payment ............................................................................. 224
Store of value ..................................................................................... 225
Unit of account .................................................................................. 225
The supply of money ................................................................................. 225
Currency ............................................................................................ 225
Deposits ............................................................................................. 225
The demand for money .............................................................................. 226
Bonds ................................................................................................................... 227
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Module 5 285
The Open Economy ...................................................................................................... 285
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 285
Overview ....................................................................................................................... 286
The balance of payments accounts ...................................................................... 287
The current account ........................................................................... 288
Trade in goods (merchandise) .................................................................... 288
Trade in non-merchandise.......................................................................... 288
Services .............................................................................................. 288
Net investment income ...................................................................... 289
Transfers ............................................................................................ 289
Current account balance ............................................................................. 289
The capital and financial account .............................................................. 289
Portfolio investment .......................................................................... 290
Direct investment ............................................................................... 290
Capital (financial) account balance ..................................................................... 290
The official settlements account ................................................................ 290
Balance of payments balance ..................................................................... 291
Current account, lending and borrowing ................................................... 291
Exchange rates..................................................................................................... 292
Exchange rate determination...................................................................... 293
Foreign exchange market .................................................................................... 293
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with
a list of additional resources at the end of this course manual; these may
be books, articles or websites.
1
Course ovverview
Cou
urse ovverview
w
Welccome to
o Econo
omic En
nvironm
ment of Business
Ecoonomics is the study of ho ow individuaals and societties choose to use
scarrce resourcess. It is a behaavioural sciennce of how ppeople make choices.
Thiss course is orrganised into ofive modulees addressingg topics of ecconomic
issuues faced in business
b enviironment. Thhe course beggins with an
overrview on thee economic en nvironment and
a the markket mechanissm. The
moddules that folllow explore production theory,
t cost ttheory, mark
ket
structure, aggreggate demand d and supply, and governm ment macroeeconomic
poliicy. In module five, economy in an oppen environm ment will be covered.
Econ
nomic Environ
E ment of Busin
ness —is this
coursse for you?
y
Thiss course is inntended for people
p who need
n to underrstand the wo
orkings
of thhe environment within which
w a businness operates. Business managers
m
and students alikke would neeed to know how
h much thee economic condition
c
of a country govverns the mov vements in businesses.
b
2
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Course outcomes
Upon completion of Economic Environment of Business you will be able
to:
Timeframe
This course will take approximately 120 hours of study time.
How long?
3
Course ovverview
Study skillss
As an
a adult learnner your approach to learrning will be different to that
from
m your schoool days: you will w choose whatw you waant to study, you y will
havee professionaal and/or perrsonal motivaation for doinng so and yo ou will
mosst likely be fiitting your sttudy activitiees around othher profession
nal or
dommestic responnsibilities.
S
Study skills
Esseentially you will
w be takin ng control of your learninng environmeent. As a
conssequence, yoou will need to
t consider performance
p issues relateed to
timee managemennt, goal-setting, stress maanagement, eetc. Perhaps you will
also need to reaccquaint yoursself in areas such as essay planning, coping
c
withh exams and using the Web as a learnning resourcee.
We recommend that you take time now— —before startting your self-
studdy—to familiiarise yourself with thesee issues. Therre are a numb
ber of
exceellent resourcces on the Web.
W A few suuggested linkks are:
• http://www.h
h how-to-study
y.com/
The “How too study” website is dedicaated to studyy skills resourrces.
T
Y will findd links to study preparatioon (a list of nnine essentiaals for a
You
g
good study place), taking
g notes, strateegies for readding text boo
oks,
u
using referennce sources, test
t anxiety.
• http://www.u
h ucc.vt.edu/std
dysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the website of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
T A
Y will findd links to tim
You me schedulingg (including a “where doees time
g
go?” link), a study skill checklist, bassic concentraation techniquues,
c
control of thee study envirronment, notee taking, how
w to read esssays for
a
analysis, mem mory skills (““rememberinng”).
• http://www.h
h howtostudy.o
org/resourcess.php
Another “Hoow to study” website withh useful linkss to time
A
m
management , efficient reaading, questiioning/listening/observin
ng skills,
g
getting the most
m out of do oing (“hands-on” learningg), memory building,
b
t for stayinng motivated
tips d, developingg a learning pplan.
The above links are our sugg gestions to sttart you on your way. At the time
of writing
w these Web links were
w active. If I you want too look for more
m go to
www w.google.com m and type “self-study
“ baasics”, “self--study tips”, “self-
studdy skills” or similar.
s
4
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Margin icons
While working through this course manual you will notice the frequent
use of margin icons. These serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a
new task or change in question; they have been included to help you to
find your way around this course manual.
Reading and References. All course readings and references are listed
at the end of Module 5.
5
Module 1
Mod
dule 1
Introduction
n to thee Econo
omic Ennvironm
ment
andUUndersttanding the Maarket Meechanissm
Introduction
Ecoonomics is the study of ho ow individuaals and societties choose to use
scarrce resourcess. It is a behaavioural scieence of how ppeople makee choices.
Lasttly, you will also exploree consumers’’ responses too price chang ges i.e.,
the concept of ellasticity, deteerminants off price elasticcity and the
calcculation of inncome, cross--price and addvertising elaasticity of deemand.
6
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Terminology
Cross-price The percentage of change in the quantity
elasticity of demanded to changes in the price of a particular
demand: good, Good A, relative to changes in the price of
substitute or complementary products, Good B.
Terminology Demand: The quantity of a good or service that a household
or a firm chooses to buy at a given price.
Opportunity costs: The alternatives that one forgoes to obtain the best.
7
Module 1
Solu
ution:
A. Econommics is about choice—how
w we allocatee limited reso
ources to
unlimiteed wants.
Costs
Faceed with scarccity, people must
m make choices.
c Wheen we cannott have
everrything we want,
w we choose among thhe alternatives available. The
conccepts of scarrcity and chooice provide a definition oof economicss as the
studdy of how people make ch hoices to coppe with scarccity. Becausee scarcity
forcces people to make choicees, economiccs is sometim mes called the science
of chhoice– the sccience that ex
xplains the choices
c that ppeople make and
preddicts how chooices changee as circumsttances changge.
8
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Question:
Does your opportunity cost of attending university include—
A. The money you spend on meals while at university.
Study skills B. Your tuition and the money you spend on traveling between
home and university.
C. The income you could have earned if you had been employed full
time.
D. Both B and C.
Solution:
D. You will buy food whether or not you attend university. Both
other expenses occur solely because of attending university.
9
Module 1
10
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Solution:
Discuss your answer with your tutor.
11
Module 1
S
Study skills B. Microecconomics stu
udies produceer behaviour,, while
macroecconomics stu
udies consum
mer behaviouur.
C. Microecconomics stu
udies behavioour of individdual househoolds and
firms, while
w macroecconomics stuudies nationaal aggregatess.
D. Microecconomics stu
udies inflationn and opporttunity costs, while
udies unemplloyment and sunk costs.
macroecconomics stu
Solu
ution:
C. Microecconomics stu udies the behaaviour of inddividual deciision-
makers, firms and ho ouseholds, whereas
w macrroeconomics studies
aggregatte concepts, inflation , unnemploymennt, interest rates,
exchangge rates, etc..
Making econom
mic choicces in business
Firm
ms will norm mally want to make as muuch profit as ppossible, or at a the
veryy least to avooid a decline in profits. Inn order to meeet these and
d other
objeectives, manaagers must make
m choicess in terms of what types ofo output
to produce, how w much to pro oduce and at what price; what techniq ques of
prodduction to usse, how many y workers to employ andd what type, whichw
supppliers to use for raw mateerials, equipm ment, etc. In each case, weighing
w
the alternatives can
c be less onerous
o for a manager whho is aware of o the
typees of influencces that cann
not be avoideed in businesss decision making.
m
Thee external inffluences outside the direcct control of a firm are thee
commpetition it faaces, the pricces it pays foor raw materiials, the statee of the
econnomy (whethher static, gro owing or in recession)
r annd the level ofo
interest rates. Buusinesses willl need to obtain a clear uunderstandin ng of
their environmennt before theey can set aboout making tthe right deciisions.
12
C5 Economic Environment of Business
(You will notice that most external factors to the firm are also external to
the industry, i.e., macroeconomic. Other factors, though outside the firm,
are within the industry and so are microeconomic in nature.)
PEST Analysis
The division of the factors affecting a firm into political, economic, social
and technological factors is known as a PEST analysis. It is widely used
by businesses to study their environment and to help them establish a
strategic approach to their business activities.
Political/legal/institutional factors
Social attitudes and values may or may not be codified in law and they
include attitudes towards working conditions and the length of the
working day, equal opportunities for different groups of people (by
ethnicity, gender, physical attributes, etc.), the use and abuse of animals
and images portrayed in advertisements. The social/cultural environment
also includes demographic trends such as an increase in the average age
of the population or changes in attitudes towards seeking paid
employment while bringing up small children. In recent times, various
ethical issues, especially those concerning the protection of the
environment have had a big impact on the actions of business and the
image that many firms seek to present.
Technological factors
Over the last 20 years, the pace of technological change has quickened,
transforming not only how firms produce products but also how their
business is organised. The use of robots and other forms of computer-
controlled production has changed the nature of work for many workers.
It has also created a wide range of new opportunities for business, many
of which are yet to be realised. The information-technology revolution
also enables rapid communication with the opportunity for many workers
13
Module 1
to work
w from hoome or while travelling.
Goverrnment in
nterventio
on in business
Deaaling with goovernment po olicies towardd business iss a very impo ortant
subjject in the prrivate sector and implemeenting such ppolicies is a major
m
funcction of the public
p sector. Most citizeens of modernn developed
counntries expectt government policy to pllay an imporrtant role in their
t
lives. We expectt governmen nts to providee law enforceement, educaation and
a vaariety of otheer goods and services witth the expectaation that
governments will finance theese activitiess by imposing taxes, subssidies
andsso on. Most of us also recognise that governmentt policy has some s
influuence on thee rate of unemmployment, inflation,
i inteerest rates an
nd
geneeral businesss conditions. However, manym people are surprised d when
theyy discover the extent to which
w businesss decisions of private seector
firm
ms are affecteed by govern nment interveention.
Typess of econo
omic evaluation
Youu might wondder what gov vernment inteervention is iintended to achieve
a
and why governnments choosse the policiees they do. Economists arre often
calleed upon to make
m judgem
ments on mattters of publicc policy. Sho ould the
government reduuce the deficcit? If so, how w? In this typpe of public policy
disccussion, econnomists tend to disagree. They differ iin their descrription
of thhe economy and in their predictions
p o the conseqquences of ceertain
of
actioons. When thhey describe the economyy and constru ruct models that
preddict either hoow the econoomy will channge or be afffected by diffferent
poliicies, they aree engaged in
n positive ecoonomics. Whhen they evalluate
14
C5 Economic Environment of Business
15
Module 1
S
Study skills A. Positivee statements are
a true by definition.
d
B. Only poositive statem
ments are subjject to empirrical verificaation.
C. Econommists use posiitive statements and politticians use no
ormative
statemennts when discussing econnomic matterrs.
D. Positivee economics involve
i value judgments.
ution:
Solu
B. Clearly, D and C aree wrong.
Positive staatements can be disprovedd by empirical verificatio
ons.
Econo
omic debaate
Stattements made by those en ngaged in poositive economics are nott
neceessarily true;; they can bee disproved byb empirical vverification.
Nevvertheless, noormative stattements, beinng theoreticaal, are not sub bjected
to emmpirical veriification at all
a if their bassis is based oon value judggements.
Hennce the imporrtance of deb bate i.e. accuuracy and reliiability imprrove as
diffe
ferent judgemments are aireed and considdered by diffferent individ duals.
16
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Activity 1.1
Choose a firm or a business that you are familiar with. Briefly describe
that firm or business. Discuss how various aspects of business
environment – internal, external and global could have influenced its
performance.
Activity
17
Module 1
1
Oxfford dictionary pronunciation code
c is ‘lesei’ fer,
f roughly equuivalent to ‘less-ay-fair’
18
C5 Economic Environment of Business
The free market consists of many interconnected markets which, for the
purposes of this course, you can assume to be highly competitive and
they operate free of government interference.
What is a market?
There are many types of market but the type of market structure truest to
the traditional model of a physical marketplace is a perfectly competitive
market with the following characteristics:
• Large number of sellers and buyers, each acting independently
and exerting no individual monopolistic power.
• Full information: Everyone knows what the going price is and
can evaluate the quality of the good or service being produced.
• Consumers aim to maximise utility (i.e., personal satisfaction)
and firms aim to maximise profits.
• Prices are flexible in all markets.
19
Module 1
Figu
ure 1.1
Foreeign and go
overnment seectors
Twoo other markket participan nts must be considered: thhe foreign seector and
the government
g sector. Dommestic firms do
d not have too sell their entire
outpput to domesstic consumerrs. They alsoo have the opption of expo orting.
Likeewise, houseeholds can im mport goods anda services instead of buying
the output of dom mestic firmss. Imports, exxports and thhe foreign traade
marrket are an inntegral part of an analysiss of the markket system. Factors of
prodduction suchh as capital an nd labour cann also be tradded internationally.
Thee rise in globaal capital moobility, especcially betweeen developedd
counntries, indicaates that the domestic
d ecoonomy is no longer restriicted to
dommestic savinggs for its supp ply of investmment funds. Since the miiddle of
the twentieth
t cenntury, the forreign sector has been groowing rapidly y in
relattive importannce.
20
C5 Economic Environment of Business
product, or keep the product unchanged? The answer to these and many
other questions is that it depends on the market in which the firm
operates. If the market is buoyant, the firm might be well advised to
increase its output in anticipation of greater sales. If customers give
evidence of being willing to pay more for the product, a price rise might
also be a good idea. If, however, the market is declining, the firm may
well decide to reduce output, or cut prices, or diversify its product line.
The market system, also called the price system, performs two important
and closely related functions in a society with unregulated markets. First,
it provides an automatic mechanism for distributing scarce goods and
services. In other words, it serves as a price-rationing device for
allocating goods and services to consumers when the quantity demanded
exceeds the quantity supplied. Second, the price system ultimately
determines both the allocation of resources among producers and the final
mix of outputs.
The demise of the command systems
The market system, or price system has three merits, namely efficiency,
incentives and freedom. However, in the command system (also known
as socialism or communism) governments own most economic resources
and the decisions are making via a central economic plan. This central
economic board examines production levels for each business or firm and
determines the total amount of resources to be allocated to each firm in
achieving its production goals. Nevertheless, this system has two main
problems.
21
Module 1
Thee coordinatio
on problem
Produ
uct (Outpu
ut) markeet
Dem
mand
22
C5 Economic Environment of Business
• Population.
Why might this be so? There is almost always more than one product that
will satisfy any desire or need. For example, the desire for a new car may
be satisfied by a variety of different cars of a certain category: imported,
domestic, sedan, coupe andso on.
Similarly, when the price of a good falls, the quantity demanded will rise.
People can afford to buy more (the income effect), and they will switch
from consuming alternative goods (the substitution effect). The amount
by which the quantity demanded falls will depend on the size of the
23
Module 1
0.60 30
0.50 35
0.40 40
0.30 45
0.20 50
0.10 55
Tab
ble 1.1
24
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 1.2
The smooth curve drawn through these points is called a demand curve. It
shows the quantity that purchasers would like to buy at each price. The
negative slope of the curve indicates that the quantity demanded increases
as the price falls. Each point on the demand curve indicates a single
price-quantity combination. The demand curve represents the relationship
between quantity demanded and price with other things being equal.
As you see, the term ‘demand’ refers to the entire relationship between
the quantity demanded of a producer and the price of that product (as
shown, for example, by the demand schedule in Table 1.1 or the demand
curve in Figure 1.2). In contrast, a single point on a demand schedule or
curve is the quantity demanded at that point. This distinction between
‘demand’ and ‘quantity demanded’ is an extremely important one and
both terms will be examined in detail later in this section.
You have seen that the negative slope of a product’s demand curve
occurs because the lower its price, the cheaper the product becomes
relative to other products that can satisfy the same needs or desires. These
other products are called substitutes, each being a good that can be used
in place of another good. For example, a bus ride is a substitute for a train
ride; therefore, a bus ride can become cheap relative to a train ride
probably because the price of the bus ride falls or because the price of the
train ride rises. Either change will increase the demand for (frequency of)
bus rides that consumers wish to buy as consumers substitute train rides.
25
Module 1
Com mplements arre products th hat tend to bee used jointlyy. Cars and petrol
p are
commplements; soo are hamburrgers and Freench fries, D DVDs and DV VD
playyers. Becausee complemen nts tend to bee consumed ttogether; a fall
fa in the
pricce of one willl increase thee demand forr both produccts. Thus a fall
fa in the
pricce of a compllement for a product will shift that prroduct’s dem mand
curvve to the righht. More willl be demandeed at each priice. For exam mple, a
fall in the price of
o a DVD player will leaad to a rise inn the demand d
forDDVDs, even though
t the price
p of DVD Ds is unchangged.
Pop
pulation
26
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Households’ tastes and preferences tend to change for time to time. For
example, in societies such as Canada, anti-smoking campaigns have been
so strong that demand for cigarettes has diminished for a large segment of
the population.
Figure 1.3
You can study the influence of changes in variables other than price by
determining how changes in each variable shift the demand curve. Any
change will shift the demand curve to the right if it increases the amount
that households wish to buy with other things remaining equal. On the
contrary, it will shift the demand curve to the left if it decreases the
amount that households wish to buy with other things remaining equal.
Note that changes in people’s expectations about future values of
variables such as income and prices can also influence the current
demand. However, to simplify, we consider only the influence of changes
in the current values of these variables.
27
Module 1
withh each other. The first asssociates a rissing price witth a rising deemand;
the second assocciates a risingg price with a declining ddemand. Can n both
stateements be truue? The answwer is yes beecause they reefer to differrent
circuumstances. The
T first desccribes a shiftt in the demaand curve; th he second
refeers to a moveement along a demand cuurve in responnse to a chan nge in
pricce.
Firsst, consider thhe statement that the incrrease in the pprice of heatiing oil is
caussed by an inccrease in demmand for heaating oil. Thiss statement refers
r to
a shhift in the dem
mand curve for
f heating oil.
o In this casse, the deman nd curve
musst have shifteed to the righ
ht, indicatingg more heatinng oil demand ded at
eachh price. This shift, as we will see laterr in this chappter; will increase the
pricce of heating oil as depictted in Figuree 1.4.
Noww consider thhe statement that less heaating oil is beeing bought because
b
heatting oil has become
b moree expensive. This refers tto a movement along
a givven demand curve and reeflects a channge between two specificc
quanntities being bought, onee before the price
p rose andd one afterw
ward.
Figu
ure 1.4
As indicated
i aboove, to preveent the type of
o confusion caused by ouur two
storries in the newwspaper, eco onomists usee a specialised vocabulary
y to
distiinguish betwween shifts off curves and movements along curvess.
An illustration of chang
ge in demaand versuss quantity
dem
manded
Here is an exam
mple that poinnts out the difference betw
ween a ‘chan
nge in
quanntity demandded’ and ‘a change
c in dem
mand’.
In Figure
F ve a demand curve for thee Honda Civ
1.5 beelow, we hav vic on the
left and the com
mpeting Toyo ota Corolla onn the right. Innitially, the price
p of
28
C5 Economic Environment of Business
the Honda Civic is $22,000 and 10,000 units are demanded per year.
Toyota Corolla sells for $21,000 and has a demand of 8,000 at that price
per year. (Note: it is irrelevant whether the Honda Civic’s price is above,
below or equal to that of the Toyota Corolla.)
Figure 1.5
Suppose that the price of the Honda Civic decreases to $20,000. More
Civics will be purchased and there will be an increase in quantity
demanded as there is a movement along the demand curve from A to B.
Some of the new Civic customers would have been Corolla drivers but
now they are not. Therefore at the price ($21,000), the demand for
Corolla has decreased, perhaps to 7,000. Note that the increased demand
for Civic (by 1,500 units) rises partly because some of the existing
Corolla customers switched to Civic. Potential car buyers might find the
reduced price of Honda Civic more attractive.
1. Refer to Table 1.1. Suppose that prices of other fruits you might buy
increase. What would happen to the number of apples you demand
per month? Sketch this change on your diagram. Label the demand
curve D2. What is likely to happen to the price of apples?
Study skills
Solution:
1. Refer to Figure 1.3. Presumably, you would demand more apples
at each price. The demand curve shifts right, to D2. Because
apples are more popular now, the price will likely rise.
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Module 1
Supplyy
Wheen we refer to t the econommy of our ow wn country, w we find that the
t
econnomy, in the most recentt year for which statistics are available,
prodduced goods and servicess worth milliions, or billioons, or even perhaps
p
trilliions in the loocal currency
y. In studyingg the subjectt of productioon, there
is a single questiion that econ nomists attemmpt to answeer: What deteermines
the quantities
q off products thaat will be prooduced and ooffered for sa ale?
Such an attemptt requires an examinationn of the basicc relationship p
betwween the pricce of a produ uct and the quuantity produuced and offfered for
salee as well as ann examinatio on of the forcces that lead to shifts in this
t
relattionship.
Wh
hat is quan
ntity suppliied?
Thee amount of a product thaat firms wish to sell in som me period is called
the quantity suppplied of that product. Quuantity suppliied is a flow;; it is so
mucch per unit off time. Note also that quaantity supplieed is the amo ount that
firm
ms are willingg to offer forr sale; it is noot necessarilyy the amountt that
theyy succeed in selling.
30
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Table 1.2
Figure 1.6
31
Module 1
Suppply refers to the entire reelationship beetween the qquantity supp plied of a
prodduct and the price of thatt product withh other thinggs being equaal. A
singgle point on the
t supply cu urve refers too the quantityy supplied att that
pricce.
Influences on
n supply
As indicated
i beffore, supply depends on several
s factoors other than
na
good’s own pricce. Changes in i these other factors are sources of sh hifts in
marrket supply cuurves, similaar to the markket demand ccurves discu ussed
prevviously.
Pricce of inputs (Changes in
n costs of prroduction)
Item
ms that a firmm uses to prod duce its outpputs such as m materials, lab
bour and
macchines are called the firm m’s inputs. Otther things beeing equal, th he higher
the price
p of any input used to o make a prooduct, the lesss will be thee profit
from
m making thaat product. We W expect, thherefore, thatt the higher th he price
of any
a input used by a firm, the lower wiill be the amoount that thee firm
willl produce andd offer for saale at any givven price of tthe product.
Theerefore, a risee in the pricee of inputs shhifts the suppply curve to the left,
indiicating that leess will be suupplied at anny given price. A fall in thhe cost
of innputs shifts the
t supply cu urve to the right.
Tecchnology
At any
a time, whhat is produceed and how it
i is producedd depends on n what is
known. Over tim
me, knowledg ge changes; so do the quaantities of in
ndividual
32
C5 Economic Environment of Business
If firms that produce for a particular market are earning high profits, other
firms may be tempted to go into that business. When the technology to
produce computers for home use became available, literally, hundreds of
new firms got into the act. The popularity and profitability of the Internet
led to the formation of Internet service providers (ISPs). When new firms
enter an industry, the supply curve shifts to the right. When firms go out
of business or exit the market, the supply curve shifts to the left.
Suppose that the price of sugar rises. How does this affect the demand for
ice cream? Sugar is an input into the production of ice cream. An increase
in the price of an input tends to raise the cost of production and lowers
profitability. In response to increased cost, ice cream producers will cut
their supply of ice cream. At any given price of ice cream, suppliers will
be less inclined to continue producing the same amount. As they produce
less, the supply curve for ice cream shifts to the left. Figure 1.7 exhibits
the shift in the supply curve to the left for any change that reduces the
quantity that suppliers wish to produce at any given price and to the right
for any change that increases the suppliers’ wish to produce at any given
price.
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Module 1
Figu
ure 1.7
34
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Solutions:
1. A.If Energizer increases the price of its batteries, consumers will
switch over to substitutes such as Duracell, increasing the
demand for Duracell. This will raise both equilibrium price and
quantity.
2. B.As the price of larger cars drops, car manufacturers will switch
overto another production option: 4-cylinder cars.
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Module 1
Figu
ure 1.8
If thhe price of icce cream channges but eveerything else remains con nstant,
therre is a movem ment along th
he supply currve as the seller attemptss to
resppond to a chaange in this market
m signall. If the pricee of ice cream
m
rem
mains the sam me but other factors
f that innfluence suppply change, for
instaance the pricce of inputs (sugar),
( suppply changes aand there will be a
shifft of the suppply curve. (R
Refer to Figurre 1.8).
ution:
Solu
C. Draw thhe supply currve. At the saame output leevel and at a higher
price, pllace a point. Draw a line parallel to thhe first supplly curve
through this point. The
T new line (curve) will be to the lefft and
above thhe initial sup
pply curve—aa decrease inn supply.
36
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Solution:
Discuss your answers with your tutor.
Market equilibrium
In discussions so far, there has been a clear distinction of two things: one
involves household decisions on how much to demand; and the other
involves firms’ decisions on how much to supply. The operation of the
market, however, clearly depends on the interaction between suppliers
and demanders. At any moment, one of following three conditions
prevails in every market:
1. If the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied at the
current price, a situation called excess demand or shortage
happens is represented by DC in Figure 1.9. In this market for
ice cream, at the price of $0.50 (per cone of ice cream), the
quantity demanded - Point C on the demand curve is 30,000
cones, while the quantity supplied – represented by Point D on
the supply curve is 5 thousand cones. The size of excess demand
is 25,000 cones.
2. If the quantity supplied equals the quantity demanded at the price
of $1.00, it is a situation called equilibrium. The quantity
demanded is equal to quantity supplied i.e. 20,000 cones.
3. If the quantity supplied exceeds the quantity demanded at the
current price, a situation called excess supply or surplus happens.
This is represented by Points BA in Figure 1.9. At the price of
$1.25, the size of the excess supply is 15 thousand cones of ice
cream.
37
Module 1
selleers to sell. At
A the equilibrrium, there is no tendenccy for price to
o
channge.
Figu
ure 1.9
Wheen ration couupons are useed with no prrohibition aggainst trading g them,
the result
r is simiilar to a systeem of price rationing.
r Thhose who are willing
and able to pay thet most will simply buyy up the couppons and use them to
purcchasepetrol, chocolate, frresh eggs or anything
a elsee that is sold
d at a
restrricted price. This means that the pricee of the restrricted good willw
effeectively rise to
t the markett-clearing priice. For instaance, supposse you
deciide not to selll your rationn coupon. Yoou are then foorgoing what you
wouuld have receeived by selliing the coupoon. Thus the real price off the
good you purchaase will be higher
h (if onlyy in opportunnity cost) thaan the
restrricted price.
38
C5 Economic Environment of Business
over time. For example, people may decide they want more DVDs and
fewer VCRs. Likewise, the pattern of supply also changes. For example,
changes in technology may allow the mass production of computer hard
drives at lower cost while the production of hand-built cars becomes
relatively expensive. In all cases of changes in demand and supply, the
resulting changes in price act as both signals and incentives.
A change in demand
Returning to the market for ice cream, suppose that due to a possible
consequence of the demographic from anaging population, the demand
for ice cream drops. This causes the demand curve to shift to the left as
seen in Figure 1.10. As a result, the new equilibrium will result in a
lower price and lower quantity.
Figure 1.10
A change in supply
Let us explore these dynamics in the market for ice cream. As noted
before, let us assume that sugar has become more expensive. As a result,
39
Module 1
Figu
ure 1.11
A ch
hange in both demand and
a supply
Supppose that theere has been a change in supply due tto an increasee in the
pricce of sugar simultaneously with a channge in demannd due to thee aging
factor. In this caase, both curv
ves shift to thhe left as shoown in Figurre 1.12.
Thee new equilibbrium point will
w be associiated with a llower quantiity but an
ambbiguous pricee. The price level
l could rise
r or fall orr stay the samme
depeending on thhe relative shifts of these two curves aand their slop pes. We
call the impact ono the price in
i this case as
a indeterminnate.
ure 1.12
Figu
40
C5 Economic Environment of Business
fact is that Point B could be placed below Point A to mark a fall in price
or it could be placed horizontally to the left of point A, in which case the
price would have remained unchanged.
41
Module 1
Figuure 1.13
ure 1.13
Figu
Sup
pply and marginal
m co
ost
• Marginaal cost refers to the cost of
o one producing more un nit of a
good or service. It iss measured as
a the minimuum price thaat
produceers must receeive to inducee them to prooduce anotheer unit of
the goodd or service. Hence, a supply curve ffor a good or o
service is also its marginal
m costt curve, as shhown in the figure
1.14.
• The upwward sloping supply curvve in the figurre shows thaat the
minimum price a pro oducer must receive to bee willing to produce
p
the 6 miillionth gallo
on of milk peer month is $3, so $3 is th
he
marginaal cost of thiss gallon.
• The diffference betw
ween the pricee of a good aand its the maarginal
cost of producing
p it is the produccer surplus, ssummed oveer the
quantityy produced. The
T shaded trriangle as shhown in the figure
f is
the prodducer surplu us when the price is $3 pper gallon.
42
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 1.14
Markets efficiency
• A competitive equilibrium is defined as the point where the
quantity demanded is equal to the quantity supplied in the
market. As shown in the figure, the equilibrium quantity is 6
million gallons with the equilibrium price $3 per gallon. At this
equilibrium point, the market is efficient as marginal benefit of
the last unit produced equals its marginal cost. Hence, the
equilibrium quantity is also the efficient quantity.
• The total surplus from a good or service is the sum of the
consumer surplus plus the producer surplus. As the figure
illustrates, when the efficient quantity of milk is produced, the
sum of the consumer surplus and producer surplus is maximised.
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Module 1
Figu
ure 1.15
• Howeveer, if the marrket does not produce thee efficient quantity, it
will eithher produce less
l than the efficient quaantity
(underproduction) or produce moore than the efficient quaantity
(overprooduction). In
n either case, a deadweighht loss occurrs. A
t decrease in the consuumer surplus and
deadweeight loss is the
produceer surplus thaat results from
m producingg an inefficien
nt
quantityy of a good. Figure
F 1.15 shows
s the deeadweight losss from
overproduction of milk
m and from m underproduuction.
• The maiin obstacles to
t achieving an efficient allocation off
resourcees in a markeet are price and
a quantity regulations and
a
taxes annd subsidies imposed
i by government.
g .
Figu
ure 1.16
44
C5 Economic Environment of Business
1. Jason just bought a used computer. When he was leaving the shop, he
thought that he such a great deal and would have paid $100 more dollars
for the stick. Jason received ⎯
A. consumer surplus.
Study skills
B. producer surplus.
C. marginal cost.
D. total surplus.
45
Module 1
3 Mary’s
M o making an additional roocking chair is $85. ⎯
cost of
A If she seells it for a $1
A. 100, her prodducer surpluss is $15.
B. Her marrginal cost is equal to $155.
C. The marrginal benefitt to the consuumer from thhe chair will be $85.
D. Both ansswers A and B are correcct.
5 When
W ved, the sum of the total aamount of producer
efficienncy is achiev
surpplus and conssumer surplu us is ⎯
A. equal to the deadweiight loss.
B. minimissed.
C. maximissed.
D. equal to zero.
Solu
utions:
Discuss youur answers with your tutoor.
Thee equilibrium
m price in a frree market occcurs at the pprice at whicch
quanntity demandded equals qu uantity suppllied. Governnment price controls
c
are policies
p that attempt to hold
h the pricee at some dissequilibrium value
that could not bee maintainedd in the absennce of the goovernment’s
intervention. Wee begin by loooking at twoo basic policiies: price ceiilings,
which impose a maximum price p that cann be charged for a product and
46
C5 Economic Environment of Business
price floors, which impose a minimum price. Rent control laws and
agricultural support policies are examples of price ceilings and price
floors.
In the case of price ceilings, the control mechanism holds the market
price below its equilibrium value. This creates a shortage, with quantity
demanded exceeding quantity supplied at the controlled price. If the price
ceiling is set above the equilibrium price, it has no effect because the
equilibrium remains attainable. If, however, the price ceiling is set below
the equilibrium price, the price ceiling lowers the price and is said to be
binding or effective.
In the case of price floors, the control mechanism holds the price above
the equilibrium price. This creates a surplus, with quantity supplied
exceeding quantity demanded at the controlled price. If the price floor is
set below the equilibrium price, it has no effect because the equilibrium
remains attainable. If, however, the price floor is set above the
equilibrium price, it raises the price floor and is said to be binding or
effective.
Price ceilings: The case of rent control
Rent controls are perhaps the most extensively studied form of price
ceilings and they provide a vivid illustration of the short and long-term
effects of this type of market intervention. Note, however, that the
specifics of rent-control laws vary greatly and have changed significantly
since they were first imposed many decades ago. In particular, current
laws often permit exemptions for new buildings and allowances for
maintenance costs and inflation. Moreover, in many countries, rent
controls have evolved into the second generation where they focus more
on regulating the rental housing market rather than simply controlling the
price of rental accommodation.
The short-run supply of housing is shown by the vertical curve SS. Thus
quantity supplied remains at Q1 in the short run and the shortage is Q1Q2.
This is because in the short run, landlords have a fixed number of
apartments to rent and they cannot adjust their number quickly as market
conditions change. Over time, the quantity supplied shrinks, as shown by
the long-run supply curve SL. In the long run, there are only Q3 units of
rental accommodation, fewer than when controls were instituted. The
housing shortage of Q2Q3, which occurs after the supply has fully
adjusted, is larger than the initial shortage of Q1Q2.
47
Module 1
Figu
ure 1.17
48
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Price floors may be established by rules that make it illegal to sell the
product below the prescribed price, as in the case of a minimum wage.
Effective price floors lead to excess supply. Either an unsold surplus will
exist, or someone must enter the market and buy the excess supply. The
consequences of excess supply will, of course, differ from product to
product. If the product is labour which is subjected to a minimum wage,
excess supply translates into people without jobs. If the product is wheat,
and more is produced than the quantity sold to consumers, the surplus of
wheat will accumulate in grain elevators or government warehouses. On
the other hand, price ceilings are meant to help demanders (buyers), price
floors are meant to help suppliers (sellers). With a price floor such as a
minimum wage, buyers (employers) cannot pay less than the
government-set minimum wage. The effects of binding price floors are
illustrated in Figure 1.18.
Figure 1.18
As indicated before, the short end of the market determines the quantity
exchanged. In this case, the lesser of the market is demand. At the
minimum wage (RM6), only QA units (hours) of labour are demanded but
QB units (hours) are supplied. Therefore, QAQB units are considered
unemployed. Note that only QE — QA units of labour are displaced. The
remaining part of unemployment (QB - QE) is due to the increased number
of workers who have been drawn to the labour force in response to the
higher wage ($6 versus the market rate, $5) in their search for a job. With
only QA employed, the remaining quantity QAQB, will continue to spend
time and resources searching for a job. The diagram indicates that these
unemployed individuals are willing to supply their labour services for as
little as $4. (Why $4? This is a good test of your knowledge of supply
and demand theory.)
49
Module 1
from
m an efficienncy point of view.
v
Solu
ution:
C. As the price
p increasees, there willl be an upwaard movemen nt along
both currves, not a sh
hift in these curves.
c The qquantity supp
plied
increasees while quanntity demandded decreasess.
Taxxes
Wheen you buy products
p subjjected to salees taxes, youu pay the pricce tag
pluss the tax. In some
s countriies, sales taxes are pervassive and cover a large
nummber of goods and servicees. In others, this is not thhe case. In so ome
counntries and taxx jurisdictionns, sales taxees are incorporated into thhe price
tagss, so you do not
n pay for taaxes separateely, whereas in other cou untries,
the sales tax is added
a to the price.
p The immportant questions hightllighted in
relattion to taxes are:
1. How doo we analyse the impact of
o sales taxess in the
supply/ddemand fram
mework?
2. What poortion of the sales tax willl consumerss and produceers end
up payinng? Will con
nsumers end up paying alll of it?
50
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 1.19
Figure 1.19 shows the market for petrol. The demand and supply curves
before the tax are represented by D and S. The equilibrium price and the
quantity before tax are $0.50 (50 cents)and 40 million litres per week.
Suppose the government levies a sales tax onpetrol, let us say $0.05 (5
cents) per litre of petrol ($/litre). What are the effects of this tax on the
quantity and price paid by consumers and those received by producers?
When the sales tax is introduced, it leaves the demand curve intact while
it raises the supply curve by the amount of the tax of5 cents. To see this
logic, remember that the supply curve represents the quantities that a firm
is to offer at alternative prices. The supply curve in Figure 1.19 reflects
the prices excluding taxes charged by the sellers. When the tax is levied,
the price charged by the sellers must reflect the tax. Therefore, the supply
curve shifts up (a decrease in supply) by the amount of tax (5 cents on the
vertical axis). Note that this shift is a parallel shift since the amount of tax
is fixed per litre of petroland does not change with the volume of
consumption. The tax-inclusive supply curve reflects the fact that sellers
are willing to supply the same quantities only if they get paid 5 cents
more than before per litre. The 5 cents added to the price is the sellers’
new obligation to the government. In other words, sellers are willing to
sell as much petrol as before at the same (net of the tax) prices.
At the new equilibrium, Point B, the price has risen and the volume of
transactions has fallen.
However, the equilibrium price of53 cents is the price paid by consumers.
Note that the price does not rise by the full amount of 5 cents to
consumers even though the government has levied a 5- cent tax. In order
to clarify this point, remember that the vertical distance between the two
supply curves is 5 cents. As long as the demand curve is not perfectly
vertical, consumers will pay only a portion of the tax. The remaining
portion is paid by sellers (suppliers) who receive 48 cents per litre as
opposed to 50 cents (Point C). Therefore, the burden of the tax is shared
51
Module 1
by both
b consumers and prod ducers: 3 centts by the form
mer and 2 ceents by
the latter.
l The goovernment collects its 5 cents
c regardlless of how the
t
burdden is sharedd. In fact, thee governmentt revenue froom new taxattion is
equaal to the voluume of petrol sold after thhe imposition of tax (30 million
litrees) multipliedd by 5 cents per This is equal to the
p litre ($1.5 million). T
areaa of the shadeed rectangle in Figure 1..19.
In many
m circumsstances, the sales
s tax – whether
w leviedd on buyers or sellers
– may
m take the form
f of a perrcentage of thhe price (knoown as ad va alorem
tax)) as opposed to a fixed am mount of tax per unit (speecific tax). TheT case
illusstrated abovee is the latterr. In terms off the outcomee, a specific tax
t and
an ad
a valorem taax of equal value
v result inn the same ooutcome pertaaining to
pricce, quantity and
a government tax revennue. For exam mple, in the above
diaggram, the equuivalent perccentage tax too 5 cents perr litre would be b 10
per cent i.e. 10 per
p cent of 50 0 cents = 5 cents.
c The onnly differencee
betwween the twoo types of tax xes would bee in the way tthey make th he curves
shifft. A specific tax results in n a parallel shift
s whereass the shift fro
om an ad
valoorem tax is non-parallel.
n Obviously, the
t higher thee price, the greater
g
the dollar amounnt of tax for a given fixedd percentage (for examplle 10 per
centt of 50 cents is 5 cents, whereas
w 10 peer cent of onne dollar is 10 0 cents).
Theerefore, the vertical
v distannce between the supply ccurve (or dem mand
curvve) excludingg and includiing the tax widens
w as the price increaases.
Exporrts and im
mports
Eveery nation prooduces little or none of ceertain produccts. Any dom mestic
conssumption of these produccts must therrefore be satiisfied by imp ports
fromm other counntries. For example, manyy countries ddo not producce oil,
wheereas some produce and export
e oil. Oiil is an exam
mple of a min neral that
is allso considereed a commod dity. It is stanndardised, eaasily gradablle and
internationally trradable. Theere are numerrous other exxamples of
commmodities succh as gold, other
o precious metals, forrest products such as
timbber, as well as
a agriculturaal products. Certainly,
C exxports and im
mports
are not
n limited to commoditiies. These daays, the bulk of world traade is in
the form of servvices.
52
C5 Economic Environment of Business
How much influence a country may have on the world market depends on
the relative importance (supply and demand) of that country in the world
market. For example, Saudi Arabia is a major player in the market for oil
and Canada for nickel, uranium and wheat. However, the simplest case
for us to study arises when a country accounts for only a small part of the
total worldwide demand and supply. As a small economy, the country
neither buys nor sells quantities large enough to influence the world price
significantly. Assuming that the law of one price prevails in this case,
producers and consumers in the small economy face a world price that
they cannot influence by their own actions. This implies that in a small
importing nation, consumers can buy whatever amount of the product
they choose at that price. The world price does not change irrespective of
the volume of the nation’s purchase. In other words, a horizontal world
supply curve prevails.
To determine the pattern of trade for a nation, we first show the domestic
demand and supply curves for some product, for example: oil. The
intersection of these two curves tells us what the price and quantity would
be if there is no foreign trade. Now compare this no-trade price with the
world price of that product. If the world price is lower, the actual
domestic price will fall below the no-trade price and there will be an
excess demand for the product. The shortage of domestic supply will be
imported from abroad. Conversely, if the world price is higher, the actual
price in the nation will exceed the no-trade price and will be an excess of
domestic supply over domestic demand. The surplus will be exported for
sale abroad.
Figures 1.20 and 1.21 show respectively, the case of an exporting and
importing nation.
Suppose the exporting market is the market for wheat. DS and SS are the
small nation’s demand and supply curve respectively. DW and SW refer to
the world demand and supply curves in the wheat market. PS and PW are
the small nation’s domestic price and the world price of wheat
respectively.
53
Module 1
Figu
ures 1.20
ure 1.21
Figu
54
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Study skills
1. If the world price of $25 per barrel is the market price in the small
nation, then there will be an of million barrels per day.
A. excess supply, 1.2
B. excess supply, 2.6
C. excess demand, 3.8
D. excess demand, 2.6
2. If the world price $25 per barrel is the market price in the small
nation, then the nation’s domestic production will be and its imports
will be million barrels per day.
A. 3.8, 3.8
B. 3.8, 1.2
C. 1.2, 1.6
D. 3.8, 2.6
Solution:
1. D.At $25 per barrel, quantity supplied is 1.2 million and quantity
demanded is 3.8 million.
2. C.At $25 per barrel, quantity supplied is 1.2 whereas quantity
demanded is 3.8 million, leaving an excess demand of 1.6 to be
imported.
55
Module 1
amoount of the shhrinking marrket for air trravel from yoour competito ors.
How wever, you wonder
w if the increased voolume that yoou hope to generate
g
is laarge enough to
t make up for f the loss of
o income cauused by the lower
l
pricces you are innitiating. Youu can also prredict that yoour major com
mpetitors
willl quickly mattch your pricce cuts with the
t result thaat everyone inn the
induustry suffers from the red ductions.
Demand elasticcity
As discussed
d in the previouss section, the amount thatt people are willing
w
to buy of a goodd or service and
a its price area inverselyy related. In other
o
worrds, consumeers will buy more
m as the price
p of a goood or servicee
decrreases and will
w buy less as a the price inncreases. Airr Canada, Geeneral
Mottors and Com mpaq could th herefore assuume that theyy were going g to sell
morre when theyy lowered theeir prices. Whhat they did not know forr certain
wass whether thee increase in unit sales waas going to bbe sufficient to
t offset
their price reducctions. From the seller’s standpoint,
s itt is importan
nt to
know the extent of the consu umer’s respoonse relative tto price channges.
Supppose at a price of $6, con nsumers buy 1,000 units per time period of a
partticular produuct. The total revenue earnned by sellerrs is determin ned by
the unit
u price muultiplied by thet quantity purchased.
p T
Thus, at the price
p of
$6, sellers’ revennue is equal to $6,000. Suppose now that the pricce falls to
$5 and,
a as a resuult, consumerrs increase thheir purchasees to 2,000 unitsu per
timee period. In terms
t of totall revenue, thhis price reduuction will beenefit the
selleers because the
t total reveenue will incrrease to $10,,000. But wh hat if the
pricce reduction from
f $6 to $5 causes the quantity dem manded to in ncrease to
onlyy 1,100 unitss? This will hurt
h sellers because their revenue willl drop to
$5,5500 (see Tab ble 1.4 for ex
xamples of deemand scheddules).
In Table
T 1.4, eaach demand schedule
s has the same sett of prices. The
T only
diffe
ference is thee responsiven ness of the buuyers to the ddifferent pricces.
Demmand 1 has thhe more resp ponsive set of buyers; whhen the price falls
m $6 to $5 too $4, the increase in the quantity
from q demaanded is morre than
enouugh to comppensate for th he decrease inn price. Hencce, total reveenue
(TRR) increases. When
W these same reductiions in price occur in Demand 2,
the increase
i in quantity
q ot enough to compensate for the pricee
is no
reduuction and soo total revenuue falls. In Demand
D 3, thee change in the
t
quanntity demandded is just en nough to offsset the changge in the pricee. Thus,
total revenue is unchanged,
u regardless
r off the directioon of change in price.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
P Q TR* P Q TR P Q TR
where
57
Module 1
Fromm Table 1.5 we can calcu ulate the pricce elasticity of demand. Using
U
Demmand 1, we sees that the percentage off increase in qquantity is 100 per
centt i.e. (2,000 – 1,000)/1,00
00. The perceentage of chaange in pricee is -
16.667 per cent (55 – 6 divided
d by 6). Thuss, EP is equall to 100 dividded by -
16.667 or -6. Usinng the same formula for Demand 2, w we see that th
he
decrrease in pricee from $6 to $5 indicatess an elasticityy coefficient of - 0.6.
Thee percentage of increase in quantity inn this case woould be 10 per cent,
(1,100 –1,000)/11,000, whereeas the percenntage of channge in price remains
at –16.67.
To handle
h this innherent ambiiguity, we em
mploy a form
mula that adjuusts the
ference in basse numbers. This formulaa is expresseed as follows:
diffe
By dividing
d the change in qu uantity and price
p by the rrespective miidpoints
betw
ween the chaanges, this formula providdes a commoon base from m which
o decreases can be calcuulated. Thus, for any
either percentagge increases or
two prices and quantities,
q the elasticity coefficient
c would remain the same
no matter
m whichh direction th
he price has changed.
c Forr example, in
n Demand
1, between $6 annd $5, elasticcity coefficieent is -3.67. IIn Demand 2,
2 it is -
0.522. In Demandd 3, the elasticity coefficiient is - 1, whhich explain
ns why
econnomists call this type of demand
d channge unitary eelastic.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 1.22
Pointers on Figure 1.22: Initially, you might confuse the two extreme
cases, perfectly inelastic and perfectly elastic. In the case of ‘perfectly’
think ‘completely’. If you have a ‘complete’ lack of response to higher
prices, what would happen to the amount you buy? Higher prices will not
change the amount you buy. Demand is totally unresponsive and is drawn
as a vertical curve. If you have a ‘complete’ response to a higher price,
what would happen to the amount you buy? The demand is perfectly
elastic and graphically, you are ‘off’ the horizontal demand curve. You
buy none of the good.
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Module 1
Figu
ure 1.23
60
C5 Economic Environment of Business
61
Module 1
5. The supply of
o cooking oil
o increases. There is no effect on thee
equilibrium quantity. Deemand is—
A. perffectly inelastiic.
B. Elasstic.
C. Inelastic.
D. perffectly elastic..
Solu
utions:
1. B. P1 is 12; P2 is 10; Q1 is 100; Q2 is 120. Pluug the values into the
formula. Note: Conffirm your ressult by using the total rev venue
test.
2. D. P1 is 12; P2 is 8; Q1 is 100; Q2 is 140. Optiions B and C must be
incorrecct—an elasticc demand cannnot have a ccoefficient of -5/6
and an innelastic dem
mand cannot have
h a coeffiicient of -6/5
5. Note:
Confirmm your ‘inelasstic’ result byy using the ttotal revenuee test.
3. A. The percentage
p ch
hange in the quantity is lless than thatt in the
price.
4. See the definition off elasticity.
5. A. A perrfectly inelasstic demand curve is a veertical deman nd curve.
This impplies, a downnward shift inn the supply curve has no o effect
on quantity. Also, in
ntuitively, whhen demand is perfectly inelastic,
i
a changee in price hass no effect onn the quantitty of output
demanded.
Tab
ble 1.6 Deterrminants of elasticity off market dem
mand
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
The demand for oil offers a good example of short and long-run
elasticity. When OPEC conspired to raise the price of oil in 1973 and
again in 1979, consumers, especially in industrialised oil importing
nations, responded by reducing their purchases by a relatively small
amount. One economic study at that time pointed out that the short-run
elasticity of demand for oil was about -0.10, a coefficient indicating a
very inelastic demand. In the 1980s, however, these consumers had
changed their pattern of consumption by car pooling, driving their cars at
lower speed, using more fuel-efficient cars and turning their thermostats
down. Producers in these countries complemented this response by using
more fuel-efficient machinery. Thus, the long-run response to increased
oil prices was much more elastic than the short-run response.
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Module 1
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
P Q R
$6 1,000 $6,000
$5 2,000 $10,000
$4 3,000 $12,000
$3 4,000 $12,000
$2 5,000 $10,000
$1 6,000 $6,000
You will notice that as the price drops from $6 to $1, the pattern of
change in total revenue alters. Down to $4, revenue increases, implying
an elastic response. Between $4 and $3, there is no change, implying
unitary elasticity. As the price drops below $3, the same incremental
response of 100 units results in a decrease in total revenue. Generally, at
higher price levels, price decreases produce elastic responses in quantity
demanded; at lower price levels, price reductions are accompanied by an
inelastic response. There is no magic in this observation; it is all in the
arithmetic of the elasticity formula and in the demand schedule itself.
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Module 1
Figu
ure 1.24
66
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Income elasticity
You can reasonably expect that when income rises, consumers will buy
more of a particular product, less when their income falls. In fact, goods
and services that exhibit such a relationship are called normal. However,
where there is an inverse relationship between changes in income and
consumer demand, the products are called inferior. Examples of inferior
products or services are less expensive means of transportation (bus
versus plane), low quality rice, and no-name products. As people’s
income rises, they start to replace these products with higher-priced
substitutes such as branded products.
Home ownership might be a luxury. If your income is low, you can only
rent. If your income rises, you may qualify for mortgage loans and enter
the house-purchasing market. In such a case, expenditure on house
purchases rises more than the increase in income.
67
Module 1
outw
ward of the demand
d curve (D2 in Figu
ure 1.25).
Thee extent of the outward sh hift will be leess than for a luxury good
d, of
courrse, since thee demand forr necessities is less responsive to channges in
incoome than luxxury goods, D3. Note that both luxuriees and necesssities
exhiibit a positivve income efffect.
Thee shift of the demand curv ve for an infeerior good is in the oppossite
direection to the change
c in inccome. In Figgure 1.25 wee also show the
demmand curve shhifting back to the left, D4, followingg an increase in
conssumer incom me. Consumeers now buy less l of this product than they t did
befoore, as a resuult of the incrrease in theirr income. The extent of th he shift
depeends, of courrse, on the vaalue of incom me elasticity: small negattive
valuues mean small shifts to the t left whilee relatively laarge negativee income
elassticities meann relatively laarge shifts too the left, in rresponse to an
a
incrrease in real income.
i
Figu
ure 1.25
Bussiness impliccations of in
ncome elastticity
68
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Cross-price elasticity
Cross-price elasticity is a measure of the responsiveness of consumers to
changes in the price of a particular good, Good A, relative to changes in
the price of substitute or complementary products, Good B. The cross-
elasticity of demand provides a measure of the degree of
complementarity between Product X and some other product.
Percentage of change in QA
EC =
Percentage of change in PB
The main point here is the sign (positive or negative) of the relationship
rather than the magnitude. If it is a positive relationship, the goods are
substitutes; if it is negative, they are complements. As a secondary issue,
the larger (in absolute terms) the coefficient, the more related are the two
goods. For instance, a small decrease in the price of Pepsi may cause a
sizeable decrease in the demand for Coke (close substitutes) but a smaller
decrease in the demand for tea.
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Module 1
Advvertising elasticity
e
We know that addvertising haas an impact on the quanttity of outputt sold.
Specifically, thee quantity dem manded of Product
P X willl typically sh
how a
posiitive responsse to advertissements in suupport of Prooduct X and a
negaative responsse to the adv
vertisements of o substitutes as well as a
posiitive responsse to the adveertising of coomplements.
As stated
s earlierr, one expectts cross-adveertising elastiicity to be neegative
betwween substituute products and positivee between com mplementary y
prodducts. For exxample, increeased advertiising efforts for a particular
movvie is expecteed to reduce the quantity demanded oof admission tickets
to other movies and attractio ons but to inccrease the salles at the refr
freshment
kiossk in the lobbby of that parrticular moviie theatre. Thhe increased
adveertising efforrts would hav ve shifted thhe demand cuurves to the left for
all substitute
s attrractions while shifting thhe demand cuurve to the riight for
the refreshment
r kiosk.
Peercentage of change
c in quuantity demannded for Pro
oduct X
EC =
Perccentage of ch
hange in the advertising bbudget for Prroduct Y
It is clear that we
w might calcculate the elasticity of dem
mand with reespect to
any variable that influences the demand for a productt.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
For example, the following table has two points on the supply curve for
pie.
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Module 1
Nowwadays, everry time consu umers buy soomething, theey pay a tax. On
me items, custtomers pay a sales tax that is added too the advertised price
som
while on other ittems, custommers pay an excise
e tax thaat is included
d in the
adveertised price. In paying th
he taxes, therre is a divisioon of the tax
x burden
betw
ween the buyyer and the seeller. This is called tax inncidence.
Figu ure 1.26 shoows the mark ket for DVDss. With no taxx, the equilib brium
pricce is $12 and the equilibriium quantityy is 10,000 unnits per month. When
a DV VD is taxed, it has two prices:
p a pricee before incluusion of the tax and a
pricce that includdes the tax. Buyers
B pay too the price thhat includes th
he tax
while sellers resspond to the price
p that exccludes the taax because thhis is the
pricce that they reeceive. Hencce, the tax immposed by thee governmen nt is a
diffe
ference betweeen these two o prices. Figgure 1.26 shoows the effecct of the
tax imposed
i by the
t governm ment on a DV VD. The tax im mposed will move
the supply curvee as the tax iss viewed as partp of the suupplier’s costt. Hence,
the initial
i supplyy curve, S moves to the left. The new w market equiilibrium
afterr tax occurs where the neew supply cuurve (S + taxx) intersects the t
demmand curve, D. D The buyerr pays the eqquilibrium priice $13. The seller
receeives the net--of-tax price $11. The diffference betw ween the pricce paid
by seller
s and buyyer is the tax
x imposed byy the governm ment. Govern nment
receeives tax reveenue of $18,000 ($2 × 9,0000 units). Inn this case, th he buyer
and seller split thhe $2 tax andd pay $1 eacch, namely thhey share thee tax
burdden equally. The tax incidence and taax burden shaared by buyeer and
selleer depend onn the elasticitties of demannd and supplly.
• For a given elasticityy of demandd, the more ellastic is the supply
s of
the goodd, the smalleer is the portion of the taxx paid by the seller.
• For a given elasticityy of supply, the more elaastic is the deemand of
the goodd, the smalleer is the portion of the taxx paid by the buyer.
Figu
ure 1.26
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Activity 1.2
What would be your income elasticity of demand for:
a. Essential goods like sugar, salt and rice?
b. A vacation in Europe?
Activity
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Module 1
Modu
ule sum
mmary
In thhismodule, you
y have been n exposed too the econom mic environm ment of
busiiness pertainiing to the stu
udy of econoomic decisionns made by business
b
in diimensions off microecono omics and macroeconom mics. PEST an nalysis is
usedd by businesss enterprises to determinee strategic appproaches to business
Summary activvities. The thhree basic priinciples of macroeconom
m mics are: incrreasing
empphasis on usinng market mechanisms
m too achieve obj
bjectives, formmulation
of more
m macroecconomic poliicies to ensure a stable ecconomic fram mework
and more outwarrd-looking national
n policcies. In the annalyses of
goveernment poliicy affecting business, tw wo sets of queestions arise,, the first
i referred to as normativ
set is ve or prescripptive and the second as po ositive
or descriptive.
d W
Well-establish hed set of gooals of the goovernment arre
econnomic efficieency, macroeeconomic staabilisation, grrowth and faairness
(equuity).
Youu have review wed the form mation of a suupply curve aand a demand d curve,
deteerminants of supply and demand,
d marrket supply ccurve and maarket
demmand curve, thhe differencee between movements
m aloong supply and
a
demmand curves anda shifts of these curvess. You have aalso learnt thhat
markket equilibriuum exists on nly when quaantity supplieed equals quaantity
demmanded. The market
m systeem – also called the pricee system – peerforms
two important fuunctions, nam mely provisioon of an autoomatic mechaanism
for distributing
d s
scarce goodss and servicess and determmination of booth the
alloccation of resources amon ng producers as well as thhe final mix of
o
outpputs. The govvernment maay implement price controols such as price
p
ceiliings and pricce floors. In an
a open econnomy, the paattern of tradee for a
natioon is determined by the relationship
r b
between its ddemand and supply
to thhe world’s deemand and su upply, and distinguishing
d g whether an
n
econnomy functioons as to be an a exporter or
o importer.
Youu have also leearnt the estimated functiions of price elasticity off
dem
mand, incomee elasticity off demand, crross-price elaasticity of dem mand,
adveertising elastticity and thee elasticities that
t could bee used as a baasis for
busiiness forecassting and deccision makingg.
74
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Assignment
75
Module 1
16. Use the diaggram below tot decide which statemennt is false: ‘D
Demand
for this prodduct is _____
_____within the range _________’.
A. elastic; J to K.
B. elastic; J to L.
C. inelaastic; L to M.
M
D. elastic; K to L.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
18. In what aspect would you expect determinants of the demand for
computers to differ from the determinants of the demand for milk?
19. Discuss why the price elasticity of demand is greater for goods and
services that have better close substitutes.
20. If demand is price inelastic, does revenue increase when price rises?
22. Does total revenue fall if a price increases and demand is elastic?
24. Rank the following items in ascending order of elasticity: jeans, black
Levi jeans, black jeans, black Levi 501 jeans, trousers, outer
garments, clothes.
26. The table shows the demand and supply schedules for car.
77
Module 1
Pricce Quantitydem
Q manded Q
Quantitysup
pplied
(thousannd per
(cars per w
week)
carr)
100 35 5
200 30 10
300 25 15
400 20 20
500 15 25
600 10 30
700 5 35
78
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Assessment
79
Module 1
80
C5 Economic Environment of Business
81
Module 1
A. Calcculate total in
ncome for daairy farmers.
B. Suppose that this income levvel is felt to bbe inadequate and a
political decisionn is made to boost the farrm income too
$1,2200,000. Sup ppose the govvernment esttablishes a prrice floor
at $22.00 with thee governmennt buying thee excess suppply. How
mucch milk will beb supplied??
C. Whoo gets the miilk?
D. The plan achievees the incom
me objective bbut what elsee has it
donee? There are costs involvved with tamppering with the
t price
mecchanism. Wh hat are they?
Now supposse the govern
nment establiishes a price ceiling of $0
0.50 per
litre.
w much milk
E. How k would consuumers actuallly receive?
F. Whiich plan is beetter for a miilk consumerr who pays no
n
82
C5 Economic Environment of Business
83
Module 1
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
85
Module 1
Asseessment answeers
1. A. Positive, B. normativ
ve, C. positivve, D. normattive.
2. A. The answ om a countryy to the next. Therefore, it is
wer varies fro
sensitive to your choice of local areaa.
B. Just remeember that op
pportunity coost reflects thhe forgone
alternative.
C. If the resoource is non-renewable, the cost shouuld reflect th
he
forgone valuue. Thereforre, it should be
b factored in.
D. Again it depends on your
y choice.
3. C.
4. C.
5. C.
6. B.
7. B.
8. A.
9. The price coontrol had caaused long quueues and exxcess demand d (prices
too low). Thhe removal ofo the control caused the excess demaand to
push the price upward, perhaps
p as hiigh as P1. Thhe supply of food in
the short runn would be fixed
fi (verticaal); little timee is availablee for
producing more.
m In the long
l run, suppply would reespond to thee rising
price. More food (S′) wo ould be produuced, new S′′short crossing g Slong
and D at A.
86
C5 Economic Environment of Business
87
Module 1
B. demand shifts
s right (ssubstitutes)
C. demand shifts
s right (ccomplementss)
D. demand shifts
s right
E. supply, not
n demand, shifts
s to the left,
l or demaand shifts to the
t left
by 10%
F. demand shifts
s left
17. B, C and D. The productt pairs in eacch case are suubstitutes.
18.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
B.
%ΔQx
21. A. EP = = −1.85
%ΔPy
Therefore, if P is raised by 10%, %∆Q (Sales) should drop by %∆Q =
−1.85 x 10% = −18.5%.
% ΔQ x
B. EC = = .45
% ΔPY
Therefore, if its rival raises its price by 10% , Bustraen’s sales should
rise by %∆Q = 10 x .45 = 4.5%.
C. If all other firms raise their price at the same time as Bustraen’s,
sales drop by 5.5% [(10% x (−.55)].
22. You tell your economist he is WRONG and that he knows nothing
about the link between elasticities and revenue. Where the demand is
elastic (−2.4), a decrease (not an increase) in price will increase total
revenue.
⎛ 10 − 9 ⎞
23. A. A, because a 10% ⎜ ⎟ drop in price causes an increase in
⎝ 10 ⎠
⎛ 200 − 100 ⎞
quantity demanded of 100% ⎜ ⎟ in case of A, whereas in
⎝ 100 ⎠
⎛ 10 − 8 ⎞
case of B, it takes 20% ⎜ ⎟ drop in price to bring about the
⎝ 10 ⎠
same change (100% increase in quantity).
89
Module 1
100
E PB = =5
220
24. A. not prefeerred. As PY increases QX
X falls (negaative cross ellasticity
= −0.7); X and
a Y are com mplements.
B. not preferred, for the same reasonn.
C. preferredd. As PY dro
ops, QX risees.
D. preferredd. As PZ incrreases, QX rises
r (substituutes as evideent by a
positive crosss-elasticity.
E. If the twoo prices rise by
b the same proportion, nnothing will happen
to sales of X.
X The impacct on X depennds on whichh increase is larger. If
PZ rises by more, the salle of X increeases and vicce versa.
90
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Module 2
In terms of market structure, you will first explore the output decision of
a competitive firm, its decision to shut down, relationship between short-
run market conditions and long-run market entry / exit adjustment. Then
we will introduce types of imperfectly competitive markets, starting with
a monopoly market. We will explain monopoly output and price
determination, price discrimination of a monopoly and social costs of a
monopoly. Another imperfectly competitive market to be introduced is
the monopolistic market. Lastly, oligopolistic models and the concept of
prisoners’ dilemma and its application on oligopoly will be discussed.
91
Module 2
Term
minologyy
Breaak-even Given n the companny's fixed andd variable co ost, how
anallysis: many units of a paarticular prodduct does a company
c
have to
t sell to covver all its costs of producttion? It
is also
o calledcost-vvolume-profi fit analysis.
T erminology
Eco nomies of Firm experiences
e a fall in the llong run averrage
scale: total cost
c as a resuult of its expaansion.
Marg
ginal product: Extra output produuced when ann additional worker
is hireed. Marginal product is calculated by dividing
the chhange in totall product (∆Q
Q) by the chaange in
the ammount of laboour employed (∆L).
Mon
nopoly: Mono opoly consistts of a single seller of a product
that has no close substitutes;
s thhus the produuct is
highlyy differentiatted from the products of all
a other
92
C5 Economic Environment of Business
firms
Businesses and the industries in which they operate fall into one of three
sectors depending on the type of production: primary, secondary, or
service (also known as ‘tertiary’). The primary sector includes industries
that extract or cultivate natural resources, such as mining, forestry,
fishing and agriculture. The secondary sector involves fabricating or
processing goods, and includes manufacturing and construction, among
other industries. Finally, the service sector includes trade industries (both
93
Module 2
retail and wholeesale) such ass banking and insurance, and the new w
infoormation induustries. Desppite the differrences betweeen these threee
secttors, they all follow the saame producttion principlees.
Cho
oice of tecchnology
In producing
p a certain
c good or service, businesses
b caan typically choose
c
from
m several proocesses usingg a different combinationn of inputs. A labour-
intensive processs employs more
m labour and
a less capittal to producce a
certain quantity of output. Conversely, a capital- inteensive processs uses
morre capital andd less labour to produce the
t same quaantity of outp put.
T
Technique Units ofC
Capital (K) Units oofLabour (L
L)
A 2 10
B 3 6
C 4 4
D 6 3
E 10
1 2
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
process, therefore, depends both on the quantity of each input used and
on the prices of these inputs.
Use the following information for the next two questions. Each technique
produces the same amount of output.
1. The price of both labour and capital is $1 per unit. What is the
optimal production technique: A, B, C, or D?
2. Which production technique is the most labour intensive: A, B,
C, or D?
Solutions:
1. Technique C is best (least cost). The total cost is $12.
2. Technique A uses more units of labour than any of the other
techniques.
What is a firm’s profit? The amount that the firm receives for the sale of
its output (diapers) is called its total revenue. The amount that your firm
pays to buy inputs (fabric, absorbent filler, workers, sewing machines,
etc.) is called its total cost. You get to keep any revenue that is not needed
to cover costs. We define profit as a firm’s total revenue minus its total
cost. That is,
95
Module 2
Totaal revenue iss the easy parrt: it equals thhe quantity oof output thee firm
prodduces times the
t price at which
w it sellss its output. IIf you producce 1,000
‘Sofft Diapers’ and sell them at $1 a diaper, your totall revenue is $1,000.
$
Thee measuremennt of your firrm's total cosst, however, is more challlenging.
Opportunity costs
c
Wheen measuringg costs, econ nomists alwaays use the cooncept of opp portunity
costt. The cost off something is what you giveg up to geet it. The opp portunity
costt of an item refers
r to all th
hose things that
t must be forgone to acquire
a
that item. Whenn economists speak of a fiirm’s cost off production, they
incluude all the opportunity costs of makinng its outputt of goods an nd
servvices. When you
y close do own your bussiness of makking diapers for a
weeek to go on a fishing trip, the amount of income thhat you forgo o by
susppending yourr operation teemporarily would
w be a reeal cost to yo
ou, the
opportunity costt. For econom mists, this coost is as real aas the out-off-pocket
expeenses associaated with you ur fishing acctivities.
96
C5 Economic Environment of Business
is too costly and choose to shut down the factory in order to become a
full-time manager.
As for the first cost, you might estimate that, rather than making diapers,
you could deposit your $100,000 in a bank account and earn $30 a day.
Another implicit cost would be the wage that you as the owner of the firm
sacrifice by working as the manager of your company. You might
estimate the value of your work as $100, which is what you would earn
by working for someone else. The sum of these two costs ($30 + $100),
or $130, represents the opportunity costs for ‘Soft Diapers’. Therefore,
97
Module 2
conssidered relevvant.
For example, Mother’s Day falls on the weekendw andd the owner of o the
locaal fruits and vegetable
v maarket buys 1000 rose bouqquets for $5 each.
e The
ownner figures thhere is enoug gh local demaand to sell alll 100 at $10 each to
makke a reasonabble profit. Ho owever, the estimate
e turnns out to be wrong.
w
By mid-afternoo
m on, 40 bouqu uets remain unsold.
u Whatt should be done?
d At
this stage, the $55 that was paaid for the floowers is irrellevant. It is a
histoorical or sunnk cost. It can
nnot be retrieeved. A decission to sell thhe rest of
the roses
r at a lowwer price shoould be indeppendent of thhe price paid d for the
bouquets - sunk. In fact, if th he owner muust pay to havve the unsold d
bouquets pickedd up for comp posting, it might
m be worthh giving awaay any
unsoold flowers.
Eco
onomic pro
ofit
Wheen economicc costs are su
ubtracted from
m total revennue, the exceess is
known as econoomic profit.
Ecoonomic profiit To
otal revenue Econnomic costs
= -
$660 $1,000 $340
98
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Your brother has a plot of land that has three alternative uses: R, S, and T.
The revenue from each use is $5, $6 and $8, respectively. The accounting
cost of each use is zero.
1. The opportunity cost of using the land for use S is —
Study skills
A. $5, the value in use R.
B. $8, the value in use T.
C. $1, the difference in value between use R and S.
D. $2, the difference in value between use T and S.
3. The local vegetable and fruit vendor can sell as many cantaloupes as
he wishes at the market price of $2 each. Total cost to him of carrying
each cantaloupe is $0.50. He chooses to sell 10 cantaloupes. He is
making —
A. a total economic profit of $15.
B. a total economic profit of $20.
C. a normal profit of $15.
D. a normal profit of $20.
Solutions:
1. B. Opportunity cost is the value of the highest (next-best)
alternative: Use T.
2. C. Economic profit is total revenue (which for Use S is $6) minus
total costs. Accounting costs are zero, but economic opportunity
costs are $8 (the revenue from Use T).
3. A. Total profit is total revenue less total cost. For the vendor,
total revenue is $20.00 and total cost is $5.00. Therefore, the
difference is an economic profit of $15.00.
99
Module 2
of suupply and deemand and price elasticityy. In the shoort run, we asssume
therre are certainn resources su uch as land, factory
f spacee, and machiinery that
cannnot be changged within the time periodd allowed. The cost of ussing
thesse resources is i either sunk k or fixed. Thhus, there wiill always bee certain
costts that are irrrelevant to a short-run deccision. Longg-run analysiss
assuumes there iss enough time for manageers to vary thhe costs of uttilising
all their
t resourcees. Consequeently, all longg-run costs aare either inccremental
or variable
v and therefore
t releevant to a paarticular businness decision
n.
Produ
uction in the
t shortt run
Thee previous secction showed d that short run
r is the perriod during which
w
quanntities of onee or more of a business’s inputs cannot be varied. In
mannufacturing, companies
c usually
u cannoot adjust the qquantity of
macchinery they use or the sizze of their faactories on a short notice. In
agriiculture, therre is typically
y an additionnal quantity thhat cannot bee varied
– thhe land availaable for farm
ming. Inputs thhat cannot be adjusted in n the
shorrt run are knoown as fixed d inputs. Inpuuts that can bbe adjusted are
a
known as variabble inputs. Ty ypically, variiable inputs iin the short run
r
incluude the labour and materrials a busineess uses in prroduction. Fo or
exam mple, as the owner of ‘So oft Diapers,’ you are connsidering adju usting
your current prooduction of 1,000 packs (10 diapers per pack) a daay. You
havee already bouught three seewing machinnes and cannnot acquire more m
withhout a considderable delay y. Hence, thee three machiines represen nt a fixed
inpuut for your buusiness in the short run. However,
H yoou can change the
nummber of workkers you emp ploy, so labouur representss a variable innput in
the short run.
100
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Columns three and four of Table 2.2 list the marginal and average
products for ‘Soft Diapers’. When you employ three workers, the
workforce’s average product is 450 packs of diapers per day (1,350
diapers, three workers). If a fourth worker is added, the marginal product
of this worker is 250 packs, which comes from subtracting the old total
product (1,350 packs) from the new total product (1,600 packs), and
dividing the difference by the change in the workforce from three to four:
Change in total
product (∆Q) (1,600 –1,350)
Marginal product = = = 250
Change in (4-3)
workforce (∆L)
Note that marginal product peaks when the second worker is hired and
becomes negative at the same point that total product begins to drop.
Meanwhile, average product peaks at twoworkers.
101
Module 2
The th
hree stagees of pro
oduction
Thee total producct for ‘Soft Diapers’
D is shhown in the ttop graph of Figure
F
2.1, and its margginal productt and averagee product aree shown in thhe
botttom graph. Both
B graphs can
c be divideed into three ranges. In th he bottom
grapph’s first range, marginall product risees as more w
workers are addded.
In thhe top graph’s first rangee, total produuct rises at a hhigher and higher
h
rate, giving the curve
c a posittive slope thaat gets steepeer. During thhe second
rangge, marginal product begins to fall buut is still posiitive. Total product
p in
this second rangge continues to rise but att a lower ratee, so that the curve
becoomes flatter. In the final range,
r margiinal product falls below zero
z and
total product deccreases. Poin nts in this lasst range will never be choosen by
the business.
b
Figu
ure 2.1
Notice that as thhe number off workers inccreases withinn stage I, thee
marrginal producct increases. The first worrker has a m
marginal product of
102
C5 Economic Environment of Business
480, whereas the second worker has a marginal product of 520 packs of
diapers. This property is called increasing returns. As the number of
workers increases beyond stage I (stages II and III), the marginal product
decreases (law of diminishing or decreasing returns). The second worker
has a marginal product of 520 diapers, the third worker has a marginal
product of 350 packs, and the fourth worker has a marginal product of
250 packs of diapers. This property is called diminishing marginal
product. As the number of workers increases, additional workers have to
share equipment and work in more crowded conditions. Hence, as more
and more workers are hired, each additional worker contributes less to the
production of diapers. Increasing and diminishing marginal product are
apparent in both figures, depicted in Figure 2.1.
103
Module 2
Solu
utions:
1. C. Totall product is average
a produuct times thee number of workers
w
(13 x 6).
2. C. With 4 workers, total
t productt is 60 units. The fifth wo
orker
adds 10 more units to
t make a tottal of 70. Aveerage producct is total
product divided by the
t number of o workers (770/5).
3. C. The marginal
m products of the first, secondd, and third workers
w
respectivvely are 15, 17, and 16. The
T decline bbegins with thet third
worker.
The prroduction
n function
n to the total-cost
t t curve
Firmms incur costts when they buy inputs to t produce thhe goods and d services
that they plan too sell.In thism
module, we will
w examine the link betw ween a
firm
m’s productioon process an nd its total coost. In the shoort run, just as
a
busiinesses use fixed
f and varriable inputs, they face coorresponding g fixed
and variable cossts. Fixed cossts, or total fixed
fi costs, (T
TFC), do nott change
wheen a businesss changes its quantity of output
o since these costs relate
r to
fixeed inputs suchh as machineery and land.. Variable coosts or total variable
v
costts, (TVC) in contrast, relaate to variablle inputs, whhich change when w a
busiiness adjusts the quantity y produced. TheT most impportant variaable costs
are wages
w and payments for materials ussed in producction, whereaas the
typiical fixed cosst is the cost of machinerry. Total costt (TC) is the sum of
all inputs, both fixed
f and varriable, and iss found by addding fixed anda
variiable costs att each quantity of output.
Cossts and produuction are two o sides of thee same coin. A firm’s tottal cost
refleects its produuction function, whereas the firm’s suupply curve,
disccussed in the last chapter,, is a reflectioon of its costts relationshiips. To
see how these reelated measu ures are derivved, considerr the examplee in
Tab ble 2.3. This table presents cost data ono your neighhbour – the T-shirt
T
prodducer. From data on a firm’s total cosst, we can deerive several related
meaasures of cost which will turn out to be b useful wheen we analysse
prodduction and pricing
p decissions in futurre chapters.
104
C5 Economic Environment of Business
labour. The more T-shirts she makes the more material she needs to buy.
The third column of the table shows the variable cost. The variable cost is
zero if she produces nothing, $56 if she produces one bundle (each
bundle consists of 10 units) of T- shirts and $106 if she produces two
units and so on.
A firm’s total cost is the sum of fixed and variable costs. In Table 2.3,
the total cost in the fourth column equals fixed cost plus total variable
cost. While marginal cost is based on changes in a business’s total
product, per-unit costs are expressed in terms of a single level of output.
These costs are related to a business’s fixed costs, variable costs and total
costs. Hence, there are three separate types of per-unit costs: average
fixed cost, average variable cost and average cost.
105
Module 2
0 100 0 100
1 100 56 156 1000.00 56.000 156.00 56
2 100 106 206 500.00 53.000 103.00 50
3 100 154 254 33.33 51.333 84.67 48
4 100 205 305 25.00 51.255 76.25 51
5 100 263 363 200.00 52.600 72.60 58
6 100 332 432 166.67 55.333 72.00 69
7 100 416 516 144.29 59.422 73.71 84
8 100 519 619 122.50 64.877 77.37 103
9 100 646 746 11.11 71.777 82.88 127
10 100 801 901 100.00 80.100 90.10 155
Tab
ble 2.3 Meassures of total and averagge cost
• Averagee fixed cost (AFC)
( is the fixed cost peer unit of outtput,
which you
y derive by y dividing thee business’s fixed costs (TFC)
( by
its total product (Q)..
• Similarlly, average variable
v cost (AVC) is thee variable co
ost per
unit of output,
o which
h you derive by dividing the businesss’s
variablee costs (TVCC) by total prooduct (Q).
• The aveerage fixed, average
a variaable, and aveerage total co
osts are
found inn columns fiv
ve, six, and seven.
s
Wheen three bundles are prod duced, the buusiness’s fixeed costs of $100 are
diviided by the tootal product, giving an avverage fixed cost of $33.33 per
bundle. Similarlly, the $254 variable
v costts at this leveel of productiion are
diviided by threee bundles of T-shirts,
T resuulting in an aaverage variaable cost
of $51.33.
$ Let us
u observe thee calculationns:
106
C5 Economic Environment of Business
$154
$33.33 per batch (of 10 shirts) =
3 shirts
$254
$51.33 per batch (of 10 shirts) =
three shirts
Average total cost (ATC) (or simply ‘average cost’) is the business’s total
cost per unit of output.
Average cost is the sum of average fixed cost and average variable cost at
each quantity of output. Therefore, for example, in column seven, when
the T-shirt maker produces three bundles (units) of T-shirts, the average
fixed cost is $33.33 and the average variable cost is $51.33, giving an
average total cost of $84.66.
Although average total cost tells us the cost of the typical unit, it does not
tell us how much total cost will change as the firm alters its level of
production. The last column in Table 2.3 shows the amount that total cost
rises when the firm increases production by one unit of output. This
number is the marginal cost. For example, if your neighbour increases
production from two to three (units) of T-shirts, total cost rises from $206
to $254, so the marginal cost of the third (unit) of T-shirts is $48.
As will be even clearer in the next chapter, your neighbour will find the
concepts of average total cost and marginal cost extremely useful when
deciding how many T-shirts to produce. Keep in mind, however, that
these concepts do not actually give your neighbour new information
about her costs of production. Instead, the average total cost and the
marginal cost express, information that is already contained in her firm’s
total cost. Average total cost tells us the cost of a typical unit of output if
107
Module 2
Cost curves an
nd their shapes
s
Grapphs of the coost data in Taable 2.3 are presented
p in Figure 2.2 and
a
enabble us to see the pattern of
o change of the differentt measures of cost as
outpput increasess. They also help
h us to vissualise the im mpact that marginal
m
costt has on the average
a variaable and averrage total costs. Using eitther the
dataa in Table 2.3 or the grapphs in Figuree 2.2, we cann observe thee
folloowing about marginal co ost’s impact on
o average vvariable cost:
Figu
ure 2.2
In previous
p studdy sections, graphs
g of suppply and demmand proved useful
wheen you were analysing thee behaviour of markets. S Similarly, grraphs of
averrage and marrginal cost heelp you analyyse the behavviour of firm ms.
Figuure 2.2 graphhs your neig ghbour’s costts using the ddata from Taable 2.3.
a measures the quantitty the firm prroduces, and the
Thee horizontal axis
verttical axis meaasures margiinal and averrage costs. Thhe graph sho ows four
curvves: average total cost (AATC), averagge fixed cost (AFC), averaage
variiable cost (AV VC) and marrginal cost (MMC).
Thee cost curves shown here for your neigghbour’s T-sshirt compan
ny have
som
me features thhat are comm
mon to the cost curves of mmany firms in
i the
econnomy. Let uss examine th
hree features in particular:
• The shaape of margin
nal cost.
• The shaape of averag
ge total cost.
• The relaationship between marginnal and averaage total costt.
108
C5 Economic Environment of Business
The bottom of the U-shape occurs at the quantity that minimises average
total cost. This quantity is sometimes called the minimum efficient scale
of the firm. For your neighbour’s company, the efficient scale is six
bundles. If she produces more or less than this amount, her average total
cost rises above the minimum of $72.
Now that you have scrutinised the impact that marginal cost has on
average variable and average total cost, you may wonder about the
behaviour of marginal cost itself. Why does economic analysis assume
that marginal cost decreases and then, at some point, starts to increase as
more of a good or service is produced? To answer this question, we need
to review a concept referred to in economic theory as ‘the returns to a
variable input’.
In the short run, a firm must work with a certain fixed quantity of
resources or inputs such as land, factory or office space, machinery and
equipment. As additional amounts of variable inputs such as labour hours
and raw materials are combined with the fixed inputs, more output is
produced. At first, additional units of the variable inputs are assumed to
result in increasing amounts of additional output (also called marginal
product). However, eventually, the additional inputs are expected to
result in decreasing or diminishing marginal product. We can see this
with a simple numerical example.
Suppose one person, working with a fixed amount of factory space and
machinery, produces 100 units of output. Now suppose further that this
person is joined by another worker. The two of them working together as
a team produce 250 units of output. From the standpoint of the additional
output contributed by each worker, the marginal product of the first
worker is 100 and the marginal product of the second worker is 150. This
is an example of increasing returns to the variable input, labour. As the
two workers are joined by still more people, sustained effort to work as a
team may cause the marginal product of the additional workers to
continue increasing.
109
Module 2
To explain
e the relationship between
b returrns to variabble input and
marrginal cost, we w have exten nded the exaample in the pprevious paragraph
intoo the schedulee of numberss shown in Table
T 2.3. In this examplee, we
assuume that laboour is the onlly variable innput in this eexample, and d the firm
payss W (Wage rate) r per houur to employ each workerr. Thus, the wage
w rate
is, inn fact, the chhange in total variable coost if one worrk hour is hirred.
How wever, when the firm hirees ∆L workers, total variaable cost is (Wage(
rate × ∆L). Recaall that the ch hange in outpput resulting from the additional
worrker is each person's
p marg ginal productt. Therefore,, we can say that:
C
∆TVC Waage rate × ∆L Wage rate Wage
W rate
MC
C = = = =
∆Q ∆Q ∆Q/∆
∆L MPL
On the
t other hannd, a decreasse in the pricee of the fixedd factor of
prodduction moves the averag ge fixed costts (AFC) andd average totaal cost
(AT
TC) curves doownward butt leaves the average
a variaable cost (AV
VC) and
marrginal cost (MMC) curves unchanged.
u A decrease inn the price off a
variiable factor of
o production
n moves the AVC,
A ATC, and MC currves
dow
wnward but leeaves the AF FC curve rem main fixed orr unchanged.
110
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Solution:
Discuss your answer with your tutor.
In this figure, we see that the average total cost curve, labelled ‘Plant 1,’
represents a certain amount of capacity. At its most efficient point, a firm
with this plant capacity is able to produce Q1 units of output at a unit cost
of ATC1. ‘Plant 2’ represents a greater production capacity because it is
positioned to the right of Plant 1. In addition, it is located on a lower level
than Plant 1, signifying that over a certain range of output, the larger
plant is able to produce greater amounts of output at a lower average cost
than the smaller one, i.e., the unit cost of ATC2.
111
Module 2
Figu
ure 2.3
In most
m manufaccturing indusstries, a greatter scale of pproduction iss
assoociated with the use of sp pecialised maachinery. If a car manufaacturer
raisees the quantiity of all its inputs,
i for exxample, capittal equipmen
nt can
havee more speciialised functiions, so that it performs ffewer tasks more
m
efficciently than before.
b
2
Noot to be confuused with retu
urns to variaable input, whhich is a short-term
phennomenon.
112
C5 Economic Environment of Business
• Firms that have a high level of debt will usually not be able to
borrow at the lowest possible interest rate.
• Size may not always offer the firm a cost advantage. Firms that
are very large may become bureaucratic and inflexible, with
management coordination and control problems.
• Oversized firms experience a disproportionate increase in staff
and indirect labour.
The resulting increase in these types of cost may cause the average total
cost to rise.
Figure 2.4 shows how short-run and long run costs are related. The long-
run average-total-cost curve is a much flatter, saucer-shaped curve than
the short-run average-total-cost curve. In addition, all the short-run curves
lie on or above the long-run curve. These properties arise because of the
greater flexibility firms have in the long run. In essence, in the long run, a
firm gets to choose which short-run curve it wants to use. However, in the
short run, it has to use whatever short-run curve it chose in the past.
Figure 2.4 also shows a long-run average cost curve reflecting both
economies and diseconomies of scale as well as constant returns to scale.
When long-run average total cost declines as output increases, there are
said to be economies of scale. When long-run average total cost rises as
output increases, there are said to be diseconomies of scale. When long-
run average total cost does not vary with the level of output, there are said
to be constant returns to scale.
Figure 2.4
113
Module 2
commpany) expannds its assem mbly plant thrree times. Eaach time, it faaces a
diffe
ferent short-ruun average cost
c curve forr each plant size. With eaach
expaansion of thee plant, the cuurve shifts too the right, ddemonstrating g the
effeects of the inccreased outpuut. When thee plant is firsst expanded, the
shorrt-run averagge cost curvee falls from ATC
A 1 to ATC C2. This shiftt results
fromm economiess of scale or increasing
i reeturns to scalle. Remembeer that
averrage cost is found
f by diviiding total coost by the quuantity of outtput.
With economiess of scale, ou utput rises moore rapidly thhan the total cost of
inpuuts, so that avverage cost falls
f as the sccale of produuction expand ds.
With the secondd plant expan nsion, the shiift of the shorrt-run averag
ge cost
curvve (from ATC C2 to ATC3) reflects constant returns to scale. Ou utput and
the total
t costs off inputs rise at
a the same rate
r when thee plant is exp panded
this second timee, so the averrage cost curvve moves hoorizontally ass the
outpput of cars rises. With thee final plant expansion,
e thhe company’’s short-
run average costt curve not only shifts to the right butt also rises (ffrom
ATC C3 to ATC4).. This shift reeflects disecoonomies of sscale. Since thet
plannt’s output iss rising less rapidly
r than the
t total costt of input cossts, the
averrage cost currve rises as th he productionn of cars conntinues to inccrease.
R
Reasons for ecconomies of sccale R
Reasons for diiseconomies of
o scale
Tab
ble 2.4
114
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Economies of scope
In the long run, it is also possible for managers to identify ways to take
advantage of economies of scope. This cost-saving phenomenon occurs
when it is possible to produce two or more products together at a lower
per-unit cost than for each product separately. A key factor in this form of
cost savings is the sharing of a company’s fixed cost by multiple
products. For example, certain electronic stores that normally sell TVs,
VCRs, DVD players and computers are now selling CDs, videos, DVDs
etc. These latter products are displayed on racks that occupy otherwise
unused floor space in the stores. The use of this retail establishment’s
excess capacity in this manner reduces the average total cost of selling
each product.
Figure 2.5
The learning curve has played an important part in the strategic approach
115
Module 2
Break-even anaalysis
Whaat is to be doone about tho ose costs thatt are not relevant to a deccision?
Afteer all, even iff they are ign nored, they must
m still be ppaid for. How wever,
this,, in fact, is thhe logic of deesignating a cost as irreleevant. By deffinition,
an irrrelevant cosst is one that must be incuurred, regarddless of the
alterrnative seleccted by the deecision makeer. The questtion of how this t cost
is reecovered is a separate issue altogetherr. To understtand this asp pect of
the problem,
p wee can turn to a commonlyy used techniqque called brreak-
evenn analysis.
Insuraance $ 400
Misceellaneous $ 150
Total $ 6,000
Tab
ble 2.5Month
hly cost of operating
o a seafood
s storre
116
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 2.6
117
Module 2
the situation, theere still remaains the basicc concept of generating enough
salees so that the contributionn margin covvers fixed cosst.
For the total reveenue TR = 32.5Q and tottal costs TC = 120 +12.5Q where
Q reepresents thoousands of un
nits, determinne the break--even level of
o output
as well
w as the coontribution margin.
m
S
Study skills Solu
ution:
Setting TR
R =TC, Q = 6.
6 Contributtion marginn = P- AVC = 32.5
– 12.5 = 20.
Hint: TC = TFC (= 120) + TVC (=
( 12.5Q).
Lim
mitations of
o break-evven analysis
Thiss review of break-even
b annalysis shoulld give you a good idea of o how
the knowledge
k o a firm’s fix
of xed and variaable costs caan help in thee making
of certain busineess decisionss or in the annalysis of parrticular
mannufacturing or o marketing strategies. However,
H as uuseful as thiss
techhnique can bee, it is still su
ubject to several shortcom mings. First, break-
evenn analysis seelects only on ne price for a particular pproduct and then
t
procceeds to deteermine how much m a firm has to sell att this price to
o break
evenn. In order too consider the possibility of different amounts dem manded
by consumers
c att different prices (the pricce elasticity oof demand), a whole
scheedule of prices and break k-even pointss would havee to be constrructed. In
otheer words, breeak-even anaalysis determ mines how muuch a firm wiith a
giveen price and cost structurre needs to seell in order too break even n.
How wever, it does not providee any indicattion of how m many units itt will
actuually sell. Seccond and mo ore importantt, this analyssis assumes th hat a
firm
m’s average variable
v cost is constant. In
I certain cirrcumstances,, it is
quitte possible foor a firm’s av verage costs to either deccrease or incrrease as
morre of a good or o service is produced. To T explain whhy, the next studys
secttion guides you
y through the t economicc analysis off short-run co ost.
Activvity 2.1
Whyy are many firms
f likely to
o experiencee economies of scale up to
t a
certaain size and the diseconoomies of scalle after somee point beyon
nd that?
Activity
118
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Market Structure
Introduction
Terms such as ‘monopoly’ and, less often, ‘oligopoly’ appear in
thoughtful discussions of business and global economics and you
probably have working definitions of these words in your vocabulary.
However, you may not know a great deal about the economic behaviour
that distinguishes one of these market types from another, nor how these
and other classic market models shed light on the types of pricing or
production decisions that confront you at work. The purpose of this study
section is to acquaint you more closely with these predictive models. The
practice you gain in applying their principles will give you a perspective
on pricing, market entry, market departure, implicit collusion and other
decisions made by firms in today’s business world.
Market structure
Traditional price theory delineates four basic market forms:
1. Pure competition.
2. Monopolistic competition.
3. Oligopoly.
4. Monopoly.
119
Module 2
Key asssumptio
ons used in the miicroeconomic theory of thee firm
Theere are two keey assumptio ons used in thhe economicc theory of firrms that
you should revieew before loo oking at priccing and outpput decision-making
in thhe four typess of markets.
1. The firmm’s primary objective
o is the
t short-runn maximisatio on of
profit. This
T may not, however, be b the case foor oligopoly, where
time horrizons typicaally extend beyond the shhort run. High h short-
run proffits may indu
uce the entry of new com mpetitors to caause a
more coompetitive market
m for thee firms later iin the plannin
ng
period.
2. The oppportunity cosst of producinng a particulaar good or seervice is
includedd in the cost of doing bussiness – econnomics costs..
In analysing
a a fiirm’s pursuitt of short-runn profit, the eeconomic theeory of
gers must adddress three bbasic questions:
the firm posits thhat its manag
1. Should our company y be in this business?
b In oother words, should
it be selling this partticular produuct at all?
2. If so, hoow much sho
ould we prodduce?
3. And if we o set the pricce, what pricee should we charge?
w are able to
The ou
utput deccision of a firm in a perfecttly compeetitive maarket
In economic anaalysis, the typ pe of markett in which a ffirm is comppeting
dictates its abilitty to determiine its price. In the extrem
me case of peerfect
com
mpetition, thee managers of o a firm havee no power too set price. They
T
musst sell their product at thee price determ mined by thee market forcces of
suppply and demaand and can only decide how much ooutput to prod duce.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
To calculate potential profits, firms must combine their cost analyses with
information on potential revenues from sales. The goal of a firm is to
maximise economic profit. As you remember, normal profit is the return
that a firm’s owner could obtain in the best alternative business.
Economic profit is a profit that a firm earns in excess of normal profit. If
a firm cannot sell its product for more than its cost to produce, it will not
be able to sustain. However, if the market gives the firm a price that is
significantly greater than the cost it incurs to produce one unit of its
product, the firm may have an incentive to expand its output. Large
profits might also attract new competitors into the market.
Figure 2.7 shows a typical firm in this industry. The price $10 is
determined by the interaction of many suppliers and demanders. The firm
can sell its products only at this price, no less and no more. If the firm
chooses to charge a higher price, given that its rivals are selling the same
product, it will lose all its customers. The firm should not sell its product
at a lower price, either; this strategy would have made sense if the firm
had some of the capacity and the size to meet the needs of the customers
lured from other firms, but it does not. These perfectly competitive firms
are small; selling for less is not practical. Therefore, a perfectly
competitive firm faces a demand curve that is horizontal at the market
equilibrium price. In other words, the demand is perfectly elastic.
Figure 2.7
Table 2.6 supports this analysis. Suppose your ‘Soft Diaper’ business,
discussed in section 2.1, was so successful that you decided to use your
experience to expand your product line into adult clothing –men’s shirts.
Column 1 in the table shows different quantities of shirts sold by this new
business that is named ‘Men’s Shirt Company’. For a price taker – a
perfectly competitive firm – the quantity sold varies while the price
remains constant ($10 in this example). Total revenue in column three is
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Module 2
As also
a illustrateed in the diag gram, the firm
m’s equal avverage and marginal
m
prodducts are in turn
t equal to the market price:
p MR = AR = P. Theerefore,
the firm demandd curve is alsso its averagee revenue currve (AR). Bu ut, in this
casee and only inn this case, th
he firm’s demmand curve iss also its MR
R curve.
(1)) Quantity (2) Price (3) Total (4) Averaage (5) Marginal
Sold
d (Q) Shirts (P) per Revenue (TR Revenue ((AR = Reveenue MR =
per day shirt = P×Q) TR/Q)) ∆TR/∆Q
∆
4 $10 $400 $10
5 $10 $500 $10 $10
6 $10 $600 $10 $10
7 $10 $700 $10 $10
Tab
ble 2.6 Men’’s shirt comp
pany
Youu can answerr ‘How much h to produce??’ by recallinng the short-rrun profit
maxximising conndition, MR = MC. As ouutput increasees, MR is con nstant
becaause the pricce is constantt (price takerr) whereas, M
MC eventuallly
incrreases. If the additional profit associatted with anoother unit of output
o
(MR R) exceeds thhe additionall costs associiated with thiis unit of outtput
(MC C) – that is, MR
M > MC th hen profit inccreases. Conttrarily, if MRR < MC,
thenn the extra reevenue from selling an addditional unitt will fall sho
ort of the
extrra cost incurrred to producce it and proffit decreases.. Therefore, if MR =
MCC, profit is maaximised.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 2.8
Now let us extend Table 2.6. In the extended table, Table 2.7, which
retains three columns, Q, TR, and MR — there are more observations and
also three new columns: Total Cost (TC), Marginal Cost (MC), and
Economic Profit (TR-TC) as follows.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Quantity Total Average Marginal Marginal Economic
Price (P) Revenue Revenue Revenue Total
Sold (Q) Cost (MC) Profit(TR–
per shirt (TR) (AR) (MR) Cost (TC)
Shirts (∆TC/∆Q) TC)
(P×Q) (TR/Q) (∆TR/∆Q)
Table 2.7 illustrates how as the company increases its output from four to
five and to six and so on, marginal revenue remains at $10 while
marginal cost increases from $3 for the fifth unit to $5 and all the way to
$20 for the ninth unit. For the earlier units, because marginal revenue is
greater than marginal cost, profit increases. Up to the seventh unit, (MR =
P)> MC and profit increases. In fact, for the seventh unit, profit increases
by $2 since MR is greater than MC by $2. At the eighth unit, however,
diminishing returns push MC above MR and total profit drops (MR= P
=RM10< MC = $13). Therefore, the profit maximising level of output is
unit number 7. Column eight shows that profit increases from $20 to the
maximum of $34 at the seventh unit, and from that point onwards, there
is a descending trend.
Note that in the short run, there are three possible profit outcomes. If P
(MR) > ATC, the Shirt Company makes economic profit. If P < ATC, the
company makes a negative economic profit or an economic loss. If P =
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ATC C, then the fiirm makes noormal profit and zero ecoonomic profiit. This
latteer situation we
w referred to
o earlier as thhe break-eveen level of ou
utput.
Twoo of these cases are illusttrated below in Figure 2..9, panels (a)) and (b).
Figu
ure 2.9
In Figure
F 2.9, paanel (a) the firm
f earns economic proffit whereas in
n panel
(b) the
t situation is one of eco onomic loss.
1. Complete thhe following table, using the given infformation. The price
of the produuct is $6 per unit.
u
Q TC TR MC
C MR
Study skills
S 0 5 — — —
1 9 — — —
2 12 — — —
3 16 — — —
4 21 — — —
5 28 — — —
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Solution:
1. TR: 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30.
MC : 0, 4, 3, 4, 5, 7.
MR: 0, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6.
2. B. The fourth unit is the last unit for which MR exceeds
MC.
3. D. At four units, the difference between total revenue ($24)
and total cost ($21) is the largest. Therefore, economic
profit of $3 is the highest that can be achieved.
The shut down point for the firm is defined as a situation where the firm’s
total revenue is exactly equal to its total variable costs, or its price equals
its AVC. The minimum point of AVC is the firm’s shut down point, a
point at which the firm revenue just covers its variable costs. At prices
greater than the minimum AVC, of course, total revenue will be greater
than total variable costs and the firm should produce, since it can cover
not only its variable but also part of it fixed costs.
Thus, a firm’s supply curve is the portion of its MC curve that lies above
the minimum point of AVC.
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As indicated
i earrlier, in the sh
hort run, a fiirm might facce three diffeerent
posssibilities: maaking an econ nomic profit,, taking an ecconomic losss or
breaaking even. InI the long ru un, however,, a perfectly ccompetitive firm,
desppite its short--run situation n, cannot eithher run an ecconomic proffit or an
econnomic loss. Indeed,
I the only
o outcomee in the long run for a perrfectly
com
mpetitive firm m is one in which
w the firm
m makes norm mal profit.
An industry
i in which
w firms are
a making an a economic profit in the short
run adjusts in twwo different ways.
w First, the
t number oof firms in thhe
induustry increasees. Second, the
t existing firms
f expandd to take advantage of
the profit.
p Entryy by new firm
ms is a rationaal decision bby investors who
w
resppond to markket incentivess (signals) prrompted by aan economic profit.
Meaanwhile, economic profitt also serves as the incenttive (signal) to the
exissting firms too expand theiir existing opperation.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 2.10
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 2.11
Monopoly
At the extreme opposite of a perfectly competitive market is one in which
there is one seller of a particular product or service. When a firm is
identified as a monopoly, it has considerable power to determine its price
and output level. Such monopolies as public utilities are sanctioned by
governments. Government and laws also provide companies with a
monopoly for the duration of the patent on a particular product.
Sometimes, circumstances allow a firm to enjoy temporary monopoly.
For example, there may be only one store in a shopping mall that sells
gourmet coffee. Whenever a firm has a monopoly in a particular market
or markets, the economic theory states that it still must adhere to the MR
= MC rule to maximise its short-run profit. Because it is a price maker
rather than a price taker, we can no longer say that its price is equal to its
marginal revenue. In a nutshell, a monopoly is an industry that produces a
good or service for which no close substitute exists. There is only one
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Tab
ble 2.8 Haird
dressing bussiness
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 2.12
Figure 2.13
As you can see, when the prices are $7 and $6 respectively, total revenue
is $28 and $30 respectively. Marginal revenue is, however, $2. In order to
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incrrease its sale by one unit from four to five, the moonopolist mu ust lower
its price
p from $77 to $6. Howwever, the revvenue generaated is less th han the
pricce charged. The
T gain from m selling the unit is the diifference bettween the
two shaded rectaangles. The seller
s gains the
t checked aarea and losees the
hatcched area. Thhe loss is equ
ual to 6 × (5 − 4) = $6, wwhile the gain n is 4 × (7
− 6)) = $4. Thereefore, the nett (extra or maarginal) gainn is 6 − 4 = $2
2, which
is loower than thee price charg
ged $6.
In a monopoly,w
which statem
ment applies?
A. The marrket demand curve is aboove and steepper than the marginal
m
revenuee curve.
Study skills
S B. The marrket demand curve is the same as the marginal rev
venue
curve.
C. The marrket demand curve is aboove and paralllel to the maarginal
revenuee curve
D. The marrket demand curve is aboove and flatteer than the marginal
m
revenuee curve.
ution:
Solu
D. The margginal revenuee curve has the
t same inteercept as dem
mand but
its slope is twice as mucch.
Sho
ort-run pro
ofit maximisation
Noww that you haave considereed the revenuue side of a m monopoly firrm, we
can find out how w a monopoliist maximisees its profit. F Figure 2.14 shows
the same revenuue conditionss as in Figuree 2.13. The pprofit-maxim mising
monnopolist will wish to expaand output unntil marginall costs rise to o equal
marrginal revenuues. You notiiced in the laast section that the margin nal
reveenue curve asssociated witth a negativee sloping lineear demand curvec has
the same verticaal intercept on the graph and a twice thee slope of thee demand
curvve. Figure 2..14 presents the market demand
d curvee (D) faced by
b the
monnopolist and the correspo onding margiinal revenue (MR) curve..
Supperimposed on o these are the cost curvees of the monnopolist – th he short-
run average costt (ATC) and marginal cost (MC) curvves. The proffit-
maxximising monnopolist prod duces up to thhe point wheere marginal cost per
unitt rises to meeet the falling marginal revvenues. This point occurss at
outpput level Qm. Notice that every unit too the right off Qm has a maarginal
costt greater thann its marginaal revenue; thherefore it wiill not be prooduced.
Connversely, eveery unit to thee left of Qm costs
c less thaan it earns
(maarginally or inncrementally y); it thereforre will be prooduced and sold.
s The
firm
m’s profits caan be visualissed as the recctangle PmAB BC.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 2.14
If the monopoly is making profits, others will wish to enter the industry
in order to earn more than the opportunity cost of their capital. If such
entry occurs, the monopoly’s position shown in Figure 2.14 will change,
and the firm will cease to be a monopoly.
In order for positive monopoly profits to lead to the entry of new firms
into the industry, these new firms must be able to enter the industry. This
leads us to a discussion of entry barriers: impediments that prevent entry
by other firms to the industry. These may be either natural or created. If
monopoly profits are to persist in the long run, effective entry barriers
must prevent the entry of new firms into the industry. Natural entry
barriers typically arise as a result of economies of scale. When the long-
run average cost curve is downward sloping over a large range of output,
big firms have significantly lower cost per unit than small firms.
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Figu
ure 2.15
As discussed
d earrlier, many entry
e barrierss are created by consciou
us
government actiion and are th herefore conndoned by it. Patent laws,, for
instaance, may prrevent entry by conferrinng on the pateent holder th he sole
fo a specific period. The best
legaal right to prooduce a certaain product for
exammple is the case
c of pharm
maceutical coompanies.
Thiss section disccusses the faact that there is more to thhis issue than
n just
simpply a redistriibution of inccome. In the process of thhis transfer of
o
incoome from connsumers to th he firm, therre will be a nnet loss.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
With the transformation to a monopoly, the demand curve for the entire
market becomes the business’s demand curve. There is a significant
change, however. Now that the business is a monopolist, its price (given
by the demand curve) and its marginal revenue are no longer equal.
Instead, the marginal revenue curve falls below the demand curve, as was
the case before.
Figure 2.16
Allocative efficiency
As you see, monopoly status restricts output and sets a higher price than
perfect competition, so it moves wealth from the consumers to the seller.
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Figu ure 2.16 cann be employeed again to illlustrate this ppoint. Underr perfect
com
mpetition, connsumers pay Ppc for each unit bought.. The maxim mum price
that consumers area willing to o pay for eacch unit is derrived differen
ntly. It is
show wn by (the height
h of) the demand currve (D), whicch measures the value
of thhe good to thhe consumerss. The value minus its priice is consum mer
surpplus. In terms of Figure 2.16,
2 consum mer’s surpluss is representted by
the triangular
t area TAPpc– thhe area betweeen the pricee line and thee demand
curvve.
Wheen the monoppoly replaces perfect com mpetition chaarging a high her price,
Pm, consumer suurplus is redu uced to the shhaded patternned with diam mond
shappes. The monnopoly gainss in the form of higher prrofit – shown n with
strippes. But is thhe monopolisst’s gain equaal to the conssumer’s loss? Again,
if thhe gain by thee seller had been
b equal too the loss to tthe buyers, you
y could
view w the monoppoly practice of charging a higher pricce and restriccting
quanntity as mereely redistribu utive. But theere is more too this. A closser look
at Figure
F 2.16 shows
s that th
he loss to the consumers iis greater thaan the
gainn to the monoopolist. Som me of the lossees to the buyyers are accru ued to
the seller as depicted by the square patterrn. While thiis represents a loss to
the consumers, it i is not a losss to the socieety as wholee since the loss to one
grouup is offset byb the gain off the other. TheT net gain (or loss) equ uals zero.
Use the followinng diagram (m market for icce cream) to answer the following
f
quesstions. Initiallly this indusstry is perfecctly competittive and fixed
d cost is
equaal to zero.
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S
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
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Module 2
charrge different prices for diifferent custoomers: lowerr price for stu udents
and senior citizeens or to thosse who attendd in the afterrnoon and on n certain
weeeknights verssus weekendss, etc. Anothher form of prrice discrimiination
sets different priices for diffeerent quantitiies (volumes). Examples of this
typee would incluude bulk buy ying: the largger the order,, the larger th
he
disccount. Another form of prrice discrimiination occurrs when a firm m
charrges a differeent price for each unit solld and chargges each conssumer the
maxximum price that he or sh he is willing to pay for thhat unit.
Thee first and moost obvious lesson is that price discrim mination is a strategy
for a profit-maximising mon nopolist. In other
o words, bby charging prices to
diffe
ferent custommers, a monop poly can incrrease its proffit. In essencce, a
pricce-discriminaating monopo olist charges each custommer a price clloser to
willlingness to paay than is poossible with a single pricee. The second d lesson
is thhat price disccrimination requires the ability
a to separate custom mers –
geoggraphically or o sometimess by age or inncome – according to theeir
willlingness to paay.
ution:
Solu
1. False. Price
P discrimiination is thee practice of charging diffferent
prices foor reasons no
ot associatedd with costs.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Economies of scale
The first law regulating monopolies in the United States was the
Sherman Act (1890), which was designed to encourage competition
and avoid the formation of monopolies. The Sherman Act is aimed to
regulate firms that had combined to form trusts. Trusts enabled firms
to collude. After the Sherman Act was passed, trusts disappeared, but
the term ‘antitrust laws’ continues to be used to refer to laws aimed
to eliminate collusion among firms. To address loopholes in the
Sherman Act, Congress passed the Clayton Act (1914) and the
Federal Trade Commission Act. Under the Clayton Act, a merger is
prohibited or defined as illegal if its effect tends to cause
“substantially to lessen competition, or to tend to create a monopoly.”
The Federal Trade Act established the Federal Trade Commission
(FTC), which was given rights to monitor and regulate unfair
business practices.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Monopolistic competition
Monopolistic competition is a cross between perfect competition and
monopoly. It has most of the characteristics of a perfectly competitive
firm: a large number of sellers, fairly easy entry and exit into and out of
markets, and knowledge of market participants about the prices being
offered by the sellers. A key characteristic that makes it monopolistic is
the ability of sellers to differentiate their product. For example, brand
names, packaging, advertising, location, etc. all help a product appear to
be different from the competition. This differentiation enables a firm to
charge a higher price than its competitors, if it so desires.
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Module 2
In other
o words, monopolistic
m c competitionn can changee price up an nd down
withhout experienncing the exttreme responnse of pure coompetition. ForF price
incrreases it will suffer loss of
o sales, but this
t loss is noot total as it would
w be
for the
t pure com mpetitor. Likee a monopolyy, the monoppolistic comp petitor
can adjust the prrice upward or downwardd to the levell that maxim mises its
proffits. Howeveer, similar to the pure commpetitor, the monopolistic
com
mpetitor has many
m rivals in
i the short run,
r compounnded by the free f
entrry of new firmms in the lonng run.
Sho
ort-run pro
ofit maximisation
Figu ure 2.17 shoows the case of a profit-m maximising m monopolisticaally
commpetitive firmm within the industry.
i Thee demand annd marginal revenue
r
curvve are similarr to those in monopoly, represented
r bby d and mr
resppectively. Thhe industry deemand curvee is given by D. The firm’s
demmand curve iss obviously flatter
f than thhe industry’s demand currve since,
for instance,
i a drop in the prrice charged by b a firm inccreases the qu uantity
demmanded by ass much as thee firm, with its i elastic dem mand curve, is able
to luure away som me of the cusstomers of otther firms. H However, for the
induustry as a whhole, the resp ponse of the quantity
q to thhe same pricee cut
cannnot be as muuch (there is lower
l price elasticity)
e sinnce the indusstry
incluudes all selleers (firms), inncluding all those who loost customerss and the
one that gained mostly
m at thee expense off others.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 2.17
Figure 2.18
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Module 2
Study skills
S B. has a downward
d sloping marrginal revenuue curve.
C. can never cover its minimum
m average cost in the long
g run.
D. mayy sell to many
y buyers.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 2.19
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Module 2
Study skills
S
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
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Module 2
The firrm in an o
oligopolyy
Thee determinatioon of price, output
o and profit is not as simple in an
a
oliggopolistic maarket as in thee three other types of maarket. Firms in
i an
oliggopoly mightt sell a standaardised produuct: steel, a mmicrochip prrocessor,
alum minium, chem micals such asa hydrochlooric acid; papper products and so
on. They might also sell a diifferentiated product suchh as soft drin nks or
carss. The key chharacteristic distinguishin
d ng this markeet and the othher three
is thhe relatively small numbeer of competing firms. Thhere is no rulle in
econnomic theoryy for the min nimum numbber of firms thhat qualify a market
as an
a oligopoly.
Reggardless of hoow few firmss there are inn a market annd what perceentage of
marrket share is held
h by the top firms, thee most imporrtant implicattion for
firm
ms in an oligoopoly is that the pricing practices
p in thhis type of market
m
are named
n by a condition
c nown as mutuual interdepeendence. This means
kn
m set its prrice on the baasis of its cossts, demand elasticity
that each firm must
and of the anticiipated reactio mpetitors. In other words,, just
on by its com
folloowing the MR
M = MC rulee may not bee enough to m maximise pro ofit.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
The total market demand curve is shown with the corresponding market
MR curve. The cartel’s MC curve is the horizontal sum of the MC curves
of its members. Profits are maximised at Q1 where MC = MR. The cartel
must therefore set a price of P1 (at which Q1 will be demanded).
Figure 2.20
Having agreed on the cartel price, the members will then divide the
market among themselves.
Each member would be given a quota. The sum of all the quotas must add
up to Q1. If the quotas exceeded Q1, either there would be output unsold
if price remained fixed at P1 or the price would fall.
Where explicit collusion is illegal, firms may simply break the law, or get
round it. Alternatively, firms may stay within the law but still implicitly
collude by watching each other’s prices and keeping theirs similar. Firms
may implicitly agree to avoid price wars or aggressive advertising
campaigns.
Another form of implicit collusion occurs when firms set the same price
as an established leader. The leader may be the largest firm: the firm that
dominates the industry. This is known as dominant firm price leadership.
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Module 2
Alteernatively, thhe price leadeer may simplly be the firm m with the lo
owest
costt, known as low-cost
l pricce leadershipp or, one thatt has emerged d over
timee as the mostt reliable onee to follow: the one that iis the best baarometer
of market
m condittions. This iss known as barometric
b firrm price lead
dership.
In thhese scenarioos, regardless of the type of leadershiip, one firm leads
l the
wayy and will be followed wiithin a relativvely short tim me by all or most
m of
the other firms. The price leaader is the firrm that is wiilling to take the risk
of being
b the firstt to adjust prrices, but thiss firm has ussually a good
d reason
to exxpect that otther firms will follow suitt.
Non
n-cooperaative (Comp
petitive) mechanism
m m
Colllusion (impliicit or expliccit) is not the only reason for every co ompetitor
charrging the samme price. In fact,
f one impportant modeel of competiition in
oliggopolies is the model thatt explains whhy mutual intterdependencce leads
to thhe same pricee being charg ged among competitors:
c the kinked demand
d
curvve. The kinkeed demand curve
c model shows that iff firms expecct rivals
to match
m a price cut but not price
p increasses, then theyy are unlikely
y to
channge price or quantity.
Figu
ure 2.21
Figu ure 2.21 illuustrates the esssential aspects of this thheory. Noticee that at
the given
g price P*,
P the demaand curve is kinked
k in thee sense that its slope
is noot continuouus. The portio on of the demmand curve aabove the price is
mucch more elasttic than the portion
p beloww the price. T This is becauuse each
commpetitor anticcipates that iff it increasedd its price, noone of the othher
commpeting firmss would follo ow. If this is indeed the case, the firm m that has
raiseed its price stands
s to losee a consideraable amount oof market sh hare
(theere being an elastic
e deman nd curve). Thhe lower porrtion of the kinked
k
demmand curve iss rather inelaastic because each compeetitor is assum med to
anticipate that thhe lowering of o its price would
w bring aabout retaliattory price
reduuctions from the other co ompetitors.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
selling about the same amount as before but at lower price unless their
price cuts help to stimulate total market demand. This would depend on
the price elasticity of the industry demand.
The upshot is that the kinked demand curve helps to explain why firms in
an oligopolistic market tend to charge the same price. However, the
kinked demand curve model does not explain how the market price
around which the kinked curve lies is actually determined.
This and the corresponding MR are shown by the dotted lines in Figure
2.20. Therefore, you will note that there is a vertical discontinuity in the
marginal revenue curve, shown as the gap CD.
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Module 2
As indicated
i in Table
T he first elemeent in each cell is Firm l’s profit
2.9, th
(or payoff);
p the second elem ment is Firm 2’s2 profit. Coombined proffits are
highhest under thhe strategy off mutual coopperation (colllusion). In th his case,
eachh will earn a profit of 50. However, iff, Firm 1 believes that Firrm 2
intends to charge the collusiv ve price, thenn Firm 1 hass an incentivee to
defeect, for by chharging a lowwer price, it can
c raise its pprofit from 505 to 100.
Furtthermore, evven if Firm 1 believed thaat Firm 2 wass likely to deefect,
thenn the best straategy would be to defect also, becausse by doing so s Firm 1
getss 30, while iff it remains trrue to the agreement, it wwill get nothiing.
Simmilar reasoninng applies to Firm 2. Thuus, for each fi firm, no matteer what
the other does, its best strateegy is to defeect – charge llow prices. A
strattegy that is best
b no matteer what the riival does is rreferred to ass a
domminant strateggy. It is likelyy, that mutuaal defection wwill be the outcome
evenn though the firms could earn significcantly more bby colluding g. The
outccome of the mutual
m defecction strategyy is called Naash equilibriium;
giveen the strateggy chosen by y the rival, eaach firm is dooing the bestt it can.
Firm 2
Hig
gh price L price
Low
Tab
ble 2.9
152
C5 Economic Environment of Business
be around next period, or if the one-period gains from defection are very
high, then defection will result.
Affinity programmes for restaurant dining and flyer programmes for the
airlines reflect the fact that many firms are always able to create a
customer lock-in effect that produce long-run benefits. Customer lock-in
effects are close-linked with network externalities that yield to significant
first-mover advantages. Network externalities refer to the advantages of
production tied to widespread adoption of a physical or economic
standard. In the railroad industry, for example, customers are linked using
railroad rights of way with a consistent gauge of track. The benefits of a
consistent physical network are so important that trains could not run if
different railroad companies required different gaugesof track.
Market penetration pricing
153
Module 2
Advvertising
Activvity 2.2
Thinnk of three different
d prodducts or serviices and estim
mate roughlyy how
manny firms are there
t in the market.
m Identtify whether ‘the market’’ is local,
natioonal or internnational. In what
w ways doo the firms ccompete in eaach of
the cases
c you haave identifiedd?
Activity
154
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Modulesummary
You have reviewed the production function which is governed by the law
of diminishing marginal returns in the short run that results in the
marginal product curve that is hill-shaped. The total and average product
curves are also hill-shaped because of their connections with changes in
Summary marginal product. Marginal cost is inversely related to marginal product.
The marginal cost curve is shaped like the letter ‘J’. Average fixed cost
has a negative slope and is flatter at higher output levels. Average
variable cost has a saucer-shaped curve that reaches its minimum where it
crosses the marginal cost curve. The curve for average cost is saucer-
shaped and reaches a minimum where it intersects the marginal cost
curve. Economic cost includes the opportunity cost of all the factors of
production and a normal rate of return for the owners of the firm. A
business could have increasing, constant, and decreasing returns to scale.
The long-run average cost curve is saucer-shaped reflecting ranges first of
increasing, then constant and finally decreasing returns to scale.
155
Module 2
Assig
gnmentt
1. What is the relationship
r among a firm
m's total reveenue, profit, and total
cost? How are
a they relatted?
5. Production processes
p maay be labour--intensive or capital-intennsive. To
achieve prodductive efficiiency, what criterion
c musst a firm app
ply in
choosing thee production process to produce
p a cerrtain quantity
y of
output?
156
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Assessment
157
Module 2
Usee the followinng information for the neext two questtions. You arre
makking plans too establish a car
c wash bussiness. Your research hass isolated
fourr distinct meethods of production, eachh of which w
will produce the
t same
Assessment
A num
mber of cleann cars.
Technique Units of Capital Units of Laabour
A 2 20
B 4 15
C 6 11
D 8 8
158
C5 Economic Environment of Business
10. Suppose Honda’s total cost of producing four cars is $225,000 and
its total cost of producing five cars is $250,000. What is the average
total cost of producing five cars? What is the marginal cost of the
fifth car?
159
Module 2
12. All of the foollowing, exccept one, aree true of the ccompetitive
model.Whicch is the odd d one out?
A. Marrginal revenu
ue equals maarket price.
B. Thee firm cannott raise the maarket price w
without losing
g all its
custtomers.
C. Thee firm can sell as much ass it wants at the market price.
p
D. Thee firm is a price taker.
E. Thee firm faces a downward--sloping dem
mand curve.
13. When the demand curvee facing the firmf is downnward sloping
g,
marginal revvenue is lesss than price because:
b
A. the firm can selll more units without lowering its pricce.
B. the firm can onlly sell more units
u by lowering its pricce.
C. a veery large num
mber of firmss are produciing essentiallly the
sam
me product.
D. if thhe firm raisess its price, it loses all its customers.
E. the firm is behaving as a price taker.
160
C5 Economic Environment of Business
B. price level.
C. the wage level.
D. the combination of inputs.
161
Module 2
C. EAB
BF
D. DCE.
23. If this indusstry was initiially perfectlyy competitivve and then became
b a
monopoly, thet amount of o consumer surplus transsferred to thee
monopoly is shown by the t area—
A. DBC.
B. ABC.
CE.
C. FBC
D. BA
AE.
162
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Assessment answers
1. Technique Total Cost
A 2 x $60 + 20 x $6 = $240
B 4 x $60 + 15 x $6 = $330
C 6 x $60 + 11 x $6 = $426
D 8 x $60 + 8 x $6 = $528
Therefore, A is the least expensive technique and hence it is to be
chosen. A is the least costly because labour is much cheaper than
capital.
3. A.
Number of Marginal Total Average
Workers Product Product Product
1 12 12 12
2 16 28 14
3 14 42 14
4 13 55 13.75
5 10 65 13
B. With the third worker MPL begins to diminish.
C. Diagram
163
Module 2
6. A. fixed
B. fixed
C. variable
D. fixed
7. The law off decreasing returns
r is a loong-term pheenomenon; thhe law of
diminishingg returns to labour
l is shorrt-term. The former occuurs when
all inputs arre flexible an
nd changed ata the same tiime, whereass the
latter is cauused by keeping capital fiixed while chhanging labo
our.
8. Economies of scale arisse when averrage cost of pproduction decreases
as the levell of productioon increases.. Economies of scope arise when
the cost of producing
p tw
wo products jointly
j is lesss than the co
ost of
producing them
t separattely.
9. A.
Sho
ort-run Production for Pot-Workks
164
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Diagrams:
11. When firms face increasing or constant returns to scale they can
expand while taking advantage of falling or constant costs. In the
former, decreasing average costs enable the firm to drive
competitors out of the market and capture a bigger share of the
market. This way the firm grows in size to become one of the small
number of remaining firms(if not the only one). Industries such as
auto, chemical, and pharmaceutical fall into this category.
13. B
14. E
15. B
16. C
17. C
18. D
19. C
165
Module 2
20. D
21. B
22. C
23. D
24. B
166
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Module 3
The Macroeconomy:Aggregate
Demand and Supply
Introduction
In thismodule, we will first discuss the concept of Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) and different approaches of measuring GDP as a
measurement of national economy activities, people’s income and well-
being. You will examine the differences between GDP and Gross
National Product (GNP) as well as nominal GDP and real GDP. You will
also learn how unemployment rate, GDP deflator and Consumer Price
Index (CPI) are determined.
167
Module 3 The
Term
minologyy
Con sumer price A meaasure of the price
p level thhat considerss the
indeex (CPI) price of
o a list of sppecific goodss and servicees
purchaased by a typpical househoold at curren nt prices.
T erminology
Deflator: An av
verage of the prices of all goods in thee
econo
omy, weighteed by the quaantities of tho
ose
goodss that are actuually purchassed.
168
C5 Economic Environment of Business
foreign ground.
169
Module 3 The
totall quantity off goods and services prodduced in the eeconomy, thee
unem mployment rate,r the conssumer price index,
i retail sales, housinng
statiistics, etc. Suuch measuress are regularlly reported inn newspaperrs and
televvision and raadio news. At
A the least, well-equipped
w d business an nd public
secttor managers must undersstand these economic
e inddicators in orrder to be
ablee to make infformed busin ness decisionns. The follow wing pages focus
fo on
the main
m measurres of econom mic questionns to provide you with a working
w
know wledge of ecconomic indiicators.
Gro
oss domesstic producct (GDP)
GDP P is the mostt comprehensive measuree of economiies and a bro oad
meaasure of peopple’s income and well-being. The growth in real GDP G is
hencce a measuree of the growwth of peoplee’s real incom mes and thereefore the
pacee of improveement in livin ng standards.. Differencess in growth rates
r
prodduce large diifferences in living standaards betweenn countries. Much
M of
maccro economiccs is about try ying to undeerstand the caauses of grow
wth and
the reasons
r for persistent
p diffferences in growth
g rates and income levels
betw
ween countries.
GDP P can be viewwed from eitther the demaand side or thhe supply sid de. On
the demand
d sidee, it provides insight into the interactioon of the varrious
deciision-makingg sectors of thhe aggregatee economy (hhouseholds; business
b
firm
ms; governmeent entities; and
a foreignerrs). A compeetent manageer
recoognises that these
t nts constitute the market ddemand that a firm
elemen
facees.
The supply of gooods and serv vices requirees firms to brring togetherr the
factoors of producction, particu
ularly labourr and capital,, and to emplloy the
bestt available technology in order to prodduce output that meets deemand.
As a manager, youy need to be b aware of thhese limits aand any ongo oing
channges in themm to manage your
y resourcees efficientlyy.
Uneemploymeent rate
The labour markket performan nce is measuured by a num mber of indiccators
incluuding the unnemploymentt rate, the em
mployment raate and the
ployment ratte is the key and the mostt-
partticipation ratee. The unemp
watcched indicatoor. At times when
w the unemploymentt rate is high,, a
persson may takee a long time to find a jobb. Today, thee rapid pace of
o
techhnological chhanges and thhe onslaught of globalisaation are resp
ponsible
for the
t widespreead displacem ment of workkers.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
late 1920s and the 1930s throughout the world known as the Great
Depression, which was to a great extent, the result of the collapse of the
international financial system as well as mutual adoption by many
countries in the West of high-tariff policies. In the West, we also
witnessed other periods of high unemployment and stagnation in the early
1980s and the early 1990s although these were less severe than earlier in
the century. The economic slump of the early1980s was primarily caused
by a combination of a second oil price increase from OPEC (the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) and the anti-inflation
policies of the central banks of the developed oil-importing nations. The
slowdown of the early 1990s perpetuated itself in Japan for at least ten
years with a widespread impact in Asia.
In those nations that rely on regular tax channels for financing their
growth strategies, the outcome is typically high foreign and domestic
debts and the ensuing current account crises. As discussed in Module 1,
these have prompted the governments of developed as well as the
emerging economies such as India, Indonesia and Brazil. to reformulate
their economic policies around the basic principles of greater emphasis on
market mechanisms (less government intervention) and a stable
macroeconomic framework.
171
Module 3 The
• Price staability.
• Exchangge rate stabillity.
• Balancee of trade surp
plus.
Measu
uring eco
onomic peerformance: Output and in
ncome
The output of “thhe economy””, aparticularr nation’s prooductive cap pacity,
excllusive of unppaid work consists of millions of diffeerent goods. We
coulld report howw much of eaach good the economy prroduced: 1,40 00,362
com
mputers, 1,650,562,382 metres
m of fibree-optic cablee, 13,220,490
0 bottles
of beer,
b and so forth.
f Such data
d may be useful
u for somme purposes, but they
do not
n provide us u with the in nformation we w want. If neext year the output
o of
com
mputers falls byb 10 per cen nt, the outpuut of cable gooes down by 2 per
centt, and the outtput of beer rises
r by 3 per cent, has tootal output goone up or
dowwn? And by howh much?
The most comm mon measuress of productioon of aneconnomy are Gro oss
Dommestic Produuct (GDP) and Gross Natiional Producct or income (GNP).
GDP P and GNP refer
r to produ
uction duringg a particularr time period
d, which
we usually
u take to be a year or a quarter of a year. Thhey are the fllow of
new
w products duuring the yeaar (or the quaarter) and aree measured inn the
currrency of the local
l econom
my.
172
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Most countries pay more attention to GDP than to GNP for measuring
their aggregate economies. For the purpose of stabilising employment, we
are interested in a broad measure of job-creating within the nation. GDP
is that measure. For evaluating trends in the standard of living of many
nations, including the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development) nations, GNP is more appropriate. Despite a possible
gap between GDP and GNP, possibly arising from either foreigners
owning some capital equipment operating within the nation or nationals
being in debt to foreigners, we simplify by ignoring the difference
between them (and focus only on GDP) within this course.
There are three different ways to think about and measure GDP.
Statisticians can measure either:
1. The production of each industry agriculture, mining,
manufacturing, etc.
2. The income that this production generates wages, salaries, profits,
etc.
3. The expenditure on the goods and services produced spending by
households, firms, governments, etc.
To see how GDP can measure all these things at once, we must discuss
national accounting, the accounting system used to measure GDP and
many related statistics.
Solution:
D. Since it is income by a Malaysian national abroad, it is part of the
Malaysian GNP. However, since she contributes via a Malaysian firm
(a foreign firm to Brazil), it is also part of Brazil’s domestic
production, GDP.
173
Module 3 The
Figu
ure 3.1 An economy
e pro
oducing a single good w
with a single input
A sttatistician whho naively addds these num mbers might think that th
here has
beenn $30 of outpput in the ecoonomy. The statistician iss led astray by
b
counnting the whheat, which iss not a final good
g but rathher an interm
mediate
goodd that disapppears after it is used to prroduce the brread. There are
a two
wayys to avoid thhis measurem ment pitfall:
1. Ask the farmer and the
t baker to report
r the vaalue of their sales
s of
final gooods to consu
umers. The baaker reports $25 and the farmer
reports $0
$ because his
h wheat is not
n a final goood.
2. Ask the farmer and the
t baker to report
r the coontribution of each
made to the total. Th
he farmer repports $5 wortth of wheat anda the
orth of effortt, for a total vvalue of $25 worth of
baker reeports $20 wo
output.
174
C5 Economic Environment of Business
output to the government, they subtract their costs, so they are reporting
value added. The government then sums the value added by all businesses
to arrive at GDP.
There are many examples of intermediate goods e.g., wheat whose value
should not be double-counted when output is computed. Other examples
are oil, shipping and advertising.
A farmer who grows barley sells some of it for $1 to a miller. The miller
turns the barley into flour and then sells the flour to a baker for $3. The
baker uses the flour to make bread that he sells for $5 to an economist,
who eats the bread. What is the value added by each person? What is
Study skills GDP?
175
Module 3 The
Solu
ution:
The farmerr’s value add ded is $1.000, as she staarts from scrratch.
The miller’’s contributiion (value added)
a is ($33.00 -$1.00 =
$2.00). Thee baker’s co
ontribution isi ($5.00 - $$3.00 = $2.0 00). The
value of GDDP is the su
um of the vaalues added ($1.00 + $2 2.00 +
$2.00 = $5..00), which is equal thee value of thhe final pro oduct
(bread).
Severaal measu
ures of inccome
The national acccounts includ de other measures of incoome that difffer
slighhtly in definiition from GDP and GNP P, and econoomists and the press
often refer to theem. You can measures of income
n see how thee alternative m
relatte to one anoother by startting with GD
DP and subtraacting variouus
quanntities. First, to obtain GNNP from GD DP, we subtraact the net income of
foreeigners who own
o factors of o productionn employed ina country:
GNP = GDP
G − Net Income
I of Fooreigners.
GDP P and GNP area gross measures of an economy beecause of the gross
inveestment firmss’make on neew capital annd additions tto inventoriees. The
capiital stock inccreases becau
use of investm ment and deccreases becau use of
deprreciation. Thhe total additiions to the caapital stock iin a given peeriod are
calleed gross inveestment. Thee change in thhe capital stoock equals grross
inveestment minuus depreciatio on and is callled net invesstment. To ob btain net
natioonal productt (NNP), we subtract the depreciationn of capital,th hat is the
amoount of the ecconomy’s sto ock of plant, equipment aand residential
strucctures that wear
w out durin ng the year:
NNP = GNP
G − Deprreciation.
GDP P data are, inn practice, ussed not only as a measuree of how mucch is
beinng produced but also as a measure of the welfare oof the residen nts of a
counntry. Econom mists and polliticians talk as if an increease in real GDP
G
176
C5 Economic Environment of Business
means that people are better off. In reality, GDP data are far from perfect.
Most of the difficulties of' measuring GDP arise because some outputs do
not go through the market. Examples are volunteer activities, housework,
and do-it-yourself home improvements. In the case of the government
sector, we already noted that production is valued at cost. This is because
much of government output is not sold in the market, nor is there a simple
technique available that would make it possible to estimate the value of
government output. How would we measure safety from criminals as the
value of output that police expenditures are supposed to produce?
Potential GDP
You saw that GDP measures how much the economy actually produces.
But the economy is generally capable of producing more than it actually
does. Another measure, potential GDP, indicates what the economy could
produce if labour and machines were fully used up. Although it is true
that actual GDP usually falls short of its potential, sometimes it could
exceed it. This happens when the rate of utilisation of the labour force and
that of other factors of production exceeds their normal rates. Strong
upward fluctuations are called boom, and downwards ones are called
recessions. Severe downturns are referred to as depressions. The last
depression, called the Great Depression because of its length and depth,
began in 1929. The economy did not fully recover from it until four years
later. There is no technical definition for a boom, but there is one for a
recession; a recession is said to have occurred when GDP falls for at least
two consecutive quarters.
The economy’s fluctuations are sometimes called business cycles but the
term “cycle” suggests a kind of regularity that cannot be found between
one downturn and the next. Economists have seen patterns repeat often
enough to have given a name to the bottom of a recession (a trough) and
the top of a boom (a peak). However, we also know that as little as two
years and as much as ten can elapse between one and the other.
Solution:
B. The difference between gross and net is what is known as personal
consumption allowances or depreciation. NNP is obtained from GNP
not GDP.
177
Module 3 The
Choocolate bars, books, moviie tickets andd cars cost m more today thaan they
did ten
t years agoo, whereas co omputers cost less. We uuse prices nott only
becaause they aree a convenien nt way of maaking comparisons but also
becaause prices reeflect how co onsumers vaalue differentt goods. If thhe price
of ann orange is twice
t that of an apple, it means
m an oraange is worth
h twice
as much
m at the margin
m as an apple. Anothher way of saaying this is that one
dollar does not buy
b as much as it did ten years ago. W We do not waant to be
mislled into belieeving that thee output is hiigher when iin fact only th he price
leveel has risen. To
T keep the comparisons
c of different years straigh
ht,
econnomists adjuust GDP for changes
c in thhe average level of pricess.
Unaadjusted GDP P is known as a nominal GDPG (RMYt). The term real GDP
(Yt) is used for innflation-adju usted GDP figures, whichh are true yeaar-to-
yearr measuremeents of what the t economyy actually prooduces. To caalculate
real GDP, econoomists take th he nominal value
v of GDP P, the moneyy value of
all thhe goods andd services prroduced in thhe economy aand divide it by a
meaasure of the price
p level. Thus,
T real GDDP is definedd by the equaation:
Real GD
DP = Nominaal GDP/ Pricce level
If, for
fo instance, nominal
n GDP has risen 5 per cent in the past yearr but
prices have also increased by
y 5 per cent, then real GDDP is unchan nged. If
nomminal GDP haas risen 5 perr cent in the past year butt prices havee
p cent, real GDP has acttually decreaased.
incrreased by 6 per
Supppose nominaal GDP increased by 5 peer cent in 20001 (over its previous
p
yearr). Given thiss information
n, can we sayy:
A. The agggregate price level (the GD
DP deflator) increased in
n year
2001.
Study skills
S
DP increases in year 20011.
B. Real GD
C. Both thee aggregate price
p level annd real GDP rose in year 2001.
D. More information is necessary too answer thiss question.
178
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Solution:
D. Nominal GDP is equal to real GDP multiplied by price. Therefore,
it is not clear from the available information which of the two
elements of nominal GDP is behind the 5% change, or whether
perhaps both are.
where the value of the basket represents total expenditure on (or the cost
of) the basket in any period, month or year. The base year is an arbitrary
year employed by the nation’s statistics agency that, depending on the
agency’s approach, its targets and its feasibility, normally changes once
every five to ten years.
179
Module 3 The
incluuded in GDP
P.
Bothh the GDP deflator and th
he CPI can be
b used to calculate the in
nflation
rate.
Inflation rate
The percentage of o change in the price levvel is called tthe inflation rate. If
the price
p level riises from $200 per good too $22 per goood over a perriod, the
inflaation rate forr the period is
i 10 per centt. If the pricee level falls from
f $20
per good to $18 per good, th he inflation raate is -10 perr cent; that iss, there is
a 100 per cent defflation. The measure
m of innflation mosst frequently cited by
the media
m is the CPI:
CPIIt – CPIt-1
Innflation rate = × 100
C t-1
CPI
An alternative
a on can be callculated by rreplacing the CPI
raate of inflatio
withh the deflatorr.
P deflator
GDP
19977 100.0
19988 101.7
19999 102.4
20000 105.0
20011 107.1
Solu
utions:
1. Nominaal GDP is equal to Pricce x Quantitty. For the current
c
year, it is (100 x $1.25 + 14 x $6.00 = $2209). Real GDPG is
(100 x $1.00
$ + 14 x $9.00 = $226).
$ The CCPI is calcu
ulated by
dividingg the currennt outlay onn a fixed bassket by the outlay
o
on the same
s baskett in the basee year:
CPI = (1100 x $1.25 + 12 x $6.000)/(100 x $1.000 + 12 x $9
9.00) =
197/2088 = .947 (or 94.7
9 as the CPI
C should bee multiplied by b 100).
180
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Unemployment statistics
In most countries, unemployment data are collected by their respective
statistics agencies, which survey a representative mix of households and
ask each whether a member of the household is currently seeking
employment. The unemployment rate is the ratio of the number seeking
employment to the total labour force:
Number of unemployed
Unemployment rate = × 100
Labour force
Labour force = Number employed + Number unemployed
181
Module 3 The
Laabour force
Particiipation rate = × 100
Adullt populationn
S
Study skills Employeed 15 millionn
Solu
ution:
A. Labour force = em
mployed + unnemployed = 15 = 1.5 = 16.5
million.
B. 30- 15.55 = 14.5 miillion are ouut of labour force for a variety
of reasoons.
C. 1.5/ 16..5 = .909 orr 9.09%.
Aggrregate Demand
D d, Aggregate
Supp
ply and Econom
mic Flu
uctuatio
on
Introduction
Describing the regular
r patterrns that econnomies experrience as they
y
fluctuate over timme is easy. Explaining
E w causes thhese fluctuattions is
what
morre difficult. Inndeed, comp pared with thhe topics you have studiedd up to
noww, the theory of economicc fluctuationss remains conntroversial. This
T
secttion developss a model thaat most econoomists use too explain sho ort-run
fluctuations in economies.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
From a policy point of view, economic forces that affect the demand and
supply of goods and services as well as labour also affect the demand and
supply of credit. Such changes in turn will set influence the central bank’s
monetary policy as central bankers respond to those situations. Again,
while firms and households cannot prevent certain policy measures from
being taken by authorities, they should be prepared to revise their
decisions accordingly.
183
Module 3 The
Aggreegate dem
mand and
d its comp
ponents
Whaat is the connnection betw
ween price, GDP,
G levels of spending and
a real
outpput in an econnomy? In thee case of inddividual markkets, the expllanation
can be given in terms
t of dem
mand and suppply. First, w we will look at
a how
the concept
c of demand can be
b applied to the economyy as a whole to see
the relationship
r between the general pricce level and ttotal spending in the
econnomy, whichh is known ass aggregate demand
d (ADD).
Tab
ble 3.1
As indicated
i in Table
T 3.1, ou
utput demanded and the pprice levels are
a
inveersely relatedd.
184
C5 Economic Environment of Business
certain product can be explained by the price of that product but the story
is different for the aggregate output. As the general level of prices
increases, less real output is bought for three reasons:
1. The real value of financial assets such as bank accounts and
bonds, decreases – the wealth effect. As a result, households feel
less wealthy so they reduce their consumption spending.
2. Net export spending decreases as foreigners spend less on
domestic exports –real exchange rate effect.
3. To these reasons, one can add the less-intuitively obvious
channel of interest rates. A rise in the price level tends to lower
the rate of interest that in turn tends to encourage investment
spending – theinterest rate effect.
Just as with a demand curve for a single product, the price variable
is placed on the vertical axis of the graph,and the output variable
isplaced on the horizontal axis.
Figure 3.2
Y (GDP) = C + I + G + (X − M) (1)
185
Module 3 The
3. additionns to inventorries.
Chaanges in aggregate
a demand
d
There are other factors
f besiddes the price level that cann influence total
t
spennding. Howeever, these faactors (aggreggate demandd factors) chaange
totall spending att all price lev
vels. In otherr words, theyy shift the agggregate
demmand curve.
Wheen factors othher than pricce level affecct any of thesse componennts, they,
in tuurn, affect thhe entire real expendituress (demand) sschedule and
d hence
causse the aggreggate demand curve to shifft.
186
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 3.3
C = a + b (Y − T) (2)
Since figures for 1960 became available, data inspection confirms the
following relationship for a country such as Canada:
187
Module 3 The
Figu
ure 3.4
Perssonal consummption and saaving are twoo uses of disposable inco ome.
Thuus, consumer spending is decided wheen householdds determine how
mucch to spend or
o save. The constant
c term
m, 0.54, is unnimportant. ItI does,
howwever, highligght the fact th
hat changes in factors othher than disp posable
incoome, discusseed below, affffect the posittion of the cuurve, whereaas
channges arising from GDP (Y) ( and hencee YD disposaable income cause
movvement alongg the curve. Conventional
C lly, b is referrred to as ma
arginal
proppensity to consume (MPC C), which is defined
d as thhe change in C
brouught about byy a given chaange in YD
Marrginal Prop
pensity to Consumee (MPC)
The Marginal Propensity
P o Consume (MPC) is thhe fraction off a
to
channge in dispossable incomee (Yd) that is spent on connsumption (CC). In
otheer words, MPPC is also defined as the additional coonsumption spending
s
geneerated by an additional am mount of dissposable incoome, and the value of
MPC C is assumedd to take a vaalue less thann unity. MPC
C can be calcculated as
folloows:
C
Change in co
onsumption ΔC
MP
PC = = < 1
Change in dispo
osable incom
me Δ Yd
Marrginal Prop
pensity to Save (MPS)
An alternative
a too spending iss saving by households.
h Saving (S) iss the
amoount of dispoosable income that househholds do not spend on thee
conssumption of goods and seervices. The marginal proopensity (MP PS) is
defined as the addditional hou
usehold savinng generatedd by an additiional
amoount of dispoosable income.
188
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Change in saving ΔS
MPS = = < 1
Change in disposable income Δ Yd
ΔC 32,000
MPC = = = 0.80
Δ Yd 40,000
Assuming that taxes (T) are 25 per cent of national income, (T = 0.25Y),
and MPC is 0.85, calculate the increase in T, C and S (saving) if Y
increases by $1.
Study skills
189
Module 3 The
Solu
utions:
1. B
2. C
3. For every $11 increase in Y (GDP), thhere is an inccrease of 75 cents
c in
real disposabble income——25 cents takken away as taxes. Of 75 5 cents,
85% goes too consumptio on (MPC = 0.85),
0 which iis about 63.77 cents
(0.85 x 75 cents) and thee remaining, 25%, goes too personal saaving,
which is 21.3 cents (.25 x 75).
Dissposable in
ncome
The most signifiicant determiinant of conssumer spendiing is the lev vel of
dispposable incomme (YD). Thee economy’ss total dispossable income may
channge as a resuult of changess in population or changees in disposaable
incoome per houssehold. High her income taaxes, for exammple, decreaase
household dispoosable income and hence consumer sppending. As a result,
aggrregate expennditures drop, shifting thee aggregate ddemand curvee to the
left.
Wealth
Weaalth and incoome are quitee different. Inncome consissts of earning gs
receeived over timme, wealth iss made of finnancial and reeal assets. Real assets
(succh as houses and appliancces) and finaancial assets ((such as stoccks and
bondds) are meassured at a parrticular time.. We have alrready consid dered the
weaalth effect – the
t effect of the
t price level on the reaal value of weealth,
whicch then influuences consu umer spendinng. Factors otther than pricce level
can also affect wealth
w and, inn turn, consuumer spendinng. For exam mple, if
stocck prices jum
mp, household ds who own stocks enjoyy increased wealth.
w
As a result, thesee householdss will probabbly spend moore of their disposable
d
incoome. Aggregate demand will w increasee, and the agggregate demaand
curvve will shift to
t the right. Conversely,
C an increase iin consumer debt
meaans that households lose wealth.
w Housseholds reduce spending as a
resuult – aggregatte demand deecreases.
Con
nsumer exxpectationss
Connsumer expecctations influ
uence the dem mand for a siingle product.
Sim
milarly, these expectationss can affect aggregate
a demmand by chaanging
geneeral consumpption pattern
ns.
Inteerest ratess
Because households often bo orrow to purcchase durablle goods such h as cars
and furniture, chhanges in reaal interest rates can affectt their purchaasing
190
C5 Economic Environment of Business
decisions. If the real interest rate falls, consumers are more likely to
borrow in order to buy big-ticket items. Therefore, consumer spending
rises and the aggregate demand curve shifts to the right. Conversely, a
jump in the real interest rate has the opposite effect because consumer
spending falls, aggregate demand decreases, and the aggregate demand
curve shifts to the left.
191
Module 3 The
relattionship betw ween investm ment and inteerest rates. Thhe typical arrgument
holdds that interest rates repreesent the oppportunity cosst (foregone rate
r of
retuurn) of tying down
d moneyy in a specific investmentt project. Thee higher
interrest rates aree, the higher the foregonee alternative (opportunity y costs)
and the lower thhe desire to in nvest in that project.
How wever, the relationship beetween invesstment and innterest rates is i far
morre complex. It I is not the level of intereest rates alonne that determ mines
inveestment but rather
r the lev
vel of interestt rates relativve to the ratee of
expeected return on investmen nt, with the interest
i rate bbeing viewed d as a
bencchmark. Thiss gives substtance to an im mportant behhavioural
charracteristic: buusinesses invvest in increaased plant annd equipmentt only if
theyy can envisioon increased profits
p as a result.
r Investm ments are no ot made
simpply because interest
i ratess are low.
Ressidential constructio
on
Manny factors inffluence invesstment in ressidential consstruction. Inttuitively,
you would put innterest rates high on the list l and you w would be rigght. Other
important influeences are inco ome prospeccts and emplooyment cond ditions.
Cleaarly, favouraable to the ho ousing markeets are markeet conditions that are
charracterised byy low and fallling interest rates as welll as a businesss cycle
that is in an upsw wing. The hiigher the inteerest rate is, tthe greater th
he cost of
carrrying a mortggage. A $100 0,000 mortgaage costs $8,0000 per yearr if the
interrest rate is 8 per cent butt $10,000 perr year if the iinterest rate is
i 10 per
centt. As the inteerest rate risees, the cost off owning a hhome rises an nd the
demmand for new w homes falls. An improvement in thee general health of the
econnomy causess the demand d for housingg to rise.
Chaange in bu
usiness invventories
Business investm ment is not reestricted to spending
s on ffixed capital--
strucctures and eqquipment butt also includes stocks of raw materialls, goods
still in productioon and finished goods reaady for sale. These inventtories are
heldd by manufaccturers, whollesalers, retaiilers, and farrmers and rep present
the businesses
b thhey need to carry
c out succh as bricks, m
mortar and to ools.
Partt of these cossts is the carrrying cost off inventories that is influeenced by
the level
l of interrest rates. If interest
i ratess are high andd expected to o rise,
c of carryying inventorries, given the level of salles, tends to rise and
the cost
the firm
f will wannt to reduce its inventoryy level. Manaagers must allso pay
attenntion to curreent sales trennds in coordiinating their buying (ordeering) of
prodducts for futuure sale. Inveestment in innventories is related to thee
retaiilers’sales exxpectation, which
w in turnn is related too present salees trends.
192
C5 Economic Environment of Business
If sales have been strong, then sales in the near future probably will
continue to be strong, and inventories will be increased. If sales have been
faltering, a firm will probably wish to curtail future orders, relying on
existing inventories to meet future sales.
I = 1(r) (4)
Figure 3.5
193
Module 3 The
Goverrnment pu
urchasess
Govvernment purrchases are th he third com
mponent of the demand for goods
and services. Thhe governmen nt buys heliccopters, compputers and th
he
servvices of goveernment employees. It buuys library boooks, builds schools
s
and hospitals, annd hires teach
hers and docctors.
These purchasess are only one type of govvernment speending. The other
typee is transfer payments
p to households
h s
such as welfaare for the po
oor and
the government
g pension payments for thee elderly. Unnlike governm ment
purcchases, transffer paymentss are not madde in exchannge for some of the
econnomy’s outpuut of goods and a services.. Therefore, tthey are not included
in thhe variable G.
G Transfer payments, how wever, do afffect the demmand for
goodds and servicces indirectly y. Transfer payments
p are the oppositee of
taxees: they increease househo olds’ disposabble income just as taxes reduce
r
dispposable incom me. Thus, an n increase in transfer
t paymments financced by an
incrrease in taxess leaves dispoosable incomme unchanged. We can no ow
revise our definiition of T to equal
e taxes minus
m transfe
fer payments..
Dispposable incom me, Y − T, inncludes bothh the negativee impact taxees and
the positive
p impact of transfeer payments..
Net exxports
As seen
s earlier, net exports can
c vary withh changes in the price lev vel. For
exam mple, a drop in the Malay ysian price leevel increasees net exports
becaause Malaysiian exports area made cheeaper in the rrest of the wo orld and
imports are madde more expeensive in Mallaysia. As a rresult of this foreign
tradde effect, a chhange in the price
p level innfluences tottal spending as a
movvement of thee aggregate demand
d curvve.
Forreign incom
me
Connsider two coountries, Mallaysia and thee United Staates. Supposee
Mallaysia is the home
h countrry and the U.S. the foreiggn country. Suppose
t U.S. Americans will be
incoome rises in the b able to buuy more prod ducts as a
resuult: not only U.S.-made
U products but also
a those maade in Malay ysia. As a
resuult, Malaysia’s (net) expo
orts to the U.S. will rise, tthereby increeasing
Mallaysia’s aggregate deman nd. Conversely, a fall in thhe U.S. income will
reduuce Malaysiaan net exportts, thereby deecreasing Maalaysia’s agg gregate
dem
mand.
194
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Exchange rates
An exchange rate is the value of one nation’s currency in terms of
another currency. The value of the Malaysian ringgit, for example, can be
expressed in any other currency but is usually compared with the U.S.
dollar. Therefore, the exchange rate can show how many U.S. cents are
needed to buy one Malaysian ringgit. A rise in the value of the Malaysian
ringgit – for example, from 65 to 70 cents U.S. currency – means more
American currency is needed to purchase Malaysian funds. In this
example, Malaysia’s currency becomes more expensive for Americans to
purchase. At the same time, American currency becomes cheaper for
Malaysians to purchase since more of it – 70 cents as opposed to 65 cents
– is given in exchange for one Malaysian ringgit.
If the Malaysian ringgit goes up in value this way, exports from Malaysia
become more expensive for Americans. Therefore, a product priced at
RM1 in Malaysia costs not 65 cents in American funds but 70 cents. At
the same time, American products imported into Malaysia fall in price
when expressed in Malaysian currency. One Malaysian ringgit now buys
American products with an American price of 70 cents, whereas earlier
the same ringgit could buy American products with an American price of
only 65 cents.
Trade policies
Most industrial nations trade in environments characterised by trade
restrictions such as tariffs and quotas and other administrative restrictions.
In this setting, net exports and therefore aggregate demand will be
affected by trade liberalisation initiatives whether on bilateral bases
between two countries, multilateral bases within a regional trade
agreement, or on a broader basis such as the World Trade Organization
(WTO). For example, a reduction in general level of tariffs causes the
aggregate demand curve to shift to the right, whereas instituting new
barriers does the opposite.
195
Module 3 The
196
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 3.6 shows the elements of the money market. The nominal interest
197
Module 3 The
rate (i) is measurred on the veertical axis and the quanttity of money y on the
horiizontal axis. The demand d for money is i representedd by a downward
slopping curve, Md.
M The logicc behind this is that higheer interest rattes
incrrease the oppportunity costt of holding money
m and ttherefore deccrease the
quanntity of moneey demanded d. This curvee is also referrred to as thee
liquidity prefereence curve.
Figu
ure 3.6
198
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Table 3.2 Factors that cause the aggregate demand curve to slope
downwards
Table 3.3 Factors that cause a shift in the aggregate demand curve
199
Module 3 The
S
Study skills B. An increase
i in government
g s
spending
C. An exchange
e ratte appreciatioon
D. A faall in the pricce level
ution:
Solu
C. A and B cause
c a righttward shift, whereas
w D caauses a moveement
along the cuurve. An exchhange rate apppreciation m
makes domesstic
exports morre expensive and hence reeduces aggreegate demand d.
Outpu
ut, aggreg
gate supp
ply and itss components
Gross domestic product meaasures both exxpenditure aand output. TheT
prevvious sectionn viewed the expenditure approach as aggregate demand.
d
On the
t other hannd, output reppresents the production oof the goods and
servvices that are demanded. Now
N let us tuurn our attenntion to the ro
ole of
prodduction.
200
C5 Economic Environment of Business
more, whereas at lower prices businesses may not be able to make a profit
or break even in the short run, so they reduce output. Indeed, this is
typically the situation, in the short run. A rise in the general price level
relative to nominal wages has a positive effect on aggregate supply and
the aggregate supply curve will be positively sloping.
Contrarily, if one believes that the price of labour (and other productive
factors) is linked to the general price level – because, let us say,
employees demand higher pay to compensate for inflation – there can be
no relative price effect and the aggregate supply curve will tend to be
vertical. This is regarded as a long-run situation.
Figure 3.7
201
Module 3 The
Figu
ure 3.8
Twoo steps are innvolved in deetermining thhe natural levvel of GDP, Yn. The
firstt is to determ
mine the naturral level of employment,
e Ln and the second, to
readd off the leveel of output from
fr the prodduction functtion. Naturall level of
empployment is thet employm ment counterppart of naturaal output. The natural
leveel of employm ment is by deefinition attaained when thhe labour maarket
cleaars – where demand
d and supply
s cross each other aas seen in Figgure 3.8.
Alsoo determinedd at this interrsection poinnt, indicated iin Panel (a), is
equiilibrium real wage. Secon nd, having determined eqquilibrium off
empployment (Ln) and equilib brium real waage, you cann read off the level of
outpput from the production function,
f Pannel (b). The pproduction fu
unction –
morre correctly thhe short-run production function – inndicates the level
l of
outpput that can beb produced by each leveel of labour innput, assumiing it is
commbined with a fixed capitaal stock (K), technology aand other facctors.
Thuus, it shows thhat an outputt of Yn can bee produced bby the input of o
laboour, Ln.
202
C5 Economic Environment of Business
The wage stickiness in the analysis might be present because the rise in
price was unanticipated or due to fixed-term pay deals. Employees might
require time to absorb the implications of the rise in price and may react
more slowly than firms do to the new price level. For these reasons, price
changes can have real effects on output and employment in the short
term.
Aggregate supply assumes steady input prices for the businesses that are
producing the output. Changes in input prices – an increase in wages, for
example, or increased prices for imported raw materials give rise to a rise
in production costs. These changes can occur frequently over brief
periods of time. When a rise in the price of an input pushes up production
costs, businesses reduce their real output and the short-run aggregate
supply curve shifts to the left. Note, however, that unless input price
increases happen to be long-lasting, no changes will happen to the
economy's potential output. That is, the long- run aggregate supply curve
203
Module 3 The
rem
mains unchangged.
Onee of the most important reeasons the ecconomy todaay produces more m
thann it did a genneration ago is
i that our tecchnological kknowledge has
h
advaanced. The innvention of thet computerr and Interneet, for instancce, has
allowwed us to produce more goods and seervices from m any given am mounts
of laabour, capitaal, and naturaal resources. A technologgical innovatiion raises
prodductivity: thhe same amou unt of econom mic resourcees can producce more
real output at evvery price levvel and hencee can shift thhe long-run
aggrregate-supplyy curve to th he right.
Govvernment po
olicies
‘Sticckiness’: Th
he sticky wag
ge and the prrice theory
204
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Because nominal wages are slow to adjust (sticky) in the short run, long-
term employment contracts affect changes in product prices experienced
by firms. These price changes do not immediately translate to changes in
money wages.
The sticky price theory regards the slow adjustment in prices as the cause
of the upward sloping supply curve because of the implicit agreement
between vendors and their customers or because of large costs of
adjusting the price. For example, newspapers do not adjust their prices
periodically, despite economic conditions.
Wage stickiness
Wage impact Cost of hiring Effect on production
When the . . . then the real …pushing costs of …therefore, forcing the firms
price level wage (W/P) rises hiring labour to to hire less labour and produce
falls firms higher and, less goods and
A rise in P …so that the real …reducing firms’ …causing firms to hire more
has the wage (W/P) falls, costs of hiring and produce more.
opposite labour and…
effect
Price stickiness
Effect on
Demand impact Revenue impact
production
Change in economic Reduced Less revenue to Reducing sales and
condition other than price purchasing firms production
power
Change in economic Increased More revenue to Increasing sales
condition other than price purchasing firms and production
power
With prices being sticky in the short run, a change in economic condition
which reduces the overall purchasing power of buyers will cause a drop in
sales and production, whereas an opposite situation will have a positive
effect on sales and production in the short run.
Both firms and workers may in fact base their decisions on incomplete
information or misperceptions in the short run. Firms may misinterpret
market signals. That is, they may temporarily mistake a general increase
or decrease in the overall price (P) for a change in the price in individual
markets (relative to other markets). Workers may also misinterpret the
situation. Since they tend to notice a change in their (nominal) wage
before they notice a change in the price level, they may mistake the
205
Module 3 The
form
mer for a chaange in their real
r wage annd act accorddingly.
Tech
hnological chaanges
Shiftts arising from
m inputs:
In
nput Mechanism S
Shift
Capital Chaanges in capital Increassed volume of ggoods and servvices
stocck of the econom
my causess a rightward shhift in the aggregate
affecct labour supply curve; decreassed volume cauuse a
prodductivity leftward shift.
Natural Chaanges in supply With a rise (fall) in thee supply of natuural
Resoources resourcces the aggregaate supply curvve shifts to
the righht (left).
Laboour Chaanges in labour An incrrease in the sizee of the labour force
forcee size increasses the supply oof output of the economy
— a rigghtward shift in the aggregate supply
curve — and vice verssa.
Tab
ble 3.5 Factoors causing a shift in thee long-run aaggregate su
upply
curvve
Factors causing
g a shift in the
t short-run
n aggregate supply curvve
Gen
neral equillibrium
Lonng-run equilibbrium occurss when aggreegate demandd and supply y are put
togeether (Figuree 3.6). You thhen obtain thhe equilibriumm price and income
leveels in the ecoonomy at Ynan E At that point E, national
nd P, point E.
expeenditure equals national income
i and also
a equals nnational outp put. This
is where
w N howeveer, that the shhort-run and long-run
AD croosses LRAS. Note
w each othher. By the time the econ
equiilibrium poinnts coincide with nomy has
reacched this longg-run equilib
brium, there will
w have beeen adjustmen nts in
percceptions, wagges and pricees so that thee short-run agggregate supply
curvve crosses thiis point as well.
w
206
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 3.6
207
Module 3 The
Figu
ure 3.7
As the
t money wage
w rate risees, the short-rrun aggregate supply curvve shifts
leftw
ward from SRRAS1 toward ds SRAS2 andd this producees a sequencee of new
equiilibrium posiitions. The ecconomy movves up along its aggregate
demmand curve, AD
A 1, as show wn by the arroowheads in tthe figure, ass actual
GDP P decreases and
a the pricee level rises.
208
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 3.8
Eventually, the money wage rate would have risen by the same
percentage as the price level. At this time, the aggregate demand curve
AD1 intersects SRAS2 at a new long-run equilibrium, point C, where actual
GDP is equal to potential GDP once again.
209
Module 3 The
As result
r of thesse developmeents, the aggrregate demannd for goodss and
servvices will be reduced becaause of a droop in both coonsumer spen nding and
spennding by firm ms. As shown n in Figure 3.9,
3 the aggreegate-deman nd curve
shift
fts to the left from AD1 to o AD2. In thee short run, thhe economy moves
alonng the initial short-run ag ggregate-suppply curve, SR RAS1, from point
p A
to point B, wherre output is reeduced from m Yⁿ to Y2, annd the price level
l fall
fromm P¹ to P². Thhe gap shown n by (Yⁿ – Y2) indicates a recessiona ary gap.
Althhough the em mployment efffect is not shhown in the figure, firmss respond
to loower sales annd production n by reducinng employmeent. Thus, thee
pesssimism that caused
c the sh
hift in aggreggate demand is, to some extent,
e
self--fulfilling: peessimism abo out the futurre leads to fallling incomees and
risinng unemployyment.
Figu
ure 3.9
In thhe absence of
o any action by policy-m makers, a no-aaction or han nds-off
stannce, the recesssionary gap will force thhe price level to fall. Eveentually,
expeectations willl adapt to thiis new realityy of rising unnemploymen nt and
slowwing econom my. Perceptions, wages annd expected pprices will alll be
revised downwaard, causing a shift in the short-run agggregate- sup pply
curvve to the righht towards SRRAS2, in the above figuree. Over time,, the
econnomy will appproach poin nt C, where thhe new aggreegate-deman nd curve
(ADD2) crosses thhe long-run aggregate-suppply curve.
The economy, inn this case, hash remediedd itself over a period of tim me. In
the new
n long-runn equilibrium m, point C, output is backk to its naturaal level.
Even though thee wave of pesssimism reduuced aggregaate demand, the t price
leveel has fallen sufficiently
s (to
( P3) to offfset the shift iin the aggreg
gate-
dem
mand curve.
210
C5 Economic Environment of Business
equilibrium may be long and painful for the economy and the
unemployed, policy makers may choose to take action to accelerate the
recovery instead of waiting for the system to remedy itself. This action
typically takes the form of increasing money supply or government
spending.
If policy makers can act with sufficient speed and precision, they can
offset the initial shift in aggregate demand by increasing money supply or
government spending to move the aggregate demand curve back to AD1
and bring the economy back to point A.
Figure 3.10
In the short run, the economy moves along AD1 to point B, where output
of the economy has fallen from Yn to Y2 and the price level has risen from
P1 to P2. Because the economy is experiencing stagnation (falling output)
and inflation (rising prices), such an event is called stagflation.
211
Module 3 The
In thhis case, the output of goods and servvices remainss depressed at a Y2 for
a whhile. Eventuaally, howeveer, the recessiion will remeedy itself as
percceptions, wagges and pricees adjust to thhe higher prooduction cossts. The
prevvailing periodd of low outp put and highh unemploym ment puts dow wnward
presssure on workkers’ wages. Lower wagees, in turn, inncrease the quantity
q
of output
o supplieed. Over tim
me, the short-rrun aggregatte-supply currve shifts
backk toward SRA AS1, the pricee level falls, and the quanntity of outpu
ut
apprroaches its natural
n level. In the long run,
r the econnomy returns to point
A, where
w the agggregate-demmand curve crrosses the lonng-run aggreegate-
suppply curve. Inn this case, po
olicymakers make the chhoice of main ntaining a
low price level ata the cost off temporarilyy lower outpuut and employ oyment.
212
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Modulesummary
This modulehas offered the basic definitions for understanding of GDP,
GNP, CPI and unemployment. You have learnt the calculation of national
income and the contrast of nominal and real GDP.
Summary You have also reviewed the concepts of aggregate demand, aggregate
supply and their equilibrium. Business cycle is the formation where
output and expenditures follow a cycle of expansions and contractions.
213
Module 3 The
Assig
gnmentt
1. Define Grosss Domestic Product
P (GD
DP).
2. Explain the difference beetween nomiinal GDP andd real GDP.
3. What does thhe unemploy
yment rate measure?
m Briefly explain how it is
calculated.
A
Assignment 4. What is the GDP
G deflato
or and how iss it calculatedd?
5. What is the Consumer
C Prrice Index (C
CPI) and how
w is it calculaated?
6. Why should we be conceerned about an
a increase in the unemp
ployment
rate? Brieflyy explain.
7. Increases in the rate of in
nflation can have
h a numbber of negativ
ve
effects on thhe economy. Briefly explaain two (2) oof them.
8. What compoonent of aggrregate demannd is related to disposable
income?
9. What does marginal
m prop
pensity to coonsume repreesent?
10. What are thee key determ
minants of invvestment spennding?
11. Explain the marginal
m pro
opensity to coonsume (MP
PC) and the marginal
m
propensity too save (MPS
S). Prove thatt why MPC + MPS alway ys equals
1.
12. What is the role
r of exchaange rates in determiningg aggregate demand?
d
Which compponent of AD
D is influenceed?
13. Explain whyy AD is a dow
wnward-slopping functionn of the price level.
14. What factorss cause a mo
ovement alonng the AD currve; what facctors are
responsible for
f a shift in that curve?
15. Why is potenntial GDP in
ndependent of
o the price leevel?
16. What curvess, AD, SRAS and LRAS, are
a the determ
minants of ou
utput
(GDP) and the
t price in th
he short run??
17. What is the determinant
d of price in thhe long run — AD, LRAS
S or
SRAS?
18. What is staggflation?
19. What is the link
l between
n money marrket and aggrregate deman
nd?
20. What are thee causes of business
b cyclees?
21. What is monney supply? How
H might it i be controllled by the
authorities? What forces in the econoomy tend to bbring moneyy supply
and money demand
d into equilibrium??
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Assessment
1. Consider an imaginary economy that produces only three goods:
steak, eggs and wine. Information on the quantities and prices of each
good sold for two years is given below.
Price
Steak (per kg) $9.10 $11.50
Eggs (per dozen) $1.10 $1.30
Wine (per bottle) $6.00 $6.50
CAR COMPANY
Revenues from sales $1,000
Expenses
Wages $500
Steel purchases $400
Profits $100
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Module 3 The
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
217
Module 3 The
218
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Assessment answers
1. A. Nominal GDP in 1997 ($Y) = $9.10 x 10 + $1.10 x 10 + $6 (8)
= $150
In 2001: $Y = $11.50 (7) + $1.30 (13) + $6.50 (11) = $168.90
B. Real GDP in constant 1997 dollars: Y = $9.10 (7) + $1.1 (13) +
$6 (11) = $144.
C. GDP deflator in 1997 = base year = 1 by definition.
2. Nominal GDP and real GDP in 1997 are the same since we use the
same prices to calculate both figures (base year).
6. The sectors that are less sensitive to changes in income are least
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Module 3 The
8. A.
B. P = 1440, GDP = 20
00
C. Output gap = 220 −200
− = 20, a recessionaryy gap.
9. A. AS shiifts to the lefft. Cost risess and hence pprice level rises.
GDP falls.
f
B. AS shiifts to the lefft (the same as
a part a). Prrice rises. GDP
G falls.
C. AS shiifts to the rig
ght. GDP inccreases and pprice falls.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
12. A.
13. A. A 10% increase in GDP causes demand for bonds and demand
for money to increase.
B. Money demand rises, bond demand falls.
14. A
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Module4
Mod
dule4
Goveernment Macro
oeconomic
Policcy
Introduction
In thhis module, we
w will first discuss monnetary and fisscal policy caategories
of sttabilisation policies.
p We will examinee the functioons of moneyy and
bondds, and relatiionship betw
ween bond prrices and inteerest rates. We
W will
alsoo examine mooney supply components, monetary ppolicy and
mecchanisms thatt changes mo oney supply and interest rates.
We will look intto the influennce of fiscal policy, the cconcepts of budget
b
balaance and natiional debt, an
nd relationshhip between ddebt and defificit.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
• explain the concept of the budget balance and the national debt.
• outline the relationship between the debt and deficits.
• describe how inflation is measured and how it affects nominal and
real income.
• explain what factors determine inflation.
• distinguish between the states of inflation respectively labelled
“demand-pull” and “cost-push”.
• describe the causal chain happening with controls of the money
supply that leads to inflation.
• explain how the nominal interest rate responds to the inflation rate.
• distinguish between a one-time increase in the price level and
inflation.
• explain the various costs that inflation imposes.
• explain the danger of deflation.
• describe how the official unemployment rate is derived, the
different types of unemployment and the definition of full
employment and natural rate of unemployment.
• distinguish among the participation rate, unemployment rate and
non- employment rate.
• illustrate, with an example, the impact of minimum wage laws on
the unemployment rate.
• outline the concept of the trade-off between inflation and
unemployment.
• analyse what is behind the Phillips Curve.
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Module4
Moneyy
Deffinition and
d functions of moneey
Monney is anythiing that is geenerally accepptable as a m
means of paym ment.
Monney serves thhree separatee functions inn any econom my. It providees:
• A means of paymentt (exchange)).
• A store of (value) pu
urchasing power.
• measure of value)
A unit (m v of account.
Meaans of payment
The most importtant function n of money iss that it acts aas a means of
paym ment whenevver items aree bought and sold. Withouut money, marketm
partticipants musst trade one product
p for another,
a a trannsaction kno
own as
bartter. Barters are
a costly meeans of carrying out a trannsaction in th hat they
requuire double coincidence
c of
o wants betw ween both paarties. For ex xample, if
an economist
e wiishes to get a haircut, he or she shouldd be able to find
f a
hairr stylist who at the same time
t wishes to
t listen to a lecture in
econnomics.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
of money not only facilitates transactions of goods and services but also
raises living standards.
Store of value
There are both benefits and drawbacks associated with holding wealth as
money. Money’s major advantage is its liquidity, or the ease with which it
can be turned into a means of payment. Assets are liquid when they can
be quickly turned into money with little loss in value. All financial assets
are liquid to some degree, but none as much as money, which is perfectly
liquid by its very nature.
Money also provides buyers and sellers with a unit of account, or pricing
standard that allows all products to be valued consistently against a
common measure. In other words, it provides a point of comparison
between various forms and types of automobile, spinach or economics
lectures.
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Module4
Notiice deposits typically pay y a higher ratte of interestt but limit or exclude
cheqque writing. This distincttion, howeveer, has lost itss relevance in most
counntries as new
wly introduceed saving acccounts have bbecome as acccessible
as chhequing accoounts. A term m / fixed depositaccount iis another fo orm of
depoosit that entittles the holdeer to a higheer rate of inteerest. A contrractual
conddition of placcing funds in n a term depoosit is that thhe depositor does
d not
withhdraw from that
t account for a specifieed period of time.
Ms= CU
U+D (1)
Creddit cards andd debit cards (also knownn as bank cards), though veryv
popuular in most countries, do o not constituute money. A credit card d is a
monney substitutee, as is the deebit card. Thhey enable peeople to purcchase
prodducts but they are not meeans of paym ments. For exaample, once money
has been transferred from yo our bank accoount to that oof the vendorr to
whoom you preseented your deebit card, thee card ceases to function as
monney. In other words, the card
c is not a medium
m of eexchange thaat can be
passsed on from one
o person to o another.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
The first two motives are directly related to the role of money as a
medium of exchange whereas the last motive is related to the role of
money as a store of value.
As discussed earlier, the main cost of holding money is the added income
it could have earned if it had been converted into a higher-paying asset
such as a bond. The added income is the rate of interest that is the
measure of the forgone alternative (the opportunity cost).
Bonds
Focusing on the basic mechanism by which interest rates are determined,
let us simplify by considering bonds as the sole alternative to money. The
main distinguishing features of bonds as opposed to money are:
1. Money does not yield return (interest) whereas bonds do.
2. Money can be used for transaction but bonds cannot.
Bonds are formal contracts that set out the amount borrowed, by whom,
for what period of time, and at what interest rate. Most bonds promise to
pay an agreed-upon interest rate per period for the duration of the bond
and also to pay back the bondholder the principal of the bond at its
maturity. Bonds are also attractive assets because they can be easily
bought and sold before their term has ended. This way, they offer
liquidity as well as relatively high rates of return in exchange for the risk
associated with changes in bond prices. Therefore, for individuals who
hold wealth, bonds offer the likeliest alternative to holding money for
individuals who have a favourable view of the trade-off between bonds’
higher rates of return and higher risk. Bonds are the most popular way for
governments and large business to raise funds.
There is a vast array of interest rates just as there is a wide range of credit
instruments. Table 4.1 presents annual average rates for a number of the
Government of Canada’s key interest rates. The rates in this table show
interest on short and long-term instruments.
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Module4
Maturityy Rates
2 yeear 3.87
3 yeear 3.94
5 yeear 3.98
10 year
y 4.09
3
Lonng term (30 year)
y 4.18
Tab
ble 4.1 Government of Canada
C bencchmark bon
nds yields
(Deccember 2007)
3
urce: Bank of Canada
Sou C
228
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Now let us be more specific about the way the bond market works in the
economy. We have assumed that bond markets determine the interest rate
on the bonds. More precisely, bond markets typically determine not the
interest rate but rather the price of bonds. The interest rate can then be
inferred from the price. Let us look at the relation between interest rates
and price more closely.
i $100 - $PB
= (2)
$PB
For example, if $PBis equal to $95, the interest rate will be equal to
$5/$95 or 5.3 per cent. If $PBis $90, the interest rate will be 11.1 per cent.
Therefore, the higher the price of the bond, the lower the interest rate.
Equivalently, if we are given the interest rate, we can infer the price of the
bond. Reorganising the formula above, the price of a one-year bond is
given by:
$PB $100
= (3)
(1 + i)
The price of the bond is equal to the final payment divided by 1 plus the
interest rate. Thus, if the interest rate is positive, the price of the bond is
less than the final payment. Moreover, the higher the interest rate, the
lower the price today. When newspapers write that “bond markets went
up today”, they mean that the prices of bonds went up and therefore
interest rates went down.
Typically, bonds with maturities of more than one year offer a fixed rate
of return known as a coupon rate. For example, suppose you purchased a
$1,000 bond with an interest rate (coupon rate) specified as 6 per cent per
annum. In this case, you are guaranteed an annual interest payment of $60
until the bond matures, at which time you, or whoever else holds the
bond, will recover your principal, $1,000 as well.
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Module4
Supppose a bond pays $1,000 in one year.. If the price of the bond is $750
todaay, we know that the interrest rate on this
t bond is:
A. 7.5 per cent
c
S
Study skills B. 15 per cent
C. 25 per cent
D. 33 per cent
Solu
ution:
D. ($1,000 – $750)/ $750 = .33 or 333%
Financcial systeems
Noww that you caan define the functions money
m serves,, you are in a position
to coonsider the system
s in whhich it operates as well ass the supply of
o
monney. The mosst important elements of financial sysstems are fina ancial
interrmediaries. Financial
F inttermediaries are primarilyy deposit tak
kers,
bodiies that acceppt funds provvided by savvers and lendd these funds to
borrrowers.
For the deposit-ttaker, the dep posits it acceepts and owees back to sav
vers are
its liiabilities andd the funds itt lends to borrrowers, and which borro owers
owee the deposit--taker, are itss assets. Thesse institutionns make a pro ofit by
payiing lower intterest rates on deposits thhan they charrge on loans..
Financcial interm
mediariess
Depposit-takers fall
f into two categories:
c c
commercial bbanks–which h in some
counntries are knoown as charttered banks –and – near baanks. The oriiginal
manndates of the two categoriies were disccrete as the ffollowing parragraphs
sugggest. In realitty, the dividiing lines are more blurredd. Recent changes in
mosst countries’ banking law ws mean that commercial
c banks now conduct
c
operrations in a much
m wider range
r of servvices includinng insurancee and
secuurities. Otherr recent legisslative changges have allow wed mergerss among
nearr banks so thhat most tradiitional barrieers between ddeposit-takin ng, trust,
insuurance and innvestment baanking (securrities) operations have vaanished.
Com
mmercial banks
b
Bannks are the baackbone of th he financial system.
s Theyy receive fun nds from
peopple and firmss and use theese funds to make
m loans aand to buy boonds.
Unliike other depposit-takers, these instituttions are typpically alloweed to sell
a wiide range of financial serrvices. What makes them m different froom other
finaancial intermeediaries is th
hat they receiive those funnds by offerin
ng
cheqquable depossits that allow w depositors to write cheeques or get cash
c on
demmand, up to ann amount eq qual to the account balancce. For this reeason,
thesse accounts are
a also called d demand deeposits.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
The balance sheet of banks is given in Figure 4.1. On the asset side are
cash reserves, loans, and bonds, whereas on the liability side are deposits.
While deposits are liabilities to banks, they are assets to depositors.
Banks
Assets: Liabilities:
Figure 4.1
Near banks
In contrast to commercial banks, near banks have more specialised
financial services. The most important are trust companies, mortgage and
loan companies, credit unions and other forms of government as well as
private savings and loan associations.
Cash reserves
Why do financial institutions hold reserves? On any given day, some
depositors withdraw cash from their chequing accounts while others
deposit cash into their accounts. Since there is no reason for the inflows
and outflows of cash to be equal, a bank must keep some cash on hand. In
the same way, on any given day, what a bank owes to other banks (as a
result of cheques written by people with accounts at this bank) may be
greater or smaller than what other banks owe to this bank (as a result of
cheques received and deposited by people with accounts at the bank).
Thus, for both reasons, banks want to keep some reserves even if they are
not required to do so.
Under the laws of some countries, banks are required to hold reserves as a
percentage of their deposits. These reserves are known as required
reserves (or legal reserves): the minimum amount of reserves that banks
by regulations must hold against deposits. In these situations, the central
banks tend to alter required reserves to influence the money supply. A
more detailed description of how changes in these reserves can affect the
money supply will follow below.
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Module4
For our purpose here, take th he reserve rattio as given aand examinee what
fractional-reservve banking means
m for the money suppply. Let us su uppose
that all banks wiithin the natiion have and maintain a rreserve ratio of 10 per
centt. This meanss that they keeep 10 per ceent of their ddeposits in reeserve
and lend out the rest. Now leet us consoliddate assets annd liabilities of all
bankks within thee nation to make
m the folloowing T-accoount, Figuree 4.2.
All banks
(in billions of dolllars)
Assets: Liabilities:
L
Cashh
$110
Reseerves:
osits:
Depo $100
Loaans and
$990
Bonnds:
Figu
ure 4.2 Conssolidated ba
anks’ T-Account
On the
t left-handd side of the T-account
T arre the bank’ss assets of $100
billiion, consistinng of $10 billion cash resserves held ppartly in theirr vault
and partly in thee form of dep posits with thhe central bannk and $90 billion
b in
bondds or in the form
f of loanss. On the righht-hand side of the T-acccount are
bankks’ liabilitiess of $100 billlion, made of deposits thhey owe to th heir
depoositors. The assets and liaabilities balaance exactly.
Notiice that in thhis situation, the reserve/ddeposit ratio is 10/100 = 0.10 (or
10 per
p cent), whhich is the fraaction of theiir deposits w we have assum med
bankks hold in the form of cash on averagge. More impportantly, thee figure
showws that for evvery dollaroff cash reservves on hand, bbanks have been
b able
to coollectively crreate $10 of deposits, or for their $100 billion of reeserves,
$1000 billion of deposits.
d Theerefore, bankks seem to haave been ablee to
creaate deposits and
a hence, crreate money supply.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Suppose the sum of all deposits in local banks is $400 billion and the
combined amount of cash reserves on hand in this economy is $20
billion.
Solutions:
1. C. You calculate the reserve ratio by dividing total reserves ($20)
by total deposits ($400), 20/400 = 0.5 or 5%.
2. A. The multiplier equals 1/rr = 1/.05 = 20.
3. B. The T-account apparatus reveals that the sum of assets must be
equal to liabilities. Since liabilities total $400 billion (deposits),
total assets must be $400 billion, too. With reserves pinned at $20
billion, the residual (loans) must be $380 ($400 -$20).
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Module4
Centraal bank
Fouur responsibillities are ofteen mentionedd for central bbanks. Thesee are:
1. Issue cuurrency. Thiss refers to suppply notes annd coins into
o the
econommy according to certain guuidelines andd objectives.
2. Act as thhe banker to commerciall banks. In thhis capacity, the
t
central bank
b holds deposits
d for commercial
c bbanks as commmercial
banks doo for the pub
blic. These deeposits at thee central ban
nk enable
commerrcial banks to o make paym ments to one another. Morre
importanntly, central banks act as the lender oof last resort by
b
extendinng short-term
m loans to baanks that mayy be in a cred dit
crunch.
3. Act as thhe banker to the governm
ment. The cenntral bank, in
n this
capacityy, manages thhe governmeent bank accoount, which is
i held
with thee central bank
k, and handlees its debt.
4. Control money stockk, which is thhe most impoortant task off the
central bank.
b The deecision by thee central bannk concerning
g the
money supply
s is refeerred to as monetary
m poliicy.
At present,
p curreencies issued
d by central banks
b are refferred to as fiat
fi
monney –money that has no in ntrinsic valuue. Central baanks no long ger link
theirr respective currency
c to precious
p mettals such as ggold, so curreencies
havee no intrinsicc value. A fiaat is an orderr or a decree..
Central Bank
B
Asssets: Liabilities:
L
Goveernment
Cuurrency &
bondss,Loans H = CU +R
baanks
to bannks,
deeposits,
Goovernment
Internnational
deeposits
reservves
Figu
ure 4.3 Centtral bank’s T-Account
T
As shown
s in Figgure 4.3, the central bankk’s assets aree primarily
goveernment bonnds that it hollds in its porttfolio, its loaans (advancees)
mosstly to banks,, and internattional (officiial) reserves. Its liabilities are
prim
marily currenncy and bank ks’ deposits. The
T sum of ccurrency whiich is
heldd partly by thhe public andd partly by baanks in the foorm of cash –in– the
vaullt as well as banks’
b depossits –is knowwn as the cenntral bank mo oney. The
last item on the liability
l sidee is the goverrnment depossits.
234
C5 Economic Environment of Business
The central bank controls central bank money, which is more commonly
known as monetary base or high-powered money:
H = CU + R (4)
where CU stands for currency, R for banks’ reserves, and H for high-
powered money.
A quick comparison between equation (4) and the money supply equation
— equation (1):
Ms = CU + D — reveals that:
1. The size of money supply (Ms) is a multiple of the high-powered
money (H) because (though their first term on the right-hand side,
CU, is the same) their second term is different:
D versus R,
Monetary policy
You have seen already that a change in the quantity of money affects
aggregate demand and the economy. The central bank has the power to
increase or decrease the volume of the currency in the economy and
therefore, is responsible for monetary policy. This makes the central bank
an important institution able to exert profound influence on the economy.
Think of your economy as having a market where people buy and sell
bonds in exchange for money so that those who want to increase the
proportion of bonds in their portfolio buy bonds and those who want to
decrease it sell bonds. In an equilibrium, the interest rate is such that the
demand for bonds is equal to the supply of bonds or equivalently, the
supply of money is equal to the demand for money, and the equilibrium
condition, as shown in Figure 4.4 holds.
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Module4
Figu
ure 4.4
Connsider now thhe effects of an open purcchase of government bon nds –an
openn market opeeration in wh hich the centrral bank incrreases the sup
pply of
monney (an expannsionary monetary policyy). In such a transaction, the
centtral bank buyys bonds in th he bond marrket and payss for them by y creating
monney. As it buyys bonds, thee demand forr bonds goess up and thuss the
price of bonds goes
g up. Equiivalently, thee interest ratee on bonds goes
dowwn. In terms ofo Figure 4.4 4, the injectioon of moneyy into the eco
onomy
therreby, causes a rightward shift
s in the money
m supplyy curve to Ms’ and
the interest
i rate drops to i2.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 4.5
When the central bank purchases bonds, it pays for it by raising banks’
cash reserves by equal magnitude. Recall that cash reserves are assets to
banks while liabilities to the central bank. Banks facing a net increase of
cash reserves are now in a position to expand their lending operation. In
light of the banking multiplier discussion earlier, we know that for every
available dollar of reserves banks can potentially extend several times in
loans. In this case, if rr is assumed to be 0.10, banks can collectively lend
$10 million and hence increase the money supply by that amount.
Reserve requirements
The central bank can alter the money supply by changing the discount
rate. An increase in the discount rate by the central bank reduces the
quantity of reserves in the banking system by discouraging banks from
borrowing reserves from the central bank, which in turn reduces the
money supply. Conversely, a lower discount rate encourages borrowing
from the central bank increasing the quantity of cash reserves and hence
increasing the money supply.
237
Module4
Supppose you aree given the foollowing infoormation aboout your econ nomy.
w commerrcial banks tootal $100 billlion. Banks’ reserves
Publlic deposits with
are $5
$ billion, tw
wo-thirds of which
w is in deposits
d withh the central bank.
b
Therre are $10 biillion notes and
a coins outtside bank (inn the hands of o the
S
Study skills publlic).
Calcculate:
A. The highh-powered money.
m
B. The monney supply.
C. Banks’ reserve
r ratio.
Solu
utions:
A. High-poowered moneey (H) = Currrency in hannds of public (CU) +
banks’ reserves(R),
r or H= $10 + $5 = $15.
B. Ms = CU
U + D = $10
0 + $100 = $110.
C. R/D = 5/100
5 = 0.05 = 5%.
Transm
mission mechanis
m sm of mo
onetary po
olicy
dy discussed at some lenggth how chan
Thiss study sectioon has alread nges in
monney supply annd interest raate affect thee economy. F
Figure 4.6 usees the
aggrregate demannd-aggregatee supply moddel to illustraate this effectt
diaggrammaticallly.
Figu
ure 4.6
238
C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 4.7
How much extra aggregate demand is needed?
One would hope that the decline in inflation has been associated with a
demonstrable improvement in economic efficiency and social stability.
Many experts believe that it has, and for good reason. However, causality
is never simple in economics. Low inflation does not guarantee good
economic performance, nor does every high-inflation country grow
slowly. In the latter instance, growth occurs despite inflation not because
239
Module4
The monetary auuthorities in the euro areaa, New Zealaand, Canada and the
Unitted Kingdom m are formallly committedd to maintainning stable prrices.
Mosst other counntries have a strong publicc commitmeent to keeping g
inflaation low althhough less fo
ormal targetss are set. Theese countriess have
founnd price stability an essenntial elementt in a healthyy business
enviironment.
Defl
flation, too, can
c be a majo
or problem as Japan’s expperience in th
he past
decaade demonstrrates.
The control of innflation invo olves a broadd spectrum off economic policies.
p
It is more than a mere econo omic slogan. It requires political comm mitment.
An informed
i pubblic opinion is also impoortant. For exxample, Germ many’s
succcessful anti-iinflation strattegy has been supported by the popullar
averrsion to inflaation. Furtherrmore, centraal banks shouuld be largely
indeependent of political
p conttrol. The eviddence indicaates that
indeependence raather than maanagement byy politicians is the optim mal
strattegy for low inflation. Poolitical controol may lead tto policies su uch as a
pre--election cut in interest raates (to help the
t electoral prospects off the
incuumbent partyy), which resu ults in higherr inflation att a later stagee. Many
counntries have acknowledge
a d this dangerr and are respponding by measures
m
to inncrease the autonomy
a of the monetaryy authorities.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
for inflation, 1 per cent to 3 per cent, and has made every effort to keep
the rate of inflation at the mid-point of this inflation target range. Another
example is the European Central Bank (ECB). Twelve European counties,
known as Euro 12, are guided by the monetary policy of the ECB with its
unqualified objective of price stability and elaborate guarantee of
independence.
Governments apply fiscal policy during any part of the business cycle.
During a recession, government action is geared towards increasing
spending and output in the economy –expansionary fiscal policy. Such a
policy involves increasing government purchases, decreasing taxes or
both. In contrast, during an inflationary boom, the concentration is geared
towards restraining spending and output –contractionary fiscal policy,
which involves decreasing government spending and increasing taxes.
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Module4
As the
t example illustrates, th he inclinationn to spend annd the inclinaation to
savee or otherwisse withdraw funds
f from the
t economy both determ mine the
multtiplier effect.. These facto
ors are summmarised by thee concepts of
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Now that the multiplier effect has been seen in action, we will give it a
numerical value. The spending multiplier is the value by which the initial
spending change is multiplied by to give the total change in output –that
is, the shift in the aggregate demand curve. This multiplier effect
continues even after this first round and definitely does not stop at the
third round. Once all these effects –a process that continues until the last-
round effect is negligible –are added together, the total impact on the
quantity of goods and services demanded can be much larger than the
initial impulse from higher government spending.
Figure 4.8
The additional shifts in the aggregate demand curve i.e., from AD2 to AD3
are the result of the subsequent increases in consumer spending.
Therefore:
Or,
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Module4
For a given initial increase in n G, the biggger the seconnd term on thhe right,
the bigger
b the ovverall effect on output (thhe left-hand sside) and thee greater
the multiplier.
m Since the sizee of the changge in C (secoond term on thet right)
is deetermined byy MPC, we can c conclude that the biggger MPC, thee greater
the impact
i of fisscal policy on
n the econommy. Put differrently, the smmaller
the marginal
m proopensity to saave (withdraw wal), the largger the multiiplier.
A successful
s expansionary fiscall policy
An expansionary
e y fiscal policcy or fiscal sttimulus is deesigned to inccrease
aggrregate demannd by increassing governm ment expenditure or transsfer
paym ments, or deccreasing in taaxes (or com mbination of aall three actions) to
elim
minate a recesssionary gap p. As shown in i the figure below, the in nitial
equiilibrium is att real GDP of $12 trillionn and a price level of 100 0. Since
poteential GDP ($$13 trillion) is more thann real GDP att this point, there
t is a
receessionary gapp. In dealing with this ecoonomic probblem, the gov vernment
or auuthority can use expansio onary fiscal policy.
p The iinitial increase in
aggrregate demannd from the cut c in taxes or o hike in traansfer paymeents or
goveernment exppenditure is reeinforced byy the multipliier effect. Th he
aggrregate demannd curve (AD D) shifts righhtward from A AD0 to AD1. Real
GDP P rises so it equals
e potenttial GDP ($113 trillion) annd the price level
l
incrreases, to 1100, as indicateed in the samme figure.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
245
Module4
use: taxes. Recall that tax cu uts can be useed to expandd the econom my. Lower
taxees leave housseholds and businesses
b w more funnds to spend and
with
inveest. In this caase, the initiaal spending sttimulus of thhe tax cut is
multiplied by thee spending multiplier,
m orr the reciproccal of MPS, which
w is
alsoo equal to (1/(1-MPC). Th he result is ann increase inn total outputt, shown
as a shift in the aggregate
a deemand curve..
-(M
MPC × changee in T) × (1/ (1−MPC))
Study skills
S B. decrrease taxes.
C. decrrease government expendditure.
D. decrrease the quaantity of monney.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Solutions:
1. C. The multiplier is equal to (1/(1- MPC) = (1/ (1-0.75) = 4.
2. A. The initial change in aggregate spending is $10 million (=
change in G) in this case, which is to be multiplied by the
spending multiplier, 4. Therefore, GDP rises by $40 million.
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Module4
3. A. The initial
i changee in aggregatte spending iis $7.5 millio
on (=
change in
i T x MPC ) in this casee, which is too be multiplieed by the
spendingg multiplier, 4. Thereforee, GDP rises by $30 million.
The crrowding-o
out effectt on investment
The multiplier effect seems to t suggest thhat when the government spends
$10 billion on rooads and brid dges, the resuulting expanssion in aggreegate
demmand is necesssarily largerr than $10 billlion –in factt, it was $50 billion in
our previous exaample. Howeever, there is an effect thaat works agaainst this.
Whiile an increasse in governm ment purchases stimulatees the aggreg gate
demmand for goodds and servicces, it also caauses the inteerest rate to rise,
r in
turnn reducing invvestment speending and choking
c off aaggregate demmand.
The reduction inn aggregate demand
d that results
r whenn a fiscal expansion
raisees the interesst rate is called the crowdding-out effecct on investm
ment.
The logic behindd this pattern n is that, as thhe spending increases, deemand
for money
m rises to enable thee spenders too finance theiir new expen nditures.
Assuuming that thhis is a pure fiscal policyy –no changee in the moneey supply
is innitiated by thhe central bannk –an excess demand foor money dev velops
and the interest rate
r rises. Th his rising cosst of borrowing, in turn, reduces
r
the demand
d for residential
r an
nd business investment
i inn goods. In other
o
worrds, as the inccrease in gov vernment purrchases lifts tthe demand for
goodds and servicces, it may allso crowd ouut investmentt.
Thiss implies thaat the previou us illustrationn in Figure 44.8 lacks the element
reprresenting the crowding-ou ut effect andd its tendencyy to lessen th
he impact
of fiiscal policy. Two shifts are
a representeed accuratelyy: the AD cu urve
shift
fts from AD1 to AD2 (duee to the initiaal impact of tthe increase in i G) and
from
m AD2 to AD D3 (due to thee subsequentt changes in C C). To these,, we need
to addd a third shhift in the opp
posite directiion, in order to account fo or the
crowwding-out efffect.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 4.9
The first two effects tend to reinforce each other, pushing the AD curve to
the right, whereas the third effect tends to work in the opposite direction,
pushing the AD curve to the left.
In panel (a), the economy moves directly from point A to point B, settling
at full employment. In panel (b), the economy initially surpasses its
potential in the short run, C. In the long run, as nominal wages will rise in
response to the inflationary pressure, the SRAS curve will shift shifts up
to SRAS2, and the economy will return to long-run equilibrium at point
D.
Government budgets
The annual statement of the expenditures and tax revenues of the
government makes up the government budget. Therefore, fiscal policy is
the use of the federal budget to achieve macroeconomic objectives such
as full employment, sustained long-term economic growth, and price
level stability.
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Module4
or
Debt (inn 2002) = Deebt (in 2001) + Deficit or surplus (in 2002)
2
To discover
d the fiscal stancee, it is sufficieent to say thaat we need to
o delve
deepper and find out what, if any, extra diiscretionary m measures thee
authhorities have taken in resp ponse to the situation–thaat is, deconsttruct the
budgget balance so
s that the cy yclical (recesssion or boom m) componen nt is
isolaated from thee structural component.
c
The lim
mits of po
olicy activism
We have seen hoow monetary y and fiscal policy
p can afffect the econ
nomy’s
aggrregate demannd for goods and servicess. These theooretical insig ghts,
howwever, raise some
s importaant policy quuestions. Shoould policymakers use
thesse instrumentts to control aggregate deemand and sttabilise the economy?
e
If soo, when? If not,
n why not??
Now wadays, how wever, the sco ope appears tot be very cirrcumscribed for using
fiscaal policy to stimulate
s eco
onomies in thhe traditionall sense of tak
king
actioon that would widen bud dget deficits. Having faceed mounting deficits
and debts, the majority
m of go
overnments of o developedd and develop ping
counntries have been
b pressureed to introduce strict meaasures that haave led to
a coonservative approach
a to fiscal
fi policy. Unfortunateely, the progrress
madde under the newn conserv vative approaach seems to have lost mo omentum
for now,
n partly because
b of th
he recent ecoonomic slowddown but largely due
to thhe fallouts off the Septemb ber 11 eventt at the Worldd Trade Centter in
New w York and, more
m recentlly, by large-sscale accountting frauds by
b major
US corporationss,such as Enrron and Worlld.com.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Fiscal policy suffers from long lags as well. However, there are major
differences in the structure of the lags in fiscal versus monetary policy:
1. Monetary and fiscal policy have differential impacts on aggregate
demand; fiscal policy, at least a change in government spending,
affects aggregate demand directly whereas monetary policy has
an indirect effect on it. As such, fiscal policy tends to have a
shorter execution lag.
2. Monetary policy lags are substantially shorter from the
perspective of implementation, implementation lag.
Implementation lags in fiscal policy are largely attributable to the
political process. A fiscal policy typically requires an Act of
parliament, budgetary preparation and presentation before the
policy takes effect, whereas monetary policy does not. Therefore,
while the overall length of the policy lags may be similar in both
policies, the composition of them is different.
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Module4
Inflatio
on
Moddule1 introduuced the concept of a pricce index andd how statistical
agenncies go abouut employing g this index (or
( indices) tto measure in nflation.
A brrief recapitullation of the basic conceppts sets the sttage for a stu
udy of
inflaation.
CPI2002 – CPI2001
2
Inflaation rate(20022) = × 1100
CPI2001
Thiss equation shhows the con nnection betw ween the inflaation rate and the
price level. If thee price level is rising, thee inflation raate is positivee. If the
price level rises at a faster raate, the inflattion rate will rise. In addiition, the
highher the new price
p level is, the lower thhe value of m money and th he higher
the inflation
i ratee.
Cau
uses of infflation
Dem
mand-pull inflation
An inflation
i thatt results from
m an initial inncrease in agggregate dem
mand is
calleed demand-ppull inflation.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 4.10
Of course, this is not the end of the process of the adjustment. The reason
is that GDP cannot remain above its potential value forever. Furthermore,
with unemployment below its natural rate, there will be a shortage of
labour. In this situation, the money wage rate begins to rise. As it does,
short-run aggregate supply decreases and the SRAS1 curve starts to shift
leftward. The price level rises further and real GDP begins to decrease.
With no further change in aggregate demand –the aggregate demand
curve remains at AD – this process ends when the short-run aggregate
supply curve has shifted to SRAS2. At this time, the price level has
increased to P3 and real GDP has returned to potential GDP of Yn, the
level from which it started.
At a given price level, the higher the cost of production, the smaller the
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Module4
amoount that firm ms are willing g to produce. Therefore, if the money y wage
rate rises or if thhe price of raaw materials (for examplee, oil) rises, firms
f
decrrease their suupply of good ds and servicces. Aggregaate supply deecreases,
and the short-runn aggregate supply
s curvee shifts leftward.
Starrting from lasst year’s long g-run equilibbrium, point A, let us assu ume that
this year the OPEC nations increase
i the price
p of oil bby cutting pro
oduction.
The short-run agggregate supp ply curve shiifts to the lefft, SRAS2. At
A point
B, thhe price leveel rises and output
o of the economy fallls, a combin nation we
referred to earlieer as stagflattion.
Figu
ure 4.11
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
However, for the current purpose, our focus will be only on the long-term
implications. To conduct a long term analysis, we can employ a theory
referred to as the Quantity Theory of Money. This theory is constructed on
the basis of the highly simplified equation:
Ms.V = P.Y
The equation holds that the nominal GDP (P.Y) is determined by the
quantity of money in circulation and by the velocity of the money.
Strictly speaking, the ultimate determinant of money supply is the central
bank. The velocity is determined by institutional factors such as habits of
payments and receipts –the frequency of receiving the monthly income,
which could be weekly, biweekly, monthly – as well as the technological
factors such as credit cards, debit cards and automatic bank teller
machines. For example, as credit cards are used more widely by
individuals, the less cash they need to hold and therefore the greater is the
rate of turnover of money – money has to work harder because less of it is
being held.
For a given velocity, the equation suggests that as the central bank
increases the quantity of money in circulation, the nominal GDP on the
right-hand side increases. Assuming that in the long run, the economy is
at its full employment level of GDP (Y = Yn) and that full employment of
GDP is constant, a direct link is established between changes in Ms and
changes in P. An increase in Ms results in an increase in P of equal
proportions –one for one. This can also be expressed in percentage terms.
Other things being equal (notably, the velocity of circulation and trend
growth in income), the higher the growth of money supply, the higher the
rate of inflation. Hence, the popular description of inflation is too much
money chasing too few goods.
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Module4
The oil crisis in 1973 betweeen the oil-im mporting counntries ended with w
highh inflation raates. For exam
mple, up to 1973,
1 Britainn’s inflation rate
r had
onlyy been margiinally higher than Germaany’s. After 11973, Britain n’s
inflaation rose to more than double
d Germaany’s. The B British authorrities
deciided to validaate the inflattion, whereass in Germanyy, the authorities
madde clear theirr intention noot to validate it, and Germ man employeers and
tradde unions respponded by keeeping tight curbs on pricces and nom minal
incoomes.
Conntrastingly, inn Britain, moonetary validdation causedd the price lev vel to
rise to P3 while preventing
p th
he unemployyment probleem that Germ many had
to faace. In termss of Figure 4.11,
4 the situaation in Britaain can be caaptured
by a movement from A to B followed byy a movemennt to C, the laatter
movvement beingg the result ofo monetary validation.
v
An important
i coonclusion draawn from this analysis is that inflation n and
unemmployment offer
o authoritties a menu ofo choices. Innflation, it seeems, is
the cost
c to be boorne by trying g to keep uneemploymentt down;
unemmployment appears
a to bee the price off keeping infflation down.. This
implies a trade-ooff between inflation
i andd unemploym ment that
policymakers caan take advan ntage of.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
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Module4
Figu
ure 4.12
The long-run Phhillips curve shows the reelationship between inflation and
unem mployment whenw the actu ual inflation rate equals tthe expected inflation
rate. The long-ruun Phillips cu urve, LRPC,, is vertical aat the naturall
unem mployment rate,
r Un, as iss the long-runn aggregatedd supply curvve
verttical at Yn, ass seen in Figuure 4.13.
Figu
ure 4.13
258
C5 Economic Environment of Business
curve told us that any anticipated price was possible at the natural level of
output: actual GDP equals potential GDP. In the same way, the long-run
Phillips curve tells us that any anticipated inflation rate is possible at the
natural unemployment rate.
When the expected price level changes, the short-run aggregate supply
curve shifts upward, but the long-run aggregate supply curve does not
shift. Similarly, when the expected inflation rate changes, the short-run
Phillips curve shifts up, but the long-run Phillips curve does not shift.
Therefore, for every long-run curve there is a family of short-run curves,
each associated with a different expectation level.
Costs of inflation
Why are high inflation rates bad? If you ask the typical person that
question, he or she will tell you inflation robs people of their purchasing
power of their earnings.
However, inflation means not only increasing prices but also expanding
nominal incomes as well. The effect on households’ purchasing power
depends on which is greater, the inflation rate (the rate of increase in the
average price) or the increase in nominal income.
Since most people earn their incomes by selling their services, such as
their labour, inflation in incomes goes hand-in-hand with inflation in
prices. Thus, inflation does not in itself reduce people’s real (purchasing
power) income. The damaging aspect of inflation for society is that it
redistributes (income) wealth among individuals in an arbitrary way. The
winners are often those with substantial economic resources, while the
losers are usually those least able to withstand a drop in purchasing
power.
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Module4
nom
minal dollar amount
a and do
d not change in responsee to inflation n. The
winnner in this caase is the gov
vernment, whhich has colllected from thet public
morre valuable taaxdollars, before prices roose, to returnn them to thee public
withh less valuable dollars at a later date (when
( prices have risen). In other
worrds, a reducedd real (after-inflation) fixxed income too pensionerss implies
equaally reduced real fixed paayments (cossts) to the goovernment.
To illustrate
i thiss, we need to
o distinguish between twoo types of intterest
ratess, discussed briefly in Module3.
1. The nom minal (markeet) rate of interest, the intterest rate exp
pressed
in moneey terms in daaily financiaal reports andd bulletins at your
bank. Foor example, you
y borrow $100,000
$ forr one year froom a
bank to start a business. Assumee the borrowiing rate is 10 0 per cent
per annuum. At the en nd of the yeaar, you must pay back thee
principaal ($100,000)) plus interesst (0.10 × $1000,000 = $10 0,000),
for a tottal of $110,00
00 ($100,0000 + $10,000)).
2. The reall interest ratee: the real coost of borrow
wing to you (o or the
real retuurn to the bannk). This is too be measureed at a rate of
o interest
that corrrects for the inflation ratee.
Noww return to thhe same exam mple but this time, assumme that the inflation
rate is 4 per centt in the year you borrow money for your businesss. In this
casee, the real cosst of borrowiing to you annd hence the real rate of return
r to
the bank
b (real innterest rate) is 6 per cent––the 10 per cent nominal interest
rate minus the 4 per cent ratee of inflationn. The real innterest rate reeflects
the fact
f that becaause of inflattion, the fundds lent (the pprincipal) hav ve less
purcchasing poweer at the end of the one-yyear term thaan they did att the time
the loan
l was maade. Thereforre, your bankk receives $10,000 (10 peer cent)
in nominal intereest at the end d of the year, but only $66,000 (6 per cent)
c in
real interest. Sim milarly, your real cost of borrowing
b iss $6,000 and not
$10,000.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
What happens if the inflation rate turns out to be higher than lenders
anticipated? Suppose, in our previous example, the lender expects that the
inflation rate to be 4 per cent in the current year. If the lender wishes to
earn a real rate of return of 6 per cent he or she must then set the nominal
rate at 10 per cent per year (real rate (6 per cent) = nominal rate (10 per
cent) – expected inflation rate (4 per cent)). Now suppose the inflation
rate turns out to be 7 per cent instead of 4 per cent. As a result, the bank
actually receives only 3 per cent real interest –that is, the 10 per cent
nominal rate minus the 7 per cent inflation rate. This is substantially less
than the 6 per cent real interest rate the bank had anticipated.
Therefore, because the inflation rate is higher than anticipated, the real
interest rate is lower than the desired real interest rate, and lenders are
worse off while borrowers are better off. Borrowers, indeed, return less
valuable dollars to lenders. Conversely, if the expected rate of inflation
turns out to be less than the expected one, the losers and winners will be
reversed – lenders lose while borrowers gain.
If the nominal rate of interest is 6 per cent and the expected rate of
inflation is4 per cent, then the real interest rate is:
A. 2 per cent
Study skills B. 10 per cent
C. –2 per cent
D. actual inflation rate is equal to expected rate.
Solution:
A. The real rate of interest is equal to the nominal minus the rate of
inflation (6-4 =2). D is wrong because there is not enough
information to determine if the expected and actual inflation rates are
equal.
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Module4
Oth
her impacts of inflation
Sho
oe-leather co
osts
Incrreases in the inflation ratee cause increeases in the nnominal interrest rate.
Faceed by this inccrease in thee opportunityy cost of monney, individu uals
reduuce their holddings of real money balannces to econnomise on holding
cashh. Cash is, off course, subjject to a greaater deterioraation than altternative
asseets that at leaast provide so
ome kind of monetary
m retturn. Individu uals, still
in need of cash to t finance theeir regular trransactions bbut hold less money,
musst make moree trips to the bank. Note that t individuuals’ spending habits
and monthly exppenditures arre not alteredd. The only thhing that hass altered
is thhat they hold less money and hence thhey have to vvisit their ban nk more
freqquently. Thesse trips reducce leisure andd/or time speent working, and are
referred to as shoe-leather co osts.
Tax distortions
As inflation
i incrreases, decisiion making becomes
b morre challengin
ng, and
certaain computattions becomee more difficcult. Higher iinflation tendds to
massk the real eaarnings of inddividuals. Evvidence suggests that risin
ng
earnnings, salariees, wages andd other sourcces of incomee are more likely to
be mistaken
m for increases in real income in an enviroonment of hig gher
inflaation than in one of lower inflation.
Inflaation variabiility
The answer is thhat the govern nments of thhese countries are using moneym
creaation as a wayy to pay for their
t spendinng. When thee governmen nt wants
to buuild roads orr pay salariess to civil servvants, for exaample, it firsst has to
262
C5 Economic Environment of Business
raise the necessary funds. Normally, the government does this by levying
taxes such as income and sales taxes. In countries with well-developed
financial markets, the government can raise funds by borrowing from the
public by selling government bonds. A third option, widely used in
developing countries, however, is for the government to pay for its
spending by simply printing the money it needs.
To appreciate this point, note that central banks can change nominal
interest rates, not real rates –at least not directly. The study of business
cycles of the last several decades points out that central banks facing
recessions have counted on negative real interest rates in order to give the
economy a boost. This is achieved by lowering the nominal interest rates
below the rate of inflation. The problem arises, however, when the rate of
inflation is zero or below zero: deflation. In such circumstances, not only
are central banks unable to bring about a negative real rate of interest
because the nominal rate cannot fall below zero, but also the deflation
rate will be the only driving force behind the real rate of interest and
hence the health of the economy.
Therefore, in instances where negative real interest rates are desired but
cannot be achieved via lower nominal interest rates –since nominal
interest rates cannot fall below zero –central banks may have to resort to
higher inflation rates. However, if the inflation rate is stuck at zero per
cent and lower, the real interest rate will never become negative and
economic recovery may never start.
Unemployment
Unemployment is one of the two most serious macroeconomic problems,
the other one being inflation, that affects people rather directly. For most
people, the loss of a job means a reduced living standard and
psychological distress. It is no surprise that unemployment is a topic of
263
Module4
heatted debate am
mong politiciians, academ
mics and meddical practitio
oners.
Tab ble 4.1 below w, shows the rate of unem mployment –tthe percentag ge of the
laboour force uneemployed –in n several couuntries. The ffigure suggessts that
therre is always some
s unemplloyment. Thiis is true eveen when the economy
e
is att natural leveel of output (full employmment). This ffigure does not
n
incluude the size of unemploy yment at full employmennt or you wou uld see
that this varies from
fr a countrry to the next. A historicaal sequence would
w
show w you that thhe natural ratte of unemployment doess not stay con nstant
withhin a given country eitherr.
Country Unemp
ployment Rate
R (%) (20002)
Ausstralia 6.3 (Maay)
Belggium 10.4 (M
May)
Brittain 5.2 (Aprril)
Cannada 7.7 (Maay)
Spaiin 11.4 (M
May)
Sweeden 2.0 (Aprril)
USA
A 5.8 (Maay)
Euroo area 8.3 (Maay)
(Sourrce: The Econom
mist, July 2002)
Tab
ble 4.1
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Number of unemployed
Unemployment rate (%) = × 100
Labour force
Labour force
Participation rate (%) = × 100
Adult population
265
Module4
Study skills
S 1. The size of the
t labour fo
orce is
A. 25 million
m
B. 28 million
m
C. 40 million
m
D. 3 miillion
Solu
utions:
1. B. Laboour force = un
nemployed + employed ((3 + 25 = 28)).
2. C. Unem mployment raate is the ratiio of the num
mber of unem
mployed
to the laabour force (3
3/28).
3. A. The participation
p n rate is the raatio of the lab
abour force to
o adult
populatiion (28/40).
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Discouraged workers are those who, after a period of searching for a job
unsuccessfully, have given up looking. The official unemployment rate
does not consider them unemployed because they are not actively looking
for a job. They are, in fact, not considered part of the labour force. In
other words, they are non-employed but not unemployed (or jobless).
Anatomy of unemployment
How do people become unemployed? How do they end unemployment?
These are two of the most important questions that motivate the study of
the labour market. Here we try to address these and other questions.
267
Module4
Uneemployment is rising wheen more peopple are enteriing the pool than
leavving. Thus, other things being
b equal, increases
i in qquits and lay
yoffs
incrrease unemplloyment as does
d an increaase in the floow of new enntrants
into the labour market.
m For a country succh as Canadaa, job loss acccounts
for about
a half off new unempployment. Vooluntary sepaarations, new w entrants
and re-entrants into
i the labou
ur force togeether accountt for the otheer half.
As illustrated
i in Figure 4.14 4, there are allways discouuraged workeers who
leavve the labour force from the t unemployyment pool w while some find
f a job
or arre recalled. There
T is alwaays a percenttage of employed persons who
becoome unemplooyed or laid off, while annother group leaves the laabour
forcce permanenttly (into retirrement) or tem mporarily (oon maternal leave, for
exam mple). Finallly, at any poiint, some inddividuals whoo are out of the
t
laboour force go directly
d to em
mployment by b ending a lleave of abseence, etc.,
and some join thhe unemployment pool inn search of a job.
Typ
pes of unemploymen
nt
Wheen examiningg unemploym ment, you caan distinguishh among fourr types:
fricttional, structuural, cyclicall, and seasonnal.
Fricctional unem
mployment
Worrkers who arre temporarily y between joobs or have bbegun lookin ng for
theirr first jobs arre experienciing frictional unemploym ment. There are
a
alwaays people whow are enterring the labouur force for tthe first time or who
havee quit their joobs in searchh of a new annd better onee. The size off this
typee of unemplooyment varies from one country
c to thee next and deepends
on thhe labour maarket instituttions, custom ms, labour law
ws and manp power
and employmentt policies. No onetheless, the,
t frictionall unemploym ment is a
permmanent featuure of the labo our market.
Stru
uctural unem
mployment
Anoother type off unemploym ment arises larrgely from sttructural chaanges in
the economy.
e Sttructural uneemployment isi due to a m
mismatch betw ween
peopple and jobs.. Unemployeed workers caannot fill thee jobs that aree
avaiilable. This tyype of unem
mployment occcurs primariily because of o
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Because of these changes, workers lose out; they are displaced. Consider
a worker who loses her job in manufacturing because of applications of
robotics. She might not yet have the skills for operating the robots in
order to stay in manufacturing, nor might she have the necessary skills for
the expanding service sector, if she chooses to leave the manufacturing
industry. In the same way, an unemployed fisherman living in a remote
village cannot easily take advantage of employment opportunities
elsewhere. Because gaining new skills, moving to obtain work elsewhere
and developing new industries in a region all take time, structural
unemployment can persist for long periods.
Cyclical unemployment
Full employment
The notion of full employment (or the natural level of employment) plays
a central role in macroeconomics and also in macroeconomic policy. This
section starts by discussing the theory of the natural rate and then turns to
examining estimates of the rate.
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absence of employm
ment agenciess, youth empployment serv
vices and
the like.
2. The dem mographic makeup of thee labour forcee: e.g., the in
ncrease in
the nummber of houseeholds with tw
wo paid worrkers or a chaange in
the birthh rate or migrration.
3. The avaailability of unemploymen
u nt compensaation that tend
ds to
affect thhe ability and
d desire of thhe unemployeed to keep loooking
for a bettter job.
4. The pacce and the dirrection of tecchnological cchanges.
5. Minimuum wage laws that affect the employaability of teen
nagers
and worrkers with few
w employablle skills.
a time, there are peoplee who quit thheir jobs in seearch of another.
At any
Thiss is one reasoon why econ nomies alwayys experiencee some
unem mployment –job– search. Job search iss the processs of matching g workers
withh appropriatee jobs. If all workers
w and all jobs weree the same so o that all
worrkers were eqqually well su uited for all jobs,
j job seaarch would no ot be a
probblem. Laid-ooff workers would
w quicklyy find new joobs that weree well
suiteed for them. However, in n fact, workeers differ in thheir tastes an
nd skills,
jobss differ in theeir attributes and informaation about joob candidates and job
vacaancies is dissseminated slo owly among the many firrms and housseholds
in thhe economy. Therefore, some s unemployment is innevitable.
Publicc policy
The fact that fricctional and sttructural uneemployment cannot be avvoided is
no reason
r for coomplacency. There are sevveral steps thhat governments can
takee to reduce thhe natural ratte of unemployment. For instance, thee faster
infoormation spreeads about jo ob openings and
a worker aavailability, the
t more
rapidly the econnomy can maatch workers and firms. B Better and mo ore
efficcient governm ment manpower and empployment cenntres can facilitate
f unemployyed workers to find a
job search by redducing the tiime it takes for
job and hence heelp reduce th he economy'ss natural ratee of unemployment.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Unemployment insurance
It is possible that the existence of the unemployment insurance
programmes may have an effect on the unemployment rate. The effect of
such programmes on unemployment rate depends on the replacement
ratio. Replacement ratio is the ratio of the unemployment compensation
(to be paid while unemployed) to after-tax income (while employed). The
higher the ratio, the less urgent it will be to have a job. The presence of
unemployment benefits allows longer job search by raising the
replacement ratio and reducing the urgent need to take a job. A related
point is that in the absence of unemployment benefits, some people might
not be in the labour force. But in order to collect unemployment
compensation, they have to be in the labour force, looking for work even
if they do not really want a job.
Minimum wages
Although minimum wages are not the predominant reason for
unemployment, they have an important effect on certain groups with
particularly high unemployment rates. Figure 4.15 reviews the basic
economics of a minimum wage. When a minimum-wage law forces the
wage to remain above the level that balances supply and demand, it raises
the quantity of labour supplied and reduces the quantity of labour
demanded, compared with the equilibrium level, giving rise to a surplus
of labour. Because there are more workers willing to work than there are
jobs, some workers are unemployed.
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Figu
ure 4.15
Minnimum-wage laws are jusst one reasonn why wages may be too high.
h
There are two otther reasons why wages may
m be kept above the
equiilibrium leveel:
1. Unions and collectiv
ve bargainingg.
2. Efficienncy wages.
Resservation wage
w and efficiency wage
For workers whoo are engageed in the job search
s proceess, reservatiion wage
is thhe wage at which
w acceptin
ng a job offeer has as mucch appeal to workers
w
as reejecting it to stay unemplloyed and prrolong their job search peeriod. At
this wage level, the cost to workers
w of remmaining uneemployed, wh hile
conttinuing their job search, isi equal to thhe benefits off not acceptinng a job
offeer. Therefore, workers wo ould be indiffferent towardds the choicee
betw ween acceptinng and not accepting a joob offer at thhis wage leveel.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Efficiency wage is the level above the reservation wage that firms pay
workers in order to:
1. increase the chances that productive workers will stay with the
firm, and
2. increase the cost to workers of losing their jobs if they are found
shirking.
Costs of unemployment
As individuals, unemployed people suffer both from their income loss
and from the related social problems that long periods of unemployment
cause. Society on the whole loses from unemployment because output is
driven below its potential level.
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Modu
ulesummary
Thiss modulehas offered the basic
b for undderstanding thhe functions of
monney, definitioons of money y supply and the motives for holding money.
m
Youu have been introduced
i to
o various finaancial instituutions, system
m
partiicipants and the implemeentation of monetary
m and fiscal policiies.
Summary Govvernments use monetary policy
p to inflluence spendding and outp put
through interest rates, money y supply and reserves to bbanks for thee
ultim
mate objectivve of monetaary policy of price stabilitty. Governm ments use
eitheer expansionnary or contraactionary staabilisation poolicies to min
nimise
ups and downs inn the businesss cycle. Thee fiscal policy affects speending
and output throuugh taxes and d governmennt purchases.
In thhe following study units, you will be looking at thhe open econ nomy
withh the componnents of balannce of payments accountts, exchange rates
regimmes, foreignn exchange markets,
m interrest rate paritty, internatio
onal trade
and trade policy.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Assignment
1. Explain how a decrease in government expenditures affects the
position of the aggregate-demand curve.
13. What does the size of the crowding-out effect depend upon?
16. What are the two ways a government can finance a budget deficit?
20. Why does a minimum wage have virtually no effect for skilled
workers?
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Module4
Asseessment
1. What is the theory
t of liqu
uidity preferrence? How ddoes it help explain
e
the downward slope of th he aggregatee-demand currve?
A
Assessment 2. Use the theoory of liquidity preferencee to explain hhow a decreaase in
the money suupply affectss the aggregaate-demand ccurve in a cloosed
economy.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
demand?
B. What additional effects follow this initial effect? What is the
total effect of the tax cut on aggregate demand?
C. How does the total effect of this $20 billion tax cut compare
with the total effect of a $20 billion increase in government
purchases? Why?
11. Discuss the ways in which a persistent budget deficit could lead to
inflation.
13. Suppose you are given the following information about your
economy. Public deposits with commercial banks total $600 billion.
Banks hold $6 billion deposits at the central bank and keep $6 billion
ringgit in notes and coins in the vault. There are $120 billion notes
and coins outside bank (in the hands of the public). Calculate:
A. The high-powered money.
B. The money supply.
C. Banks’ reserve ratio.
15. What has inflation been in your country for the last decade? What
have been the determinants of this inflation?
16. Name a developing country that has experienced high inflation and
has been able to implement a successful stabilisation programme.
17. Sketch a diagram consisting of AD, SRAS and LRAS. Assume the
economy starts from a long-run equilibrium point, where all three
curves have a common intersection point.
A. Illustrate the initial effects of an event that increases the
aggregate demand curve.
B. Show what happens beyond the short run. How does the
economy adjust to the long-run equilibrium?
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A. Illusstrate the inittial effects off an event that may causee a cost-
pushh inflation.
B. Showw what happ
pens beyond the short runn. How does the
econnomy adjust to the long-rrun equilibriuum?
19. “Over time, long-run chaanges in aggrregate supplyy are the key y
determinantss of changes in real outpuut”. Evaluatee this statemeent,
using evidennce from the chapter.
20. An economyy with a natu ural rate of unnemploymennt rate of 6 peer cent
and an expeccted inflation
n rate of 5 peer cent a yearr has the folllowing
inflation andd unemploymment history:
Year Inflation ra
ate (%) U
Unemploym ent rate (%)
1998 9 4
1999 7 5
2000 5 6
2001 3 7
2002 1 8
Civiliann population
n 3
30
Employyed 1
15
Unempployed 0
0.5
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
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Asseessment answeers
1. The theory ofo liquidity preference
p is the theory oof demand forr money
in which thee determinants of liquiditty (money) annd alternativ ve forms
of financial assets, such as bonds, aree discussed. This theory holds
g of liquidity is inversely related to the rate of
that the publlic’s holding
n increase in the price levvel reduces th
interest. Acccordingly, an he real
t interest raate to increasse, which in turn
money suppply, causing the
tends to low
wer investmen a hence to lower the ag
nt spending and ggregate
demand.
2. When moneey supply deccreases, interrest rates risee and this cau
uses
investment spending
s and
d hence aggregate spendiing (demand)) to fall.
3. Any time the level of speending increeases, it sets iin motion a chain
c
reaction of further
f spend
ding, giving rise
r to the nootion of ‘spen nding
multiplier.’ Therefore $1
100m fresh spending
s on hhealth will bring
about furtheer spending by
b creating more
m income.
4. Aggregate demand
d decreeases as conssumers and iinvestors witthdraw
from the maarket. In ordeer to offset thhis, an increaase in money
y supply
(lower intereest rate) will be necessaryy. This will kkeep aggregaate
demand intaact.
7. Answers as follows:
A. Monney supply in
ncreases, inteerest rates drrop, and the demand
d
for money
m increases (from point 1 to 2).
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
8. Answers as follows:
A. The interest rate decreases as a result of a fall in money
demand that has been caused by increased use of credit cards.
Investment spending, aggregate spending and aggregate
demand increase.
B. The central bank should reduce money supply to stabilise
aggregate demand.
9. Answers as follows:
A. The initial effect of a tax reduction of $20 billion is an
increase in the disposable income by $20 million and hence
an increase in consumption spending by (¾ x $20b) = $15b.
B. This causes a further increase in income and hence further
spending. At the end, aggregate demand will have risen by
the initial impact times the multiplier:
⎛ ⎞
⎜ $15 x 1 ⎟ = $60
⎜ 1− 3 ⎟
⎝ 4⎠
C. If instead the government spending rose by $20, the total
effect would be
⎛ ⎞
⎜ $20 x 1 ⎟ = $80 . This is the case because
⎜ 1− 3 ⎟
⎝ 4⎠
10. Fine tuning is typically dangerous because of: (a) the complex nature
of the economy, (b) information problem, and (c) lags in
effectiveness of monetary policy.
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14. High unempployment meeans less outpput and (less demand for output,
since there is
i less incom
me). Profits diminish.
d Thhe firms’ sharre prices
in the stock market drop, making it more
m difficullt for the firm
ms to
raise funds or
o to borrow..
16. Argentina
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
283
Goovernment Maccroeconomic Poolicy
econnomy.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Module5
Then you will learn about exchange rate, its determinants and exchange
rates systems. A government’s monetary policy will influence the
exchange rates and hence aggregate demand. You will be introduced
channels of monetary policy in an open economy as opposed to a closed
economy.
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Abso
olute advantage: A couuntry has an absolute
a advantage when n it is
more efficient thann any other ccountry at producing
a prod
duct.
Exch
hange rate: The raate at which one currencyy is converted into
anotheer.
Overrview
Prevvious study modules
m havee simplified economic annalysis by assuming a
clossed economyy but most economies are open. Our loocal econom my is
linkked to the restt of the world through tw wo broad chaannels: trade in goods
and services, andd finance. WeW export gooods and serviices abroad and a we
import goods annd services frrom abroad. We W also borrrow and lend d in
worrld financial markets.
m In fact,
f wenty-first ceentury, national
in the tw
econnomies are becoming
b moore closely innterrelated annd the notion
n of
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Table 5.1
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As you
y can see in i this table, the balance of payments is made up of two
majoor accounts: the current account
a as well
w as the cappital and finaancial
accoount. Moreovver, transactiions in these accounts aree divided intoo two
grouups: receipts and paymen nts. The receiipts represennt monetary inflows
i
to thhe Canadian economy, in ncluding bothh foreign purrchases of Caanadian
expoorts and infloows from forreigners wheen they buy C Canadian finaancial
asseets. Receipts are considerred positive, so they appeear with a plu
us (+)
signn in the accouunts.
Traade in good
ds (merchaandise)
The most signifiicant and obv vious compoonents of the current acco ount are
expoorts and imports of goods: visibles, ass they are knnown. Each year,
y the
peopple of a counntrysell a brooad range of merchandise
m e exports andd buy an
equaally broad raange of merch handise impoorts. In yearss when the
dollarvalue of exxports of visiibles outweigghs that of im mports of vissibles,
the current
c accouunt shows a positive
p merrchandise balance of trad de or a
n years when imports of ggoods outweiigh
tradde surplus. Inn contrast, in
expoorts, the currrent account shows a neggative merchaandise balan nce of
tradde or a trade deficit. Thesse transactionns are structuured on the basis
b of
the double
d bookk
kkeeping prin nciple. For exxample, if yoou sell a goodd abroad,
the proceeds
p from the sale will
w be treatedd as a receiptt (credit) in th
he
currrent account and will app pear with a poositive sign.
Traade in non--merchand
dise
The three remainning invisible componentts of the currrent account:: trade in
servvices, investm
ment income and transferrs are collectively known
n as non-
merrchandise trannsactions.
Servvices
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
The final item, “transfers”, refers to items such as foreign aid or a gift
from family members in one country to family members in another
country. When new immigrants to the country bring funds with them,
these funds are considered an inflow to the economy. In contrast,
government spending on foreign aid is considered an outflow.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
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Exchaange ratess
Anyy transaction that appearss in the balannce-of-paymeents accountss
invoolves tradingg domestic cu urrency for annother currenncy. When we w buy
foreeign goods annd services oro invest in annother counttry, we have to obtain
som
me of that couuntry’s curren ncy to make the transactiion. When fo oreigners
buy domesticallyy produced goods
g and seervices or invvest in their domestic
d
econnomy, they have
h to obtain
n some of thhe home counntry’s curren ncy. We
get foreign
f o domestic currency in the
curreency and foreeigners get our
foreeign exchangge market. Th he global market is made up of thousaands of
peopple: importerrs and exportters, banks and specialistts in the buyiing and
selliing of foreignn exchange called
c foreignn exchange bbrokers. In th he home
counntry’s sector of this mark ket, domesticc currency is exchanged for f major
currrencies such as the U.S. dollar,
d Japaneese yen, Euroopean euro and a other
interrnational currrencies.
E
Exchange Rates
R for 28/008/02
Tab
ble 5.2
As indicated
i in Table
T 5.2, th
here are manyy exchange rrates for a ceertain
currrency. Furtheermore, nomiinal exchangge rates or altternatively, market
m
ratees of exchangge between currencies, arre quoted in ttwo ways:
1. the num
mber of units of foreign cuurrency you ccan get for one
o unit
of domeestic currency
y, or
2. the nummber of units of domestic currency youu can get forr one unit
of foreiggn currency.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
In August 2002, for example, the nominal exchange rate between the
Canadian dollar (C$) and the U.S. dollar (US$) was quoted as either
US$0.64 for one Canadian dollar, or, equivalently, C$ 1.55 for one US
dollar. In this unit, we define the nominal exchange rate as the number of
units of domestic currency you can get for one unit of foreign currency –
the second way – or equivalently, as the price of foreign currency in terms
of domestic currency. This rate will be denoted by E. Accordingly, for
Canada, E, in terms of U.S. dollars, is equal to 1.55 (and not 0.64).
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As is
i customaryy, we will cho oose the U.S. dollar ($) aas the foreignn
currrency. This reelationship can
c be expresssed in as a ccurve as show wn in
Figuure 5.1. As expected,
e thee relationshipp between thee price of thee foreign
currrency and thee quantity off it demandedd is an inversse one.
For example, whhen the pricee of the U.S. dollar ($) drops (appreciation of
the local
l currenccy), there is an
a import efffect: foreigneers can purch hase
U.S.-made goodds and servicees more cheaaply. Apprecciation of thee local
currrency also aff
ffects the demmand for Am merican assetss. The strong ger the
locaal currency, other
o things remaining
r thhe same, the llarger the expected
proffit from buying American n dollars andd the greater tthe quantity of
Cannadian dollarss demanded.
For the two reasons we havee just revieweed, ceteris paaribus, whenn the
exchhange rate rises, the quan
ntity of the U.S.
U dollars ddemanded decreases
and when the exxchange rate falls, the quaantity of the U.S. dollars
dem
manded increaases.
Figu
ure 5.1
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
People and businesses buy financial assets to make a return. The higher
the interest rate that people can make on domestic assets compared to
foreign assets, the more domestic assets they buy. In analysing this issue,
we should be careful not to view each interest rate in isolation. What
matters in deciding which asset to buy is not whether domestic interest
rate (i) is high or low, or whether in fact in has risen or fallen, but rather,
how it compares with the foreign interest rate (i*). The critical question
then is: ‘What is the interest rates differential (i − i*)?’ For example, if
the foreign interest rate rises and the domestic interest rate remains
constant, the interest rate differential (i − i*) decreases. Similarly, if the
foreign interest rate stays constant while the domestic interest rate falls,
the interest rate differential (i – i*) decreases. The smaller this interest
gap (differential), the more attractive foreign assets are and the less
attractive domestic assets become. The smaller the gap, the greater the
demand for foreign assets and thereby, the greater the demand for foreign
dollars in the foreign exchange market. In terms of Figure 5.1, the
demand curve shifts to the right.
Incomes
When prices change, they tend to affect exports and imports. If, for
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exam mple, domesstic prices risse at a faster rate than forreign prices (there
( is a
highher domestic inflation ratte relative to the foreign rrate), a counttry’s
prodducts becomee more expen nsive than fooreign produccts. Citizensw will,
therrefore, buy a lesser quantity of domesstic products and more fo oreign
(Am merican) prodducts, increassing the amoount of foreiggn currency
demmanded. (Theere is a rightw ward shift in the demand curve.) Agaiin, what
mattters in decidiing which prroducts to buuy is not wheether domestiic
inflaation rate is high
h or low, or whether ini it rises or ffalls, but rath
her how
it coompares withh the foreign inflation ratte. In other w words, ‘Whatt is the
inflaation rates diifferential?’
Excchange rate expectation
e s
Sup
pply of forreign curreency (exch
hange)
The supply of thhe foreign cu urrency, in terrms of domeestic currency y, is a
relattionship betwween the pricce of the foreeign currencyy and its quaantity
suppplied in exchhange for ourr own currenncy. The quanntity of a foreeign
currrency supplieed in the foreeign exchangge market is tthe amount that
t
tradders plan to seell during a given
g time peeriod at a givven exchangee rate.
How wever, the exxchange rate is only one factor.
f The qquantity demaanded is
alsoo determined by other facctors includinng:
• Domestiic and foreig
gn interest rattes.
• Domestiic and foreig
gn income.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Again, choosing the U.S. dollar as the foreign currency, the supply
relationship can be expressed as a curve in Figure 5.2. As expected, the
relationship between the price of the currency and its quantity supplied is
a positive one.
People supply U.S. dollars in the foreign exchange market when they buy
other currencies. The reason for this is that U.S. dollars are supplied in
exchange for Canadian dollars to finance foreign purchases of either
Canadian goods and services or Canadian financial assets. When the price
of U.S. dollars rises, it will be cheaper for Americans to buy Canadian
goods, services and assets and hence to supply more U.S. dollars in
exchange for Canada dollars. Therefore, the supply of the U.S. dollar
rises as its price does. The law of supply applies to dollars just as it does
to anything else that people plan to sell.
Figure 5.2
The higher the exchange rate, with all else remaining the same, the
greater the quantity of dollars supplied in the foreign exchange market.
For example, if the price of the U.S. dollar rises from C$1.55 to C$1.60,
but nothing else changes, the quantity of U.S. dollars that people plan to
sell in the foreign exchange market will increase. The reason for the
supply curve’s upward slope can be understood if you consider the fact
that the supply of foreign currency is derived from the demand for
domestic currency, which itself is derived from demand for is underlying
elements. People supply the U.S. dollar in exchange for domestic
currency primarily because of their demand for:
1. domestic goods and services (domestic exports), and
2. domestic assets.
For example, when the price of the U.S. dollar increases (depreciation of
the Canadian dollars), the export effect occurs: it will be cheaper for
Americans to purchase Canadian goods and services. Depreciation of the
C$ also affects the demand for Canadian assets. The weaker the Canadian
dollar with other things remaining the same, the larger the expected profit
from buying Canadian dollars. Therefore, as the Canadian dollar
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deprreciates, the demand for domestic currrency rises aas also does the
suppply of U.S. dollars
d that neeeds to be exxchanged forr it.
Chaanges in th
he supply of dollars
As indicated
i aboove, there aree other factorrs, besides thhe exchange rate, that
influuence the suppply of a foreign currenccy including ddomestic and d foreign
interrest rates, doomestic and foreign
f incomme, etc. While changes in n the
exchhange rate caause a movem ment along thhe demand ccurve, Figuree 5.2,
channges in thesee factors causse the demannd for the currrency to shifft. Let us
noww look at the impact of theese factors.
Inteerest rates
Recall that one of o the determminants of invvestment flow w is the interrest rate
diffe
ferential. If thhe foreign intterest rate risses and the ddomestic inteerest rate
rem
mains constannt, the domestic interest raate differentiial (i – i*) deecreases.
In thhis case, dommestic assets are relativelyy less attracttive than foreeign
asseets, causing thhe demand forf domestic assets to droop. This, in tu urn,
causses the demaand for domeestic currencyy (or the suppply of foreig gn
currrency) to fall. In terms off Figure 5.3, the supply ccurve shifts to the
left.
Inco
omes
Anoother factor thhat determinnes which asssets to buy iss the relative growth
of thhe domestic economy (Y) Y) in comparisson with foreeign income (Y*),
i.e., income diffeerential (Y − Y*). If the differential
d deecreases, thee
dommestic econom my becomes relatively leess attractive and the dem mand for
dommestic assets dwindles. Th his causes thhe demand foor domestic
inveestment oppoortunities to fall
f as well asa the demandd for domesttic
currrency, whichh is equal to the
t supply off the foreign currency in this t two-
currrency situatioon. In terms of
o Figure 5.33, the supplyy curve shiftss to the
left.
Inflaation rates
At any
a given ratte of exchang ge between domestic
d andd the foreign currency
n the price off domestic products relattive to
(the U.S. dollar)), increases in
foreeign (Americcan) productss means that Americans w will purchasee fewer
dommestic produccts, reducing their demannd for domesttic currency.. This fall
in thhe demand foor our currenncy corresponnds to a fall iin the supply
y of the
foreeign currencyy (U.S. dollarr), shown as a leftward shhift in the su
upply
curvve. Again, whhat matters in deciding which
w produccts to buy is how
h
dommestic inflatioon compares with the forreign inflation rate: the inf
nflation
ratees differential.
Excchange rate expectation
e s
Sim
milarly, the hiigher the exp pected future exchange raate, other thin
ngs
rem
maining the saame, the smaaller the expeected profit (in domestic
econnomy) and thhe smaller is the demand for domesticc currency (o or the
smaaller is the suupply of U.S. dollars). Aggain, in termss of Figure 5.2,
5 the
suppply curve shiifts to the lefft.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Recall that in competitive markets, the forces of demand and supply bring
the market to an equilibrium point. Foreign exchange markets are no
exception. Figure 5.3 shows such a situation. When the government
allows the value of its currency to vary (fluctuate), markets for currencies
will move towards equilibrium where the quantity supplied equals the
quantity demanded and there is neither a shortage nor a surplus of a
currency. Such a system of exchange rates where the central bank allows
the exchange rate to be determined by the foreign exchange market is
referred to as a flexible (or floating) exchange rate system.
Figure 5.3
Foreign exchange markets around the world are brought together through
a worldwide computer network. Information flows from dealer to dealer
and the price adjusts second by second to keep buying plans and selling
plans in balance. Foreign exchange markets are indeed very efficient.
What happens is that when a surplus situation is faced –too many sellers
and not enough buyers –the rate is pressured down towards the
equilibrium point, C$1.60. Conversely, when there is a shortage of the
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Chaanges in exchange
e rates
r
As we
w have seenn, several facctors can cauuse a shift in the foreign exchange
e
dem
mand and suppply curves. Let
L us examiine the impacct of some off these
factoors.
Figu
ure 5.4
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
(Canadians) tourists thinking of visiting the U.S., the question is not only
how many U.S. dollars they can get for 1 C$, but also how many goods
their dollar will be able to buy. It does them little good to get more US$
per Canadian dollars if the U.S. dollar prices of goods in the U.S. have
increased proportionately. In the same way, an American firm thinking of
exporting to Canada needs to know not only the nominal exchange rate
but also the price in C$ of Canadian products with which it will have to
compete. This leads us to the construction of real exchange rates, the
price of Canadian goods in terms of American goods.
Consider the case of a McDonald’s Big Mac bought in Canada and a Big
Mac bought in the U.S. In 2002, a Big Mac costs US$2.30 in the United
States and in Canada, it costs C$2.90. The first step would be to convert
this price in US$ to a price in C$. In order to do this, we need the current
rate of exchange, which is assumed to be E = 1.60 (a US$ is worth
C$1.60), so the price of a Big Mac in Canadian dollars is calculated as
follows:
PUSUS × E = PCUS
Here the superscript denotes the country of origin and the subscripts
denotes the currency in which the price is measured, where the subscripts
of US and C denote the U.S. and Canada, respectively.
Therefore, the Canadian dollar price of a U.S. Big Mac in 2002 equals
C$3.68. The second step would be to compute the relative price of a Big
Mac (ratio of the price of the Big Mac) in the two countries:
q = C$3.68/C$2.90 = 1.269.
This equation tells us that, measured in a common currency, the U.S. Big
Mac costs 27 per centmore than the Canadian Big Mac.
But since the United States and Canada produce more Big Macs, we need
to construct a real exchange rate that reflects the relative price of all the
goods produced in the two countries. In order to do this, we must use a
combined prices index instead of an individual price, such as that of a Big
Mac.
Therefore, if Pcan and Pus are, say, the GDP deflator for Canada and the
U.S. respectively, and if E is the nominal exchange rate between C$ and
US$ (C$/US), then
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An increase
i in thhe relative prrice of domeestic goods inn terms of foreign
goodds is called a real apprecciation; a deccrease is callled a real
deprreciation. Thhe word real, as opposed to nominal, indicates thaat we are
noww referring too changes in thet relative price
p of goodds rather thann in the
relattive price off currencies. Given
G our deefinition of thhe real exchaange rate
as thhe price of fooreign goodss in terms of domestic goods, (q = E × Pus/
Pcan), a real apprreciation corrresponds to a decrease inn the real excchange
rate. Similarly, a real depreciation corressponds to an increase in q. q
Study skills
S B. Incrrease in E
C. Redduction in P* (foreign pricce)
D. Incrrease in P
Year E P P*
2001 1.6 1.2 1.5
2002 1.55 1.5 1.7
Solu
utions:
1. B. The real
r exchange rate is defiined as E x P P*/P, where * denotes
the foreign variable.
v Reaal depreciatioon requires thhat this ratio rise.
Only a rise in
i E can do this
t amongst these choicees.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Figure 5.5 illustrates the case of a deficit. This occurs where the
exchange rate if fixed below the equilibrium level, E0. At this rate of
exchange, the central bank has to meet the excess demand by exchanging
foreign currency for domestic currency, Canadian dollars in this case.
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Figu
ure 5.5
As shown
s in Figgure 5.5, therre is an exceess demand fo
for U.S. dollaars at this
fixed rate of excchange (Qd$ – Qs$) whichh, if not remooved, will result in an
incrrease in the exchange
e ratee towards its market valuue, E1. To preevent this
fromm happening,, the Central Bank of Cannada must inntervene by selling
s
U.S. dollars out of its inventories of reserrves in exchaange for its own
o
currrency, C$. Thhis interventiion causes thhe US dollar supply curvee to shift
righhtward. Note,, however, th his is an ongooing operatioon and, if neccessary,
interrvention has to continue.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Suppose the central bank sets a target range: a range that it will attempt,
by intervening in foreign exchange markets, to keep the exchange rate
within. Alternatively, suppose there is a minimum psychological level of
the exchange rate below which if the market rate falls, the market will
expect the central bank to intervene to prop up the currency. In either
case, the central bank will be dealing with a non-clearing level of
exchange rate and, therefore, in its pursuit of its objectives, it will either
face a surplus or a shortage of the foreign currency in foreign exchange
markets. In case of a shortage, the central bank will have to use its stock
of foreign currency reserves and in case of a surplus, it will have to add to
its stock of foreign currency reserves. Either way, these transactions will
appear as changes in the official settlement account.
Y = C + I + G + (X − M) (5)
where the last term on the right-hand side, as you recall, represents the net
exports, NX, or the trade account balance. To have a better understanding
of how net exports affect the economy, first let us examine the
determinants of (X − M).
Current account
As you know, the current account balance (CAB) is defined as:
Net exports
The key determinants of exports and imports are the exchange rates (or
more precisely real exchange rates), domestic and foreign incomes. A
real exchange rate appreciation, for example, makes our exports more
expensive to foreigners and our imports cheaper to domestic consumers,
thereby decreasing our net exports. This decrease, in turn, has a negative
impact on the aggregate demand curve. Similarly, real exchange rate
depreciation–by making our exports cheaper and our imports more
expensive –causes aggregate demand to rise.
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dom
mestic incomee increases our
o imports and
a hence redduces aggreg gate
dem
mand, whereaas an increasee in foreign income
i (by iincreasing ou
ur
expoorts) raises aggregate
a dem
mand.
From
m a differentt perspectivee, net exportss are determinned by the
goveernment buddget and private saving annd investmennt. To see ho ow net
expoorts are deterrmined accorrding to this view, we neeed to rearran
nge
equaation (1) as follows:
f
Y − C − G − I = NX
As we
w did in Moodule3, defin
ne disposablee income (YD
D) as incomee (Y)
minnus taxes (T):
YD = Y––T (7)
By substituting
s i the above equation
in
(YD + T)
T – C − G − I = NX
or,
(YD − C)
C + (T − G) − I = NX
(Sp – I) + (T − G) = NX (8)
Thiss equation shhows the relaationship betw ween the three balances.
Acccordingly, net exports equ ual the sum ofo the governnment surplus and the
privvate surplus. It is also truee that net expports plus deebt interest (aand other
smaall transfers) equals the cu urrent accounnt balance. T The question that
arisees is: “What is the relatio
onship over time
t betweenn net exports (or
currrent account balance) and d the governm ment budget balance?”
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
a deeper deficit when the government budget goes into a deeper deficit.
Because of this tendency, they have been called twin deficits.
S − I = NX (9)
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onlyy reason whyy all the monney in New YorkY does not fly to Toronto is the
posssibility of exchange rate changes
c in thhe future (whhile all the money
m is
depoosited in Torronto) in a diirection that might
m wipe oout the 2 perr cent
interrest advantagge that Toronnto has over New York.
Adjuusted for riskk of exchangge rate changges (exchangee risk), intereest rate
parity always prrevails. Fund ds move to geet the highestt return availlable.
Suppose that savving depositss in Toronto pay 5 per ceent return as opposed
o
to 3 per cent paid to similar deposits
d in New
N York. This time, how wever,
assuume that Cannadian dollar is expected to depreciatee by 1 per ceent. A
quicck comparisoon indicates that
t it is advaantageous too deposit mon ney in
Toroonto. Therefofore, funds flo
ow into Toroonto’s markeet. For the few w
secoonds that thiss opportunity
y lasts – a siggn that in effi
ficient markeets,
proffits disappearr very quicklly – the demaand for Canaadian dollarss rises
and the exchangge rate rises, causing
c it to appreciate uuntil the expeected
ratess of return arre equal.
Hig
gh exchang
ge rates (lo
ow currenccy values))
A loow target ratee for our dommestic currenncy makes ouur exports ch heap and
imports more exxpensive. Thiis policy stim mulates expoort revenues and
a
inhibits import spending,
s theereby increassing net expoorts. Thereforre, by
initiiating a drop in the value of the currenncy, the centtral bank can
n help
incrrease net exports and hence aggregatee demand. Heence, raising g the
exchhange rate (ddepreciation)) serves as ann expansionaary policy. Bo oth real
outpput and emplloyment are boosted
b and any recessioonary gap thaat exists
is reeduced.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Despite these risks, a policy of high exchange rates has sometimes been
pursued with success. In the past, for example, countries such as Taiwan
and South Korea have depressed the values of their currencies as a way of
encouraging export-driven growth. Evidence of this strategy was found in
their large holdings of foreign currency which resulted from the balance-
of-payments surpluses associated with a high exchange rate policy. More
recently, the evidence from Latin America indicates that Argentina,
which had until lately fixed its peso against the U.S. dollar, suffered a
tremendous economic crisis mainly because its exports were driven out of
competition by its strong currency relative to the currencies of its
immediate neighbours who had experienced significant depreciation
during the economic crisis of year 1997.
Interest rates themselves are normally determined by the demand for and
supply of money (see Modules3 and 4). However, it is the central bank
that influences the supply of money (and consequently the exchange rate)
through its monetary policy.
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We can gain an understandin ng of PPP byy looking at tthis theory frrom the
persspective of a single good that is produuced in two ddifferent cou untries.
Recall the exam mple of a McD Donald’s Bigg Mac sold inn Canada and d in the
U.S. In that illusstration, we assumed
a thatt in year 20022, a Big Macc costs
US$$2.30 in the U.S.
U while itt was sold forr C$2.90 in C Canada. We also
assuumed that E = 1.60 (a US S$ is worth C$1.60)
C so that the Canad
dian
dollar price of a U.S. Big Maac equals C$$3.68 (US$2..30 × 1.60). The T
relattive price off a big Mac (rreal exchangge rate, q) equuals C$3.68//C$2.90
= 1.269. This eqquation tells usu that, meassured in a com mmon curren ncy, the
U.S. Big Mac coosts 26.9 per cent more thhan the Canaadian Big Maac.
Eviddently, the twwo monies do o not have thhe same valuue.
If, however,
h we were to calcculate the relaative Big Maac price using g 1.269
as thhe exchange rate, this relative price would
w be equual to 1. The situation
we have
h just desscribed is callled purchasiing power paarity, which means
equaal value of money.
m In thiss example, thhe PPP level of the nominnal
exchhange rate is the level thaat would makke the real exxchange ratee (the
relattive price) eqqual 1.
Marrket forces prrevent the ex xchange rate from moving too far from m PPP or
from
m remaining away from PPP P indefinittely. Howeveer, pressures to move
to PPP
P work slow wly. There area several reeasons for sloow movemen nt
towaards PPP. Thhe first reaso on is that marrket baskets ddiffer across
counntries. The seecond reason n for slow movement tow wards PPP is that
therre are many barriers
b to the movement of goods bettween countrries.
Somme are naturaal barriers –trransportationn costs are onne obvious ex xtra cost
–whhile others (taariffs, for exaample) are immposed by ggovernments.
Sommetimes movvement of fin nal goods is not
n enough: w workers and capital
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
If the deficit is used to purchase capital equipment that will enhance the
country’s future earning capacity, running a deficit might make good
economic sense. The deficit should then be financed by long-term capital
inflows through the public or private sectors. When the time comes for
the accumulated debt to be serviced and repaid, spending will have to fall
below the value of domestic production. However, if the deficit is used to
finance imports of consumers goods, running a deficit make no sense and
the deficit will become unmanageable and the growing debt may never be
serviced — and worse still, never be repaid. The problems associated
with a situation such as this can be presented in the following categories.
1. As the current account worsens, foreign indebtedness increases
and ‘country risk’ ratings are expected to increase. Country credit
ratings are compiled regularly by international banks and by
financial service companies. Highly indebted countries with poor
scores on credit ratings generally have to pay high rates of
interest for further credits. The more these countries rely on
foreign creditors, the greater is the country’s exposure to the
volatility of international capital markets. Furthermore, if the
creditors lose confidence in the debtor country, the supply of
capital can dry up regardless of the interest rate paid by the debtor
nation. There are numerous examples of such a collapse of
creditor confidence amongst heavily indebted developing
countries, such as Mexico, Indonesia and Brazil.
2. The loss of confidence can lead to excessively large devaluations
of the exchange rate, which involves both loss of real income and
inflationary repercussions that only add to the problems of the
deficit country. A best example to illustrate this would be Turkey.
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Corrrective po
olicy options
Whaat can be donne to tackle the
t problemss of chronic ddeficits and
surppluses? The following
f secction discussses policy opptions availab
ble to
goveernments.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
The reality, however, is that these types of policies tend to create frictions
with the trading partners and are rarely an efficient way of rectifying a
balance of payment crisis.
Causes and implications of trade deficits
There are a few reasons that account for large trade deficits. First, a
country is growing more rapidly than the economies of its trading
partners. The strong growth of the country (means high growth of
income) enables the people to buy more imported goods and services.
Hence, the total volume of its imports is higher than its exports. Secondly,
the large trade deficits may be caused by the frequent rise of the oil price
in the international market. If a country imports a large proportion of its
oil, rising prices tend to aggravate trade deficits. Finally, the declining of
a country’s saving rate (measured as saving divided by total income) may
also contribute to the large trade deficits. For example, if saving rate is
decreased while the investment rate remains the same, or even increased,
then the difference or gap between saving rate and investment rate will be
met via foreign purchases of the country’s real and financial assets. This
leads to a large capital and financial capital surpluses. This is because the
foreign investors or savers are willingly financing a larger portion of their
investment, people of the country will be able to save less than otherwise
and consume more. Part of that added consumption spending is on
imported goods and services.
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officcial reserves. Recall that trade deficitts are financeed primarily by net
repaayments of fooreign curren ncies to a couuntry. Whenn the exports of the
counntry are not sufficient
s to finance its im
mports, the ccountry increeases
bothh its debt to people
p abroaad and the vaalue of foreiggn claims agaainst
asseets in the couuntry. Hence,, financing of the countryy trade deficiits has
yieldded a larger foreign accu umulation of claims againnst the country’s real
and financial asssets than the country’s claims againstt foreign asseets. For
exammple, in 2006, foreignerss have ownedd about US$22.5 trillion more m U.S.
asseets (such as laand, corporaations, stockss, bonds, loann notes, etc.) than
U.S. citizens andd institutionss owned in fooreign assetss. If the Uniteed States
wannts to regain ownership
o off these domeestic real andd financial asssets, it
will have to export more than n it imports at
a some futuure times. In this
t
situaation, domesstic consump ption will be lower as the United Statees will
needd to export more
m of its ou
utput abroad than it receivves as imporrts.
Internaational trrade
The rapid growtth of foreign trade and invvestment flows and the resulting
spreead of internaational busin
ness and markkets are part of a trend kn
nown as
globbalisation. Markets
M are no
o longer conntained withinn national
bounndaries. Every day you rely on peoplle from arounnd the world, whom
you do not know w, to provide you with gooods and servvices that you u enjoy.
Suchh interdepenndence is possible because people tradde with one another.
a
Somme countries such as Belg gium and Cannada are morre dependentt on
interrnational tradde whereas some
s show leess reliance oon trade (thee U.S.
and Japan). Nonnetheless, eveery country, regardless off its size, deppends to
som
me extent on other
o econommies and is innfluenced byy events outsiide its
bordders.
Why do
d countrries tradee?
The most straighhtforward an nswer to this question is thhat trade brin ngs
signnificant econoomic gains to o all parties engaged
e in itt. It increases
prodduction by alllowing speccialisation in products in w which a coun ntry is
commpetitive, it inncreases variiety for consumers and itt promotes
commpetition.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
If each trading partner specialises in the product for which it has absolute
advantage, everyone can benefit. The lawyer should specialise in
practicing law and the secretary in typing. This way, the volume of
production increases beyond the levels that would have been achieved if
each party were confined to self-sufficiency and forced to produce
everything. The gains from specialisation can be alternatively explained
in the context of productivity and saved resources. Since each partner can
produce one product more efficiently (using fewer resources than the
other), specialisation allows trading partners to save resources.
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X Y
Hom
me (H) 2 5
Foreeign (F) 20 10
Tab
ble 5.3 Labour content of
o one unit of
o output of X or Y
X Y
Hom
me (H) 2/5 = 0.4 5/2 = 2.5
Tab
ble 5.4 Oppoortunity costts of X and Y
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Note that the above conclusion is reached despite the fact in our example
Home is assumed to have an absolute advantage in both X and Y. Thus,
as Ricardo showed us, the pattern of trade is not determined by absolute
advantage but relative advantage, otherwise Home would have been
found exporting both products and not just X. In other words, although
Foreign has an absolute disadvantage in both X and Y, its margin of
disadvantage (deficiency) is smaller in Y than in X and hence relatively
speaking, it has a relative (comparative) advantage in Y. Similarly,
Home’s margin of advantage in Y is smaller than that in X; therefore,
Home has a relative advantage in X.
The important point is that specialisation and trade can benefit all trading
partners; even those that may be inefficient producers in an absolute
sense. If markets are competitive and if foreign exchange markets are
linked to goods-and-services exchange, countries will specialise in
producing those products in which they have a comparative advantage.
Terms of trade
We have established the fact that both nations benefit from trade. A
question that arises is how the benefits of trade are shared between
nations. The answer is that distribution of gains depends on the
international price of products, theterms of trade. Terms of trade are the
international price of one product in terms of another product. Terms of
trade must be set in such a way that they are beneficial to both trading
sides or otherwise, there will not be an incentive to trade. In other words,
the rate at which a country will end up selling its exports for an imported
product must be at least equal to or better than the rate that country can
exchange the same two goods internally –its opportunity cost –in the
absence of trade. In terms of the example above, in order for Home to
export one unit of X, it must be able to import at least 0.4 units of Y;
otherwise, the trade is not beneficial to Home. The reason for this is that
in Home, one unit of X exchanges for 0.4 units of Y in the pre-trade
situation.
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or
The actual termss of trade aree then set by the international demand d for
eachh product. Thhe closer the final internaational price is to Home’ss
maller the gaains from tradde for Home and the
oppoortunity costt (0.4), the sm
larger the gains for Foreign. Conversely, the closer thhe internation nal price
is too Foreign’s opportunity’s
o s cost (2), thee larger the ggains for Hom
me and
the smaller
s the gains
g for Foreign.
Solu
utions:
1. A. Homme can simply y produce moore milk thann Foreign. Home has
an absollute disadvan
ntage in banaanas only, soo B is wrong.. A
country cannot havee relative advvantage in booth goods, an
nd thus C
and D arre wrong.
2. A. The opportunity
o cost
c of one liitre milk is thhe quantity of
o
bananass to be sacrifiiced. To prodduce one litree of milk, Ho
ome
needs 1//12 unit (hou
urs) of labourr work to be transferred from
f the
moving 1/12 hours of worrk from banaanas
other sector. But rem
causes a loss of 5/12
2 kg of banannas. Remembber that one hourh of
work in Bananas pro oduces 5 unitts, therefore,, 1/12 hours of
o work
producees 5/12 units.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Solution:
Trade policy
Having covered the basic economics of international trade, you are now
prepared to think about trade policy more directly. The next step is to go
over the main instruments of trade policy. The most common objective of
trade policy is to restrict imports. Trade policies are forms of protection
by which some sectors of the economy are shielded from foreign
competition. Trade policies, sometimes called trade barriers or trade
obstacles, take many forms. The most common trade policies are tariffs,
export subsidies and quotas, but there are other forms as explained below.
The most common non-tariff barrier is the quota. A quota is a limit on the
quantity of imports and is usually implemented by means of licences.
These licences are obtained by importers from the government, normally
for a price (creating revenue) or governments grant them an allowance to
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brinng in a speciffic number off units of gooods. Import qquotas can work
w in
two ways.
A goovernment can impose an n import quoota itself or itt can ask foreeign
prodducers to set their own vooluntary quotas, which arre known as
voluuntary exportt restraints (V
VERS). Now wadays, mostt quotas are foundf in
agricultural sectors and textiile industries. The differeence between n quotas
and VERs is thaat unlike ordiinary quotas, VERs do noot generate reevenue
for the
t governm ment, nor can they be giveen to domestiic importers.
The term adminiistrative barriers refers to t the cost off filling in forrms,
lininng up at customs offices, waiting to get
g permissioon to export, and all
the other
o adminiistrative proccedures that make
m it hardder (and moree costly)
to exxport rather than
t to produuce and sell locally. Whiile it is difficcult to
meaasure the effeects of adminnistrative barrriers to tradee, many smalll
busiiness people argue that su uch barriers are
a a seriouss impedimentt.
How wever, a few complications persist. Fiirst, even if w we agree thatt free
tradde is the best policy for th
he world as a whole, it dooes not follow w that
everry country faaces a unilateeral incentivee to avoid traade barriers. In fact,
mucch of the inteernational con nflict over trrade policy reeflects an atttempt by
one country to gain
g from inteerventionist trade policy at the expen nse of
otheer countries. From the nattionalist pubblic interest ppoint of view w, it might
be defensible
d to pursue a pollicy whose principle
p effect is to transfer
beneefits from othher countriess. Nonetheless, particularr cases of traade
prottection can be defended with
w either ecconomic or nnon-economiic
arguuments.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Second, the prescription that free trade is the best policy does not hold
perfectly. Especially in the presence of economies of scale and imperfect
competition, there are potential benefits to be obtained from intervention.
The following is a list of rationales for trade policy.
1. Raising revenue.
2. Improving a country’s terms of trade through monopoly tariffs (to
exploit monopoly power in world markets).
3. Increasing employment.
4. Protecting a country’'s safety standards and shielding domestic
workers from imports produced by cheap foreign labour.
5. The ‘infant industry’ argument for protection.
6. Non-economic objectives (military or cultural objectives).
Tariffs have been traditionally the most popular tool of trade policy. In
recent years, however, this tool has lost its usefulness because of the
world economy’s progress towards further trade liberalisation both under
the World Trade Organization (WTO) and through the growing number
of regional trading blocs. Nonetheless, one reason for many countries,
especially developing countries, to employ tariffs has been its revenue
implication for the government. Tariffs generate revenue for governments
in the same way that taxes do.
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An infant
i industtry is made of
o domestic producers
p thaat are young and far
fromm establishedd compared to t foreign com mpetitors. Thhese industriies are
inexxperienced annd often too small to be ablea to comppete on a glob bally
baseed volume annd scale. Theerefore, theirr governmentts may try to o protect
prodducers behind tariff barriers until theyy have maturred, gained
expeerience and thet necessary y scale of prooduction to bbe left alone. The
trouuble is that noormally goveernments havve difficulty in identifyin ng
prodducers that qualify
q for theese protectivve measures. Furthermoree, a
natioon’s efforts to
t help its owwn industriess are also couuntered by siimilar
meaasures by its trade
t partnerrs –trade retaaliation.
Activvity 5.1
If soome countriees are so keen
n to reduce barriers
b to traade, why do many
m
otheers frequentlyy attempt to erect
e barrierss?
Activity
Trad
de agreemen
nts and trad
de liberalisattion
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
The founding and guiding principles of WTO remain the pursuit of open
borders, the guarantee of most-favoured-nation principle and non-
discriminatory treatment by and among countries members, and a
commitment to transparency in the implemention of its activities. The
opening of national markets to international trade, with justifiable
exceptions or with adequate flexibilities, will encourage and contribute to
sustainable development, increase people’s welfare, reduce poverty, and
foster peace and stability. At the same time, such market opening must be
accompanied by sound domestic and international policies that contribute
to economic development according to each member's needs and
aspirations.
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Modu
ule sum
mmary
In thhis moduleyoou learned:
Wheen currency is i not alloweed to vary (fixxed exchangge rates), theccentral
bankk must intervvene in the fo
oreign exchaange market tto preventthee
exchhange rate froom changing g. This is donne by the cenntral bank’sd
drawing
Summary on itts supply of foreign
f exch
hange reservees.A central bbank can inteervene in
the foreign
f exchange markett to smoothennfluctuationss in its nation nal
currrency. When this is done, the centralbbank is said to be involveed in
mannaging its currrency (manaaged float).
Net exports (the trade balancce) are equal to the goverrnment sectorrbalance
pluss the private sector
s balancce.In a worldd of freely flooating exchaange
ratess, problems relating
r to baalanceof payments are unnlikely to surrface.
Impending deficcits or surpluses,if not maatched by offfsetting capittal flows,
will bring about exchangeratte fluctuationns which willl neutralise the
threaatened imballance.
Exchhange rate flluctuations may,
m howeverr, raise difficculties for
theaauthorities noo less acute th
han the balannce of paymeents
diffiicultiesexperrienced by coountries withh a fixed exchhange rate reegime.
Facttors that shift
ft the demand d and supply curves for a particularcu urrency
and the equilibriium point aree inflation differences,intterest rates
diffeerences, incoome growth differences
d a exchangeerates expecttations.
and
Defiicit countriess can ease theeir balance of
o payments bby curbing
netggovernment spending
s or encouraging
e saving. Surpplus countries
cansstimulate impport demand and reduce the t surplus thhrough
expaansionarybuddget policies. These are referred
r to ass expendituree-
channging policiees.Expenditure-switchingg policies refe fer to price in
ncentives
designed toinducce a switch in n spending between
b tradeed and non-ttraded
gooddsand services. Two such h policies aree: commerciaal policy and d
exchhangerate changes.
The theory of coomparative ad dvantage proovides the rattionale for frree
tradee.Ricardo shhowed that bo oth trading partners
p couldd benefit
from
mspecialisatioon in the goo od in which they
t have thee
commparativeadvaantage.Comp parative advaantage hinges on the notiion of
oppoortunity costt.The Hecksccher-Ohlin thheorem buildds on the theo ory of
commparativeadvaantage by foccusing on thee different faactor endowm ments
ofcoountries.Tarifffs, quotas an
nd export subbsidies are examples of trade
t
barrriers.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Assignment
1. What is the exchange rate and how is it determined?
2. What are the influences of interest rates and the expected future
exchange rate on the demand for, and supply of dollars as well as the
actual exchange rate in the foreign exchange market?
3. How do purchasing power parity and interest rate parity affect
Assignment exchange rate expectations?
4. How can the Bank of Canada influence the foreign exchange market?
5. What is the current account and what is the capital account? What is
the relationship between these two accounts?
6. How is a current account deficit financed?
7. What is real exchange rate? How is it calculated?
8. What causes a real appreciation of a currency?
9. What are the long-run determinants of the exchange rates?
10. What is the purchasing power parity rate of exchange?
11. What is a “managed floating rates of exchange” system?
12. How does the central bank maintain a fixed exchange rate?
13. What is a devaluation? What is a revaluation? How are they different
from a depreciation and appreciation?
14. How does monetary policy influence the exchange rate, aggregate
demand and output?
15. What are expenditure changing and exchange rate switching policies?
16. What is comparative advantage?
17. Why does trade benefit all trading parties?
18. What are terms of trade and how are they related to the concept of
real exchange rates?
19. Name the trade barriers that are commonly used in your country.
20. List the advantages and disadvantages of trade protection.
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Asseessment
1. In what wayys do importss affect your life? (Think of imported
d goods or
services thatt you have ussed recently.)
2. Which of thee following goods
g and seervices are traadable, and which
w are
not? In eachh case, explaiin your answ
wer briefly.
A
Assessment
A. Carss
B. Com
mputers
C. Hairrcuts
D. Resttaurant meals
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
Quantity of US
Price of US dollars Quantity of US
Dollars Supplied
(in Yorktonia’s Dollars Demanded ($
($ billions per
currency) billions per year)
year)
0.1.70 75 35
0.1.65 65 45
0.1.60 55 55
0.1.55 45 65
0.1.50 35 75
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Item
m ((Billions of H$)
H
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
11. Suppose that it takes five French francs to buy one Canadian
dollar, the price level in France is 1.2, and the price level in
Canada is 1.5.
A. What is the real exchange rate between Canada and France
(the price of French goods in terms of Canadian goods)?
[Hint: First, calculate the nominal exchange rate as the price
of a franc in dollars.]
B. What would happen to the real exchange rate if the dollar
rose to eight French francs?
C. Comparing your answers in parts (a) and (b), is this a real
appreciation or a real depreciation of the dollar? What is the
percentage?
12. Suppose that the interest rate in Home country (H) is 5 per cent,
the interest rate in Foreign country (F) is 1 per cent, the current
nominal exchange rate, H$ (Home dollar) price of a F$ (Foreign
dollar) is 0.01 and the expected nominal exchange rate next year
is 0.011.
A. How many H$ would a resident of Home country expect to
earn for each Home dollar invested in Foreign bonds for one
year?
B. Ignoring risk and transaction costs, should a Home resident
prefer to invest in Home or Foreign bonds?
C. What is the expected rate of appreciation or depreciation of
the Home dollar?
13. Under what circumstances could a country simultaneously have a
balance of trade surplus and a current account deficit?
14. How would you explain the rapid growth in capital account
transactions relative to merchandise trade transactions in recent
years?
15. What, if anything, does the fact that a country has a current
account surplus tell us about the strength of that economy?
16. How would you define balance of payments disequilibrium?
Discuss some of the economic forces that tend to automatically
restore the balance of payments to equilibrium.
17. What are some arguments that could be made for and against the
use of strategic trade policy?
18. Which of the following is correct? Tariffs and quotas are
economically inefficient because
A. The government does not collect any revenues under a tariff.
B. Imports rise, and this reduces the welfare of consumers.
C. Producers are saved from the pressure of foreign competition.
D. Domestic prices must be reduced.
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
19. Home—
A. has absolute advantage in the production of cloth.
B. has an absolute advantage in the production of wheat.
C. has a comparative advantage in the production of cloth.
D. should export cloth to Foreign.
20. The opportunity cost of one cubic metre of wheat in Foreign is
A. 1/2 metre of cloth.
B. 2 metres of cloth.
C. 6 metres of cloth.
D. 12 metres of cloth.
21. Which of the following statements is wrong?
A. Foreign has an absolute advantage in wheat.
B. Home should export wheat to Foreign and import cloth form
Foreign.
C. The opportunity cost of wheat is twice as high in foreign as in
Home.
D. The opportunity cost of a metre of cloth in Home is one cubic
metre of wheat.
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Module5
Asseessment answeers
1. Imports aree important in
n that they arre consumer items that arre
produced ellsewhere. Consumption per capita iss the best measure of
well-being and the standdard of living of a nationn. Also, impo orts offer
not only prooduct variety
y for differennt tastes but aalso, at timess, better
quality thann those produ
uced domestiically.
2. Answers arre:
A. Traddeable.
B. Traddeable. Bothh A and B arre the same inn this respectt,
becaause transacttion costs andd barriers to trade are nott
insuurmountable.
C. C annd D are imp possible to trade since traansaction cossts of
travvelling to a diifferent counntry to get a hhaircut or din
ne, as
welll as transactiion costs of importing thee service of thet
hairrcutter and th
he restaurant meal, are prrohibitive.
3. The answerr is a function
n of your couuntry of choiice.
4. Answers arre:
A. Impport of fabrics is an imporrt of goods (ggoods or
merrchandise acccount) and iss a source of payment.
B. Thee payment off interest by the
t governmeent is a curreent-
accoount transacttion under the net flow off investment income
and is classified as a paymennt.
C. Travvelling abroaad is a servicce account traansaction and
da
paymment.
D. Sending funds to o relatives abbroad is a traansfer item an
nd
classified as a paayment.
5. Answers arre:
A. A fooreign compaany opening a chain of sttores in yourr country
is a foreign direcct investmennt and classifi
fied as a receipt, from
yourr perspectivee.
B. Thee purchase off 1,000 shares of Microsooft is a portfo
olio
trannsaction and a payment.
C. An American
A pu
urchasing your governmeent securitiess is a
porttfolio investm
ment and a reeceipt.
D. A fooreign takeov
ver of your newspaper
n is a foreign dirrect
inveestment and a receipt.
E. Opeening an acco
ount in a Eurro bank is a pportfolio inveestment
and a payment, from
f your peerspective.
6. Answers arre:
A. Currrent Account
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
B. E = $1.60
C. At 1.65 there will be an excess supply of US$, AB.
D. Yorktonia faces a surplus, at this rate of exchange, of $20
billion.
E. At 1.65 rate of exchange, the excess supply of $20 billion
will appear as (−20 billion) in the official reserves account.
8. Answers are:
A. As interest rates rise, capital flows into the domestic
economy from abroad, indicating an increase in supply of
foreign currency. This causes a decrease in the exchange rate
(an appreciation of domestic currency).
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C5 Economic Environment of Business
B.
1 .2 1
1 .5
x( )
8
= .1
⎛ E e −E ⎞
C. ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 10% .
⎝ E ⎠
13. CA balance = Trade balance + net inflow of investment income.
Therefore, CA balance can be negative (deficit) despite a trade
surplus if the second term on the right-hand side shows a deficit
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