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INVITED REVIEW Qualitative Research in N
INVITED REVIEW Qualitative Research in N
INVITED REVIEW
Qualitative research in nutrition and dietetics:
data collection issues
A. Draper* & J. A. Swift
*Centre for Public Health Nutrition, School of Integrated Health, University of Westminster, London, UK
Division of Nutritional Sciences, School of Biosciences, The University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK
Keywords Abstract
data collection, dietetics, food, nutrition,
purposive sampling, qualitative research, The wide scope of qualitative enquiry presents the researcher with a number of
reflexivity. choices regarding data collection and sampling. Selecting data collection and
sampling techniques can therefore be somewhat daunting, particularly because,
Correspondence often, there is no single, universally accepted ‘correct’ option. Appropriate
Dr J. A. Swift, Division of Nutritional Sciences,
research methods are, however, crucial to ensure high-quality research. This
School of Biosciences, The University of
Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus,
review, the second in the series, provides an overview of the principal tech-
Loughborough, Leicestershire LE12 5RD, UK. niques of data collection and sampling that may be used for qualitative
Tel.: +44 (0)115 951 6178 research in nutrition and dietetics. In addition, it describes a process for choos-
Fax: +44 (0)115 951 6122 ing appropriate data collection and sampling methods that considers the extent
E-mail: [email protected] to which they provide data that answers the research question(s) and are com-
patible with the philosophical assumptions about ontology, epistemology and
doi:10.1111/j.1365-277X.2010.01117.x methodology that underpin the overall design of a study. Finally, it discusses
the central role that the researcher plays in qualitative data collection and
encourages researchers to acknowledge and reflect upon their impact on the
data. Other reviews in this series provide a model for embarking on a qualita-
tive research project in nutrition and dietetics, an overview of the principal
techniques of data analysis and quality assessment of this kind of research, and
some practical advice relevant to nutrition and dietetics, along with glossaries
of key terms.
rather different; it is driven by the goal of finding mani- working through ‘gatekeepers’ such as community leaders
festations of particular theoretical constructs that emerge (Green & Thorogood, 2004).
from early analysis (Coyne, 1997). Theoretical sampling Obtaining informed consent is a vital part of the recruit-
originates from Grounded Theory and suggests that ment process. This normally involves producing informa-
sampling should be continued until no new data or tion sheets that fully describe the study and offering
properties relating to the construct(s) of interest emerge; potential participants the opportunity to discuss their
a situation referred to as theoretical saturation (Glaser, involvement with a member of research team. However, the
1992). Convenience and snowball sampling are also used need to explain the nature and purpose of a study fully may
in qualitative research, although they are conceptually conflict with the researchers’ desire not to lead participants
distinct in that they rely on chance or opportunity (e.g. to express certain, socially desirable view points. Organisa-
the first person who comes into a clinic) or social net- tions such as The Department of Health (2006) recommend
works to generate a sample. Although sometimes criti- payment to research participants as a way of acknowledging
cised for lacking intellectual credibility (e.g. Marshall, the value of their contributions and suggests that it does
1996), they can sometimes be the only practical option not influence the independence of their views. Others, how-
particularly when working with vulnerable and hard-to- ever, suggest that paying participants should not be auto-
reach populations. matically regarded as unproblematic (Head, 2009), and that
One of the biggest challenges for qualitative researchers the impact of making such payments in qualitative research
is sample size. Unfortunately, power calculations cannot should be reflected upon during data interpretation (Cook
be employed during protocol development to calculate & Nunkoosing, 2008; Head, 2009).
what will be an adequate sample size. Instead, an ade-
quate sample size is one that is large enough to answer
Texts and documents
the research question but not so large that the amount of
data prohibits in-depth analyses (Sandelowski, 1995). As Again, texts or documents can be sampled using either
Patton (2002) notes, meaningful case studies can be con- representative or purposive sampling strategies with the
ducted with a sample size of one, although nutrition and choice depending on the research question and, to some
dietetics has yet to embrace this methodology and it is degree, the types of documents or texts that are being
more usual to see sample sizes in double figures (e.g. used (Green & Thorogood, 2004). For example, a sample
Sobal, 2001). Generally, the broader the phenomenon of medical case notes could be randomly selected to ana-
under study, the larger the sample is required. Although lyse and describe a particular group of people’s experi-
the required size of the sample is something that will only ences. Alternatively, if conducting historical research or
become clear as the study progresses, research funding perhaps a policy analysis, some form of purposive sam-
bodies and ethics committees may demand clarification pling will be more appropriate. Ethical issues relating to
before the study commences. Indicators of what might be access and confidentiality and the Data Protection Act
adequate sample sizes could be those used in similar types will govern the identification and use of internal reports
of high-quality, published studies or evidence-based rec- or documentation of some organisations, although the
ommendations. For example, Guest et al. (2006) have Freedom of Information Act could be used to gain access
demonstrated that theoretical saturation can be achieved to and use of government documents.
within the first six interviews.
Having decided on the rationale for selecting particular
Choosing the most appropriate method of data
people to include in the research, how to access and
collection
recruit participants next needs to be considered. In part,
this will be related to the overall sampling strategy. If, for Each data collection technique generates different kinds
example, it has been decided to purposively select people of data and provides different kinds of insights, so that
who are users of a particular service or clinic, then there the choice of method requires careful analysis of the
may be a sampling frame (i.e. a formal list of the eligible research question and the type of information required to
and accessible population) that can be used. For other answer this (Hudelson, 1994). Unfortunately, this ques-
studies, finding ways to actually identify and approach tion tends to be answered the other way around; a phe-
potential participants can be more difficult for a range of nomenon termed ‘methods in search of a problem’
reasons, including language and literacy skills, feelings of (Robson, 2002). A useful guide is Robson’s (2002) (modi-
alienation and suspicion, and time demands. Qualitative fied) rules of thumb for selecting data collection tech-
researchers therefore often have to work hard to be inclu- niques which are:
sive (e.g. Luck & Rose, 2007; Lawson et al., 2008). As l To find out what people do in public use direct
mentioned above, snowball sampling can be useful as can observations
l To find out what people do in private use interviews utilise an insider–outsider heuristic (Hellawell, 2006). As
or questionnaires well as the impact of the researcher on the research pro-
l To find out what they think, feel and/or believe use cess, the researcher may be negatively influenced by the
interviews research, particularly if the subject is of a sensitive or
In addition, many qualitative researchers work within emotional nature (Malacrida, 2007).
particular strategies of inquiry which vary in the extent to Interviews can be seen as a form of guided conversation
which they promote the use of particular data collection (Lofland & Lofland, 1995) and, as such, they require skills
methods or sampling techniques (Swift & Tischler, 2010). in social interaction. Healthcare professionals who have
For example, Narrative Analysis is conducted on individual received training in communication skills and have expe-
interview data or existing documents such as published rience of eliciting information from a range of clients
memoirs, whereas Grounded Theory is compatible with may therefore be at an advantage compared to other nov-
individual interviews, focus groups, observation, diaries, ice qualitative researchers. The interviewer needs to be
and existing texts and documents (Willig, 2008). In terms able to listen, remain engaged and interested, to suspend
of sampling, as mentioned previously, Grounded Theory judgement, and to be able to probe participants to pro-
promotes theoretical sampling (i.e. an iterative approach), vide information in more depth without making them
whereby sampling continues aiming to explore findings feel that they are being interrogated. Good interviewing
from early data analysis (Coyne, 1997). By contrast, also requires nonverbal skills, such as body language and
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis can take an idio- so-called phatic conversational cues of the ‘mmmm’ and
graphic approach whereby individual cases are analysed ‘oh really that’s interesting’ (Minichiello et al., 2008).
separately and the results of each analysis integrated only in Interviews involving more than one participant can be
the later stages of the research (Willig, 2008). particularly challenging because the researcher may have
Whether a researcher is working within a defined strat- to deal with people who want to dominate the discussion,
egy of inquiry or not, all choices about research methods possible conflicts and differences of opinion, people who
not only have to be appropriate for answering the are shy or just everyone trying to talk at the same time
research question(s), but also they must match the philo- (Krueger & Casey, 2000).
sophical assumptions about ontology, epistemology and
methodology that underpin the overall design of a study
(see Glossary) (Swift & Tischler, 2010). To illustrate this, Question design: good questions equals good
Swift & Tischler’s (2010) worked example of how to data
developing a qualitative research strategy from the hypo- The degree to which questions will be formally worded
thetical research question ‘What is the experience of obese and defined before the interview depends upon the level
adolescents who access adult weight management ser- of structure that has been chosen as most appropriate. If
vices?’ is extended to include data collection issues unstructured interviews have been selected, the questions
(Table 1). will not be predefined but an interview guide is still
required (Lofland & Lofland, 1995; Robson, 2002). This
should include how introductions will be made, how the
The central role of the researcher
interview will be opened and closed, as well as prompts
In qualitative research, the principle tool of data collec- or probes to elicit information more fully on certain
tion is arguably the researcher. The qualitative researcher issues (e.g. ‘Can you tell me more about that?’) and bring
therefore needs to be reflexive; recognising their role in an interview back to the topic of interest if the participant
the research process via critical self-scrutiny (Mason, significantly digresses (e.g. ‘You talked about food before
2002). This should include trying to identify preconceived and that reminds me to ask you …’).
opinions or beliefs that may be held about the phenome- For semi-structured or structured interviews in which
non or group of people that are being investigated and questions are predefined, the design and wording of ques-
how these may influence what is seen, heard and tions is vital to operationalise the key concepts in the
reported. Reflexivity is recommended as a key strategy to research question. This refers to the process of identifying
minimise these effects and to enhance the credibility of and developing indicators that reflect the concepts in the
qualitative research (Pilnick & Swift, 2010). The aim is to research question. For example, taking pills could be con-
acknowledge the impact of the researcher’s views and val- sidered to be an indicator of compliance with professional
ues that inevitably are brought to the research process, advice and which are reflected in data such as observational
although the ways in which this is done are seldom made or verbal reports of pill-taking (Green & Thorogood,
explicit (Bradbury-Jones, 2007). One strategy is to keep a 2004). A general principle is that questions must make
reflexive diary (Bradbury-Jones, 2007), another is to sense to the participants; if no account is taken of cultural
and social contexts, participants often re-interpret ques- be particularly relevant for those who are not already
tions in ways that are meaningful or acceptable to them immersed in the field (e.g. Gibbs et al., 2007).
(Stone & Campbell, 1984). It is also important to avoid In addition to asking people questions, there are a vari-
questions that in anyway lead people to give certain ety of nonverbal techniques that can be used to stimulate
responses and to avoid ambiguity. Although some authors discussion. These might include presenting participants
such as Holloway (1997) suggest that separate pilot studies with vignettes to consider and comment on, and tasks,
(where some data collected is not used as part of the main such as pile sorts or free listing to identify how people
study) are not necessary in qualitative studies, they do rec- categorise different objects/events. Participants (particu-
ognise that analysis of early data may improve later data larly those, such as children, who may find it difficult to
collection and that, for the novice, it offers an opportunity express themselves verbally in a formal interview) can be
to develop technique. Others consider separate pilots to asked to create visualisations such as paintings, collages,
Table 1 Developing a qualitative research strategy from a research question: an example from nutrition and dietetics (adapted from Swift &
Tischler, 2010)
Research question The starting point is the research question, which in this hypothetical example is ‘What is the experience of obese
adolescents who access adult weight management services?’
Ontological The researcher, in this case, a National Health Service dietitian, might assume a relativist ontological position. This
position means that he/she accepts that the experience of obesity in this population is socially constructed (i.e. is influenced
by factors such as the individual’s culture and family history). Other considerations would be the concerns and
background of the researcher. In this case, the dietitian’s professional position and work context will impact on how
the data are approached and analysed (e.g. the data may be analysed with a view to developing new services for
the population of interest)
Epistemological In keeping with his/her relativist ontological position, the researcher might hold an epistemic position in which he/she
position does not attempt to produce objective findings but, instead, embraces subjectivity. He/she may view subjectivity as
being crucial to this particular piece of research because it acknowledges that different individuals will experience the
‘same’ environment differently. For example, one participant may find adult services intimidating and the advice
given irrelevant, whereas another participant might find such services self affirming because it validates his/her
burgeoning status as an adult. Correspondingly, the researcher would reflect on factors that might influence the
participants’ experience and the impact of the researcher’s own views and values, as outlined above
Methodological Because the researcher considers reality to be socially constructed and aims to produce subjective findings, he/she
position favours the process of inductive reasoning. Rather than setting up a series of hypotheses, the research is guided by
an open-ended research question. In this way, the researcher does not make any predictions about the experiences
of participants, instead he/she uses the data to generate explanations
Qualitative The research question focuses on the examination of experience itself, which suggests that a phenomenological
strategy strategy of inquiry is appropriate. The philosophical branch of phenomenology (see Husserl) suggests that experience
of inquiry is separate from reality and is concerned with individual meanings and interpretations, the so-called lifeworld of an
individual (Ashworth, 2008). An appropriate qualitative technique would therefore be Interpretative
Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) (Fade, 2004; Smith et al., 2009). IPA is rooted in phenomenology, that is, it is
concerned with individuals’ lived experience and how they make sense of that experience. It adopts a double
hermeneutic position, which means that it foregrounds the reflexive position of the researcher making sense of the
participant’s experiences
Data collection Individuals who would be rich sources of data in relation to this particular research question might be a homogenous
and sampling sample of young people aged 12–18 years with a body mass index equivalent to ‡30 kg m)2 at age 18 years (Cole
methods et al., 2000) who attend an adult out-patient weight management clinic at a local hospital. Potential participants
might therefore be identified on the basis of their age and body mass index from clinic records (i.e. purposively
sampled), and invited to participate. As a result of the in-depth nature of the analysis undertaken in IPA, small sample
sizes are appropriate; typically between three and six participants (Smith et al., 2009). Furthermore, an appropriate
method of data collection to answer the research question would be semi-structured individual interviews to explore
how the study participants experience adult weight management services. Semi-structured interviews capture the
participants’ own ‘stories’ and are therefore compatible with the researcher’s belief that the experience of obesity in
this population is socially constructed and that different individuals will experience the ‘same’ environment differently.
The detailed and complex data produced by semi-structure interviews is ideal to generate explanations (i.e. a
methodology by which the research can proceed via inductive reasoning). Finally, semi-structured interviews are
compatible with his/her chosen strategy of inquiry, namely IPA, because they allow participants to share their personal
experience of the phenomenon under investigation without being directive (Willig, 2008), thereby helping to capture
the participants’ lifeworld (Ashworth, 2008)
photographs and video diaries as part of the research pro- gathering data in qualitative health research are inter-
cess (Reavey & Johnson, 2007). views, which can also vary in their degree of structure,
the number of participants involved, the mode of deliv-
ery, and the number of interviews to be conducted with
Conclusions
each participant. Other useful techniques include observa-
The wide scope of qualitative enquiry presents the tions of behaviour, which can also vary in their level of
researcher with a number of choices about data collection structure and the extent to which the researcher partici-
methods and sampling. The most common technique for pates and interacts with the people being observed, both
Glossary
Epistemology The branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge (Carter & Little, 2007). Epistemic position refers to
adherence to a particular idea about how researchers can produce knowledge
Ethnography The classic method of anthropological research which emphasises the naturalistic observation of social phenomena in
the field. It seeks to capture, interpret and explain how a group of people, organisation or community live,
experience and make sense of their lives and their world. This term is also used to refer to the output of such
research; e.g. The Argonauts of the Western Pacific by Malinowski (1922)
Focus group A specific type of group interview that deliberately includes and uses group interaction to generate data
Generalisability The extent to which research findings have meaning outside the research context (i.e. to what other groups, settings
or activities can the results obtained be generalised?) Empirical generalisability refers to the extent to which research
findings can be used to infer about the characteristics of a wider population (Mason, 2002). Theoretical
generalisability refers to the extent to which research findings can be used to develop concepts, understand
phenomena and theoretical propositions that are relevant to other settings and other groups of individuals (Draper,
2004)
Grounded theory Derived from sociology and focuses on generating theory that explains the data (Dew, 2007)
Interview One-to-one discussions which may be more or less structured with the goal of finding out how other people think,
feel and experience their world. Qualitative interviews are intended to generate insights and new concepts rather
than measure or evaluate existing ones. The main types used in qualitative research are structured, semi-structured
and in-depth
Interpretative Rooted in phenomenology, IPA is concerned with individuals’ lived experience and how they make sense of that
Phenomenological experience. It adopts a double hermeneutic position which means that it foregrounds the reflexive position of the
Analysis (IPA) researcher making sense of the participant’s experiences (Fade, 2004; Smith et al., 2009)
Ontology Relates to people’s understanding of the nature of the world (Willig, 2008)
Narrative analysis Uses people’s life stories to investigate the ways in which people bring order and meaning to experience (Willig,
2008)
Methodology Theories about how research should proceed (Carter & Little, 2007)
Population In sampling, this refers to the wider group to whom generalisations or inference will be made (e.g. school children or
pregnant women in a particular geographical location). A sample is drawn from this population
Probability sampling Although there are many different kinds of probability sampling, they are all designed to generate samples that are
statistically representative to enable empirical generalisations to be drawn from the study finding about the wider
population and that have quantified levels of precision. Most often associated with quantitative research
Purposive A sample is drawn not be representative in statistical terms, but because individual cases are rich in information
(nonprobability) relevant to the research question and its concepts. There are many different kinds that share the goal of generating
sampling theoretical generalisations or insights rather than empirical generalisations
Reflexivity Consideration of the researcher’s own role in the research process via critical self-scrutiny (Mason, 2002)
Relativism Belief in a socially constructed reality. Relativism accepts that how people perceive their world and their thoughts
about it are always influenced by social factors such as culture, history and language (Willig, 2008)
Research methods Research action; the techniques for collecting and analysing data (Carter & Little, 2007)
Sampling frame A list or map that identifies all or most of the units in the study population (e.g. the electoral roll or a list of general
practitioner surgeries in particular area)
Strategies of inquiry Provide the researcher with an overall strategy for formulating, articulating, analysing, and evaluating their methods
(Carter & Little, 2007). Common strategies of inquiry in health research are Phenomenology, Grounded Theory,
Discourse Analysis, Ethnography, Ethnomethodology and Action Research (Dew, 2007)
Study design This refers to the overall strategy adopted in addressing the research question. It includes the units of analysis to be
studied (e.g. children, hospitals, schools); the approach to be used in the selection of these units; the kinds of data
collected (e.g. quantitative or qualitative); whether these data are collected cross-sectionally or longitudinally over
time, and the approach to analysis and interpretation
Unit In sampling, this refers to the specific entities (e.g. types of people or organisational contexts that are the object of
enquiry and are part of a wider population)
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