Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CAFS Study Notes
CAFS Study Notes
resources
• defining resources
• specific resources
– human, eg energy, knowledge, intelligence, sight, language, skills and abilities, motivation
– non-human, eg food, clothing, money, electricity, shelter
• interchangeability of resources
• resource sustainability (to conserve a resource)
Acronyms
TYPES OF GROUPS - REASONS FOR PERSONAL FACTORS CAUSES OF
FROCCS GROUP FORMATION - THAT CONTRIBUTE CONFLICT - VILIIME
F FAMILY/FRIENDS CROSSLINGS TO ROLES - BEECHES V VARYING VALUES
R RELIGION C CULTURE B BELONGING I INCOMPATIBLE
O OTHER R RELIGION E ESTEEM GOALS
C CULTURE O OTHER E EDUCATION L LIMITED
S SPORTING S SECURITY C CULTURE RESOURCES
S STUDY/WORK S SEXUALITY H HEREDITY I INDIVIDUAL
L LOCALITY E EXPERIENCES DIFFERENCES
I INTEREST S SELF CONFIDENCE I INEFFECTIVE
N NEEDS COMMUNICATION
G GENDER M MULTIPLE
S SOCIAL EXPECTATIONS
Wellbeing Wellbeing - the degree of satisfaction an individual or group experiences when their needs are met.
• defining wellbeing
Factors influencing
Wellbeing (SPEECS) SPEECS
• factors affecting wellbeing
– emotional Social Factors relating to interaction with other people
– economic An individual who belongs to a group through school, friendships, sport or work, for
– cultural example, has the opportunity to communicate and interact with others. This gives a
– physical feeling of being wanted, which has a positive effect on wellbeing.
– spiritual
– social Physical Factors relating to physical health and safety
Often physical issues can affect other factors. Eating well and feeling physically can
contribute to our resistance to sickness and our ability to deal with problems that may
occur. A student who eats nutritious foods, sleeps well and exercises regularly is likely
to cope better during high-stress periods; for example, when studying for exams.
The interrelated nature of the factors that affect our wellbeing is illustrated in the following example: a person
who loses their job (economic factor) may have a lowered self-esteem (emotional factor). Because of their
reduced income, they may decide to cancel their gym membership (physical and social factors), which will
impact upon their overall wellbeing.
• individual and group wellbeing Group wellbeing is reliant on the wellbeing of the individuals within that group
Groups can aim to enhance individuals levels of wellbeing by accessing resources to satisfy the needs of
group members
Groups can also aim to improve individual members levels of wellbeing by providing comfort in the
environment so that people feel secure enough to express their opinions
Needs and Wants A need is something that is necessary for survival and overall well being.
• defining needs and wants A want is something people desire and through which make life more pleasurable, but not necessary for
existence.
Our decisions are often based on both needs and wants… e.g. we need to eat, but the food we chose to eat
is based on what we want to eat.
• specific needs
– adequate standard of living SHESEAS
(food, clothing,shelter)
– health Safety and Security Our desire to feel protected and safe from threat.
– education - Being protected from exposure to the weather
– employment - Being protected from potential theft, burglary or physical harm
– safety and security - Community groups contribute to safety and security needs through various
– sense of identity services: phone calls to the vulnerable
Sense of Identity An individual’s idea of who they are, and can influence confidence and
self-esteem. It is shaped by the roles an individual plays in all areas of their life,
including their family, work, and social life.
- Employment - some person can't work on a particular day and one of their
workmates covers for them.
- Life experiences
- Someone who is confident because they participate in a sport which they enjoy
doing
Employment An activity to which one devotes time and requires exerting energy towards a
goal for payment, profit or commission.
Adults require employment to meet the basic need for an adequate standard of
living and, often, to provide for a family. Older adults can feel a sense of
belonging and significance when they are involved and respected in the
workplace
- A person working at the grocer so that they can pay for what they want
- A person going to university to receive a degree and then they can provide for
their family
Adequate Standard of Primary needs – food, clothing and shelter – that are required by all people
Living - St Vincent de Paul and government agencies such as Centrelink can assist
people to meet these needs
- Food: Knowledge, availability and accessibility are issues that may affect food
choices. At different stages of the life span and with different health conditions,
food requirements may change.
- Clothing: is needed to protect us from the weather. Some people also meet the
secondary need of status, by wearing particular clothing brands
- Shelter: in the form of housing, offers security and safety, and can contribute to
and reflect our identity by allowing individuals a place for self-expression.
Housing needs to be both affordable and accessible to individuals and families
• Maslow’s hierarchy Maslow believed that the needs at the base of the hierarchy have to be met before a person could begin to
meet the needs at the next level.
The way self-actualisation is expressed will change over a person’s life span as circumstances and
interests change. For example – someone striving to be an Olympic Athlete, may reach this
goal and then strive for a Medal placing. Not all people reach their potential and consequently never
experience overall optimal well-being.
The Indian leader, Mahatma Gandhi, frequently sacrificed his physiological and safety needs for the
satisfaction of other needs when India was striving for independence from Great Britain. Gandhi fasted for
weeks to protest government injustices. In this instance he was operating at the self-actualisation level
without meeting basic physiological needs.
Short and medium-term goals often need to be met before long-term goals. For example, a short-term goal
of completing a résumé may be part of a medium-term goal to obtain a part-time job, which may be part of a
long-term goal to save to travel overseas for an extended period of time
• specific resources Resources can be classified based on whether they are internal or external
– human, eg energy, These resources can have a great influence on wellbeing and a great impact on an individual’s life.
knowledge, intelligence, sight, Human resources - or internal resources include energy, knowledge, intelligence, sight, language,
language, skills and abilities, skills and abilities and motivation.
motivation Non-human resources - or external resources include food, clothing, money, electricity and shelter.
– non-human, eg food, clothing,
money, electricity, shelter
• interchangeability of The term 'interchangeability' means exchange of resources for goods and/or services.
resources Interchanging often involves trading something unwanted for something wanted or needed.
eg. A neighbour may require babysitting in exchange for mowing the lawn.
Interchangeability also means a resource’s ability to be used in a number of ways. eg in the
wilderness, a woman might use a towel to dry herself but might also use it for shelter and to keep
warm.
Factors affecting resource Values - The qualities that an individual or family believes to be desirable and important in life
management Values influence:
• personal values and past - priorities of our needs and wants
experiences - the goals that we set and how they are achieved
- they motivate actions
- behaviours
- the standards by which we judge the success of goals
Personal values are developed early in life as a result of interaction with parents, grandparents and other
significant people and/or groups, such as teachers and friends. Values are often stable and may remain
constant throughout life; for example, honesty and self-respect. Yet other personal values evolve with
experience and can change over time; for example, independence that becomes cherished as a result of
extensive overseas travel or creativity derived from skills developed through further education at university
or TAFE. Values of a personal nature may also be derived from culture, religion or the experiences of your
generation.
• factors influencing availability
of and access to resources, GASCD
eg age, gender, disability,
culture, socioeconomic status Age Young people can have limited access to resources because they have limited
knowledge of the services that are available and limited access to funds. Older
people can have limited access to resources due to limited skills for accessing
modern-day services, such as the internet.
Gender People can have limited access to resources that are gender specific.
For example, compared with males, females might find it easier to access
resources such as support networks because of the differences between the two
genders’ communication skills and ability to express their feelings.
SES (Socio-Economic People with a low socioeconomic status have less financial resources with which
Status) to access resources. They may have lower levels of education and limited
knowledge about resources. On the other hand, people with a higher
socioeconomic status are able to afford more resources, may be
more knowledgeable and may have access to stronger support networks.
Culture People can be influenced by their culture and/or religion when they are accessing
resources. They might be unable to access a specific resource because they are
subject to cultural restrictions, and conversely, they might be entitled to access a
specific resource because of their culture. Also their ability to communicate might
be affected by a language barrier.
Disability People who have a disability can have limited access to resources because they
might not be able to travel or to obtain information easily. Conversely, they might
be entitled to resources that other people cannot access.
For example, they are eligible to receive the Disability Support Pension.
• access to support Support network - People who are close to you, such as family, or who are part of an organisation helps
– informal, eg relatives, friends, you through a difficult time.
neighbours Informal support: consist of people who know the person requiring assistance personally. they feel
– formal, eg government comfortable discussing issues that they would not discuss with a stranger. Eg relatives, friends, neighbours
agencies, community Formal support: are organisations that exist specifically to cater for particular needs. Eg government
organisations agencies, community organisations, charities.
Personal management
skills POIP
• planning and organisation
Planning Deciding the outcome, what outcome is to be achieved and setting specific
goals for the outcome.
Organising Creating a strong structural sequence of steps to help organise your notes
Evaluating Assessing the outcome if the goal was achieved or not achieved
• communication
– verbal and non-verbal Verbal Is the basis for communication between people. It can be ‘oral communication’ or ‘written
– assertive, aggressive, communication’.
passive - Oral communication is voice based - face to face, via phone or video (zoom, Skype) and
– characteristics of effective depends on various vocal elements such as pitch, volume, speed and clarity.
communication - Written communication is text-based - mail, email or online chat.
Non-verbal Non-verbal communication includes physical actions and body language; part of a
message that does not contain any words
- It is conveyed through gestures, such as arm/hand gestures, facial expressions
(sighing, laughing, frowning); eye contact, avoiding eye contact, glaring, personal space
and clothing.
- Signals can also be sent through paralanguage, this includes tone of the voice, speed of
delivery or breaks in sentences
- Non-verbal communication is a powerful form of communication and usually
accompanies verbal communication. It can also contradict the verbal messages. (eg:
sarcasm)
Aggressive A person’s feelings are expressed in an intimidating manner, sometimes denying the
listener an opportunity to participate in the discussion.
- Stand up for their own rights, make decisions that may not consider the rights of
others and dominate and do not listen to other
• decision making
– decision-making styles RIICH
–impulsive, intuitive, hesitant,
confident, rational Rational This style is based on sensible and reasonable decision-making. These people collect
RIICH sufficient information and carefully consider the possible outcomes of each alternative.
– factors influencing decision They recognise that values and emotions can affect decision-making and therefore try to
making avoid this influence.
CAAPS
Impulsive This style is based on spontaneous decision-making; making decisions without giving
much thought to each alternative and its outcome; the decision is made hastily and
insufficient information is collected.
Intuitive This style is based on instinctive decision making; people base their decision on their
‘gut feeling’. It very much depends on how they ‘feel’ about a particular alternative.
Confident This style is based on positive and certain decision-making. These people believe in and
trust in their ability to make decisions. They feel competent to make a wise choice
between alternatives.
Hesitant This style is based on cautious decision making; people tend to delay making a decision.
They are indecisive about which alternative is best and procrastinate about making the
choice.
CAAPS
Complexity Some decisions are easily made because the outcome is clear. For example, “I feel
of the hungry this morning so I think I will have some breakfast.” More complex problems require
problem the decision maker to analyse and investigate the situation.
For example, a father has been offered a job promotion interstate and must consider all
the consequences of accepting or declining the offer for his family.
Access to Decision-making depends on the resources available. The alternatives will differ,
resources depending on the available resources.
Attitudes to Some people have difficulty accepting change and therefore make decisions that help
change them avoid facing new challenges. This has the effect of limiting their potential life
experiences. Good decision-makers embrace change, as long as it is a positive change,
and strategically consider ways to manage the potential negative aspects of decisions that
involve change
Sociocultural - Socioeconomic status can also influence decision-making, as individuals may have
factors limited access to resources
- Education can be an influencing factor, because people can have varying ability to make
rational decisions.
- Gender also has a role, due to the expectations that are placed on decision-making.
- Family, media, peers, culture and religion can also influence decisions and how people
feel about their decisions.
• problem solving Problem Solving may be defined as a method for analysing a situation, generating possible solutions and
evaluating the options. People will handle problems or situations differently, because everyone has different
wants and needs. There is no right or wrong way to solve problems, but the following useful advice contains
some strategies to try and some to avoid:
Steps In Problem Solving:
Identify the problem
Identifying the problem involves conscious defining the problem and recognising the need to take
control of an issue. Question words, such as who, what and why may help define the problem.
Explore alternatives
Outline each alternative’s advantages and disadvantages. Try to identify and evaluate the possible
outcomes of each. Be aware that this evaluation process will be influenced by your values and standards.
Carefully considering potential consequences can contribute to wise decision-making at this step
Select an option
This step involves you choosing the most appropriate option – the one that best satisfies the initial
need or that solves the problem.
Implement the solution
Once an option has been selected, you need to implement your solution in the most effective and
efficient way
Evaluate
After the solution has been implemented, you need to evaluate the results to see how well your
solution solved the original problem. This will mean looking at both positive and negative outcomes.
Strategies for effective Resources can have alternative uses, so individuals must make decisions about the best use of resources.
resource management An individual’s values in relation to resources will inuence how they use and allocate resources. For
• using interchangeable example, a certain amount of money may go towards an item of clothing, a ticket to a music festival, a
resources savings account or a debt. Given the same amount of the same resource, different people will often use it
differently
• adopting sustainable Behaviours that promote the longevity of different things. For example, taking care of resources so that they
behaviours are not wasted (saving money and budgeting so it doesn’t run out or using solar power to preserve the
environment).
• accessing support make a list of people in your support network, catalogue different avenues of support (finding details of
websites, phone numbers, email addresses, hotlines), be supportive to those close to you
• developing personal Personal management skills refers to planning, organisation, decision making, finding
management skills solutions to problems and communicating with people around you. These personal
management skills are used in day to day life and can come into action when deciding
upon small things such as what music we will listen to or larger and more well thought
out decisions like where to purchase a house and settle in.
An example demonstrating this process is a family deciding on what they will spend their money on
regarding food; will the family spend slightly more money to purchase fresh produce and cook healthy
nutritious meals or will they spend less money on foods that lack nutritional value and
therefore are unable to provide fuel for their bodies.
• engaging in education or To build on and further current knowledge and to learn new skills and information.
training
• advantages and
disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
- Qualitative and quantitative data can be collected - They are more time consuming compared with
- In-depth information can be gained other means of research such as questionnaires
- They can be flexible in order to suit the direction - The results are difficult to compare because
of the interview interviewees’ responses can vary considerably
- One result can be subjectivity, which is judgement
based on personal opinions/ feelings
- Nerve racking and stressful for both the
interviewer and the interviewee
• analysing research results • For interviews, data analysis begins soon after the interview when you read over your notes.
• This analysis includes looking for trends or patterns and looking for recurring themes.
• The easiest way to analyse the results is to categorise the research into groups eg date, age, gender,
length of interview, most to least emotive.
• Finally, use descriptive words, for example, ‘The results indicate that….’
• The results can be presented in a number of ways: in written form, such as a report or in the form of a bar,
line or pie graph, depending on the data recorded.
CORE2 - INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS
SYLLABUS
Acronyms
Types of groups
Religious groups
Formed around the common beliefs, traditions and values held by a specific doctrine or faith. Different religious groups hold differing
religious philosophies,but they all share the primary mission to promote spiritual growth and nurture the individual and their community.
Cultural groups
Cultural (and ethnic) groups are based on the geographic area in which a group originated or developed. They share social and cultural
characteristics. Classification is based on self-perceived group identification; that is, the extent to which an individual associates with a
specific cultural group’s ideals and philosophies.
Group effectiveness
To fully understand the study of group effectiveness, communities and families, it is important to appreciate the factors that contribute to an
individual’s positive wellbeing. The wellbeing of individuals, and so the contributions that they are able to make to a wider group, depends on:
• the satisfaction of their needs
• comfort in their environment – physical and socioemotional
• autonomy, or their ability to have some control over their destiny
• their ability to communicate effectively and elicit a response.
Locality/geography
Members live in a specific region, area or geographical place
Bra-boys, bushwalking group, friendship group,
Gender
Events and venues may be more attractive to one gender than the other, or may be restricted on the basis of gender; for example, gyms,
governing bodies deliberating on demands for equality among the sexes.
Mums groups, women's dance club, gender specific schools
Security
The need for security is an identified need on the second level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
- Individuals more often choose to form groups by living in close proximity to others to realise their need to feel safe and secure.
- Community health, emergency and welfare services further work to enhance this need.
- Ageing individuals may choose to live in retirement villages or enclosed compounds to feel a greater sense of security.
- An individual living alone will feel increased security if other individuals or groups live nearby.
Welfare services, retirement villages, neighbourhood watch
Sexuality
Gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and intersex (GLBTI) individuals may form social groups in response to their shared values, beliefs and
experiences.
Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras, gentlemen’s clubs
Specific needs
Individuals from all walks of life have specific needs based on their economic, physical, cultural, socioemotional and intellectual situations.
Local communities and welfare groups provide the opportunity for reformed alcoholics, gamblers and drug addicts to meet to work through
their problems, outdoor fitness group
Social interaction
Groups generally share common values, goals, beliefs and standards. They may be long term or transitory.
Football, cafes, parks, shopping centres, YMCA
Religion
Australia populated by people from over 200 different countries, it follows that values, beliefs and religious
Worship, church, salvation army, chrisitianity
Culture
Reflect on and celebrate one’s culture, or the traditions practised in an individual’s country of origin, Cultural practices, when acknowledged
and shared within a group, serve to enhance individual and group wellbeing.
Food festivals, cultural dance, Australia day, st patrick's day, harmony day, Chinese New Year
Other reasons
Associated with heightened esteem and serves to enhance the self-confidence of an individual. Allows an individual to achieve
self-actualisation and, ultimately, self-transcendence
Sporting: coaching a younger sporting team, tutoring a younger student, volunteer service work in impoverished regions, teaching English
and establishing schools
Personal
sense of Belonging
When an individual identifies with a group, they feel like they are ‘fitting in’ with others; they feel that they ‘belong’ and their input is valued.
This gives rise to higher levels of personal fulfilment, giving their lives greater meaning
The individual who belongs to a sporting team, actively engages in fundraising to assist with the refurbishment of the club house, and makes
working bees a high priority
self Esteem
Self-esteem refers to an individual’s self-perception, self-value or self-worth
Individuals with high self-esteem will generally be more outgoing and self-assured, and will project confidence when in the presence of
others and they will feel greater ease when taking on challenges
Education
a group member may not have academic qualifications, their life experiences may be just as valuable.
When groups of students engage in camps. The outdoor skills possessed by some may not be learned in the classroom but are indeed
valuable in terms of the group’s survival
Culture
Culturally determined behaviour within groups may be misunderstood if it is not discussed within the group itself. Cultural awareness
programs are immensely valuable, as they enable group members to gain an understanding of the norms, values and social cues exercised
by group members.
Heredity
Factors such as the physical appearance of an individual (for example, hair colour) are passed down from one generation to the next via
genes. Intelligence and an individual’s personal disposition are also shaped by hereditary factors. Whether an individual suffers from an
illness, such as cystic fibrosis, haemophilia or muscular dystrophy, is determined by genetics; such illnesses have a negative impact on an
individual’s development.
An individual’s temperament is hereditary; temperament is unquestionably something that will impact group progress and even the very
formation of a group
past Experience
Lessons learned from life events, past encounters, workplace roles, and interactions with others are all examples of previous experience,
and may shape the way individuals act and interact within a group. The impact of previous experience may be negative or positive
An ineffective boss may cause an individual to have difficulty respecting authority. Equally, the positive experience of working within an
efficient and dynamic team may lead an individual to implement the strategies they learned in a new context
Self confidence
The relationship between self-confidence and self-esteem is very close. If individuals are confident with their own abilities, they are more
likely to take on challenges. An effective leader is generally self-condent. Success experienced when realising a goal helps an individual to
increase self-confidence and thus self-esteem
Social
Media
Media motivates and influences our thoughts and actions. It may be used constructively to educate the people, or destructively to mislead
the innocent. Through the media – information is altered quickly and is available to a great number of people. The media shapes our
day-to-day life by keeping us informed.
Thus, in a group situation, all members may hold an opinion that is coloured by media reports. Alternate points of view may cause conflict
and fractured relationships within the group.
Gender expectation
Consider the parents of a long-awaited child; Female: the nursery is decorated in pink, with ribbons, bows and butterflies. She will like dolls,
dress-ups and make-up, will have soft skin and always be clean.
Male: receive gifts wrapped in blue. A truck would be the designated toy, the sandpit would be the ultimate play area and getting dirty would
be expected.
Males and females are more frequently taking on shared parenting roles, and this in turn gives rise to the formation of a different collection
of groups.
Observation as a primary research method
• conducting and recording observations
• advantages and disadvantages
• presenting research findings
Participant Observation – involves the researcher taking part in the group and observing from within.
• Better access to the group and therefore gaining more knowledge and greater disclosure from the group.
• Group members may detect what the researcher is there for and may not act naturally. The researcher’s presence and actions actually
influence the group dynamics.
• It is very time consuming as the researcher needs to become a part of the group and then carry out the observation.
Non-participant observation – involves the researcher observing the group without participating in it.
• The researcher is more objective and it is easier to record what is seen.
• Group members' actions are often influenced by the fact that they know they are being observed.
• The researcher may unwittingly interact with the group. It is time consuming and requires a lot of patience
Sociograms are effective means of reporting observation. They provide a convenient way of summarising and analysing various types of
group interactions and relationships. By drawing sociograms members are better able to understand and analyse the dynamics of their group.
Thye display conflict, power, friendship and social isolation
Power is a person’s ability to do something or get something done. Power and control are often interchangeable when it comes to the role of a
leader.
A person’s power might be related to their dominance, intensity, ability, energy, influence or control. An individual with power can influence and
sway others to conform to their wishes.
Power can be attributed, where group members recognise or perceive strength or abilities of an individual as an effective leader. This may be
based on their professional status, education or organisational experience. Power may also be actual power, where an individual brings about
change by making use of their own resources
Power bases
A power base describes the origin (or base) of power. It impacts on group dynamics, in that the leader is able to exert influence
in accordance with their own capabilities and strength.
Power bases
Coercive
A coercive power base is derived from the ability of a leader to give or take away privileges or rights,and so influence group behaviour. This
power may be used in either a positive or negative way. An example is parents who threaten to ground their children if they misbehave.
Expert
An expert power base comes from the knowledge or expertise of an individual in a given field. Group members may look up to the leader
for guidance because they hold the leader’s knowledge in high regard.
University professor may exert expert power over a class of first-year students
Reverent
A referent power base comes from followers of an individual’s looks or attributes (e.g. in social media, where individuals ‘follow’ or ‘like’
others). Such power often encourages followers to strive to look like or copy the leader (e.g. in pop culture, where a rock star’s fans copy
the star’s dress and image).
Kylie jenner, Michelle Obama, Tiktok stars (Charli D'amelio)
Reward
In a reward power base, the leader is able to give merit/an award.
This could be used by a teacher who gives gold stars for good work, or a boss who has jurisdiction over pay increases for extra work
Legitimate
A legitimate power base comes with a designated position, usually agreed or voted on by the community members or governing body.
School prefects, the local mayor and the Governor-General
Leadership
• self-leadership
• leadership styles, eg autocratic, democratic, laissez faire, transformational
• leadership adaptability and flexibility
Within the group, the leader will have a direct and indirect effect on the group as a whole. Leadership can be assumed, where an individual
takes on the role without discussion or it is negotiated, ie it is agreed upon. Leadership involves getting the commitment of all members of the
group to work towards achieving group goals by influencing, guiding and directing the group. A good leader is able to motivate the group, be
decisive and consistent.
Characteristics of a leader:
Self-leadership
Self-leadership applies to individuals who have a developed sense of who they are, possess a surety of their knowledge and capabilities and
have a clear vision of their goals– either their own or those of the group they are leading. Such leaders are able to effectively use
communication, emotions and behaviour throughout the leadership process to ensure that the final outcome is positive for all.
• A heightened sense of wellbeing is typical of a self-leader. Their enthusiasm and vision is often infectious and serves to carry others along in
the process of achieving goals
Leadership styles
Leadership styles
Democratic (collaborative/shared) • Willing to share leadership role • Builds trust and mutual respect
• Involves group members • Encourages group decisions (but may be
• Considers people and tasks as equally important time-consuming)
• Consults group members • Empowers group members
• Changes role according to progress of project • Considers feelings of individuals
• Listens carefully to each member • Considers opinions of all members
• Increased communication
• Less conflict
• Members feel valued
Factor Explanation
Type of task Task-oriented leaders may adopt an autocratic style for giving instructions in an emergency. Tasks
range from high level/urgent to typical (e.g. leadership during a crisis as opposed to leadership during
a social meeting).
Knowledge and skills within the This is an internal factor. Large teams may have members with varying levels of skills. This may
group require the leader to adopt a more directive style, providing clear communication and guidelines to
ensure that everyone knows what needs to be done in order to achieve goals. If the team has
individuals who are highly skilled and capable, then the style may change to become more democratic
or consultative
Attitudes of individuals within the A leader’s personal values are derived from attitudes about themselves – this is described as their
group self-concept. Individuals in a group similarly possess a self-concept. This correlates with self-esteem.
Attitude has a huge impact on the culture, environment and mood of a group. The attitude of group
leaders and other members spreads and affects others in the group dramatically
Relationship between group The relationship between the leader and the group itself is significant. A leader who believes strongly in
members teamwork may adopt a democratic style, with each group member contributing to decisions. This may
pave the way for group harmony, but does require constant feedback to ensure that all stakeholders’
needs are affirmed.
For groups with a transformational leader, where members are encouraged to self-manage, the
relationship will be quite different; each member will be working towards their own transformation both
for themselves and for the group as a whole. If not managed, this may create a competitive
environment between group members. On the other hand, it may allow members to share leadership
responsibilities, thus succeeding with a democratic or laissez-faire leadership style
Advantages Disadvantages
• A lot of detail is collected. • Data collected may not necessarily be valid for the wider population.
• A sample population can be surveyed when large populations • Danger of data bias when only one person is collecting.
are not available. • Hard to draw denite cause/effect from one case study.
• General predictions are possible. • May be time consuming and difficult to analyse.• Vital information may
• A hypothesis can be developed and then tested. be missed.
• Behaviour is described as it occurs. • Behaviour exhibited may be different to that displayed in the natural
• The researcher controls the situation. environment.
A case study is a long and detailed primary research method. A case study looks at an individual or a group, such as a family in depth. It can
be used to collect data; it can be used to provide information which allows you to examine the inner workings of a situation. When a number
of parallel case studies are carried out the data can be used to analyse or form generalisations. Case studies often combine a number of
research methods for eg, interviews, observations and questionnaires.
Case study as a secondary research method
When conducting research, you will use a combination of primary and secondary research methods.
A case study is an example of a primary research method; that is, the data collected are in a raw format
and have not been gathered or written by another party.
A case study allows you to focus on a specific aspect of your topic. Thus the data collected are generally
rich in detail and contain information that provides a deep insight into the situation surrounding the object of your study.
Causes of conflict
• incompatible goals
• individual differences/personality
• limited resources
• ineffective communication
• varying values
• multiple role expectations
Causes of conflict
Conflict may be constructive and result in enhanced self-esteem, or it may have a negative impact on individuals and groups and so be
viewed as destructive. Conflict that either causes a group to disintegrate or prevents/diverts the group from continuing in its role or direction is
considered to be disruptive.Individuals usually form groups because they share common values, standards and beliefs with other members of
the group. Conflict may occur when there is a difference of opinion based on these values, standards and beliefs. Such conflict will directly
impact on personal and group wellbeing.
An individual or group that avoids conflict will experience wellbeing in the short term. They may be able to achieve goals or succeed in
satisfying needs and wants to their liking; however, if they are likely to meet or be confronted by the stressors again, they will inevitably suffer
in the long term. The situation is more likely to intensify and become more difficult to resolve; time may be spent on hypothesising over likely
scenarios; personal resources, such as leisure time and health, may be affected as stress levels increase; and others may be negatively
affected as they deal with the moods and anxiety of the individual who fails to recognise the importance of resolving the conflict.
Causes of conflict
Incompatible goals Conflict caused by 2 individuals/parties that strive An individual may experience indecision relating to
for different goals prioritising short- or long-term goals; for example,
saving for a new car vs going on a family holiday
Individual Conflict can exist through clashes of opinion which An exuberant and loud individual may cause a shy,
differences/personality involve an individual’s values and standards and withdrawn person to feel threatened.
their needs to strive for goals. Personalities may
differ ie aggressive/passive
Limited resources This may cause conflict when individuals or groups A young single-income family may experience
are faced with how to use their resources to best conflict when deciding on resource allocation.
achieve their needs or wants.
Ineffective communication A breakdown in communication ie listening, A person who sits and watches television instead of
sending, messages may cause conflict. Where communicating with their partner may feel isolated.
messages are received in a negative way, conflict
may occur.
Varying values Differences in values lead to different actions by Teenagers who value the company of friends will
individuals and thus can be a cause of conflict experience conflict when they are grounded or have
their phone taken away.
Multiple role expectations When pressure is put on an individual to perform A working parent may experience conflict in juggling
numerous roles this may cause stress and lead to many roles and responsibilities at work and home.
conflict. Communicating and role descriptions can
help.
Conflict resolution
Process
– negotiation, agreement, resolution
• Negotiation – is a process by which 2 parties who consider they have to be jointly involved in the making of a decision but who at first may
have different objectives, seek through argument and debate to resolve their differences in order to arrive at a mutually agreeable decision
• Mediation – the 3rd party, a mediator will help resolve conflict by ensuring the parties involved are listened to and treated fairly. In mediation
the resolution of the problem is decided by someone other than the two parties involved eg committee, umpire
• Agreement – this is the final outcome of the problems which are decided upon. The agreement of the problem which is reached will then be
implemented. The agreement will be made either after negotiation between the 2 parties or by the mediator
• Resolution – is the process of resolving a dispute or conflict by providing for the needs of the disputing parties and addressing their interests
so that they are satisfied with the outcome.
• Goals of both parties are maximised. • This is the most common outcome and reflects • The disagreement is seen as inevitable, so
• A collaborative problem-solving the competitive nature of people and society as a conflict is smoothed over in the least painful
strategy is employed. whole; i.e. the greed, dominance and aggression. way – with neither party as a victor.
• Both parties confront the problem • The decision is often made through socially • Each party gets some of what it wants and
rather than each other. acceptable mechanisms such as judges, votes resigns itself to partial satisfaction.
• The needs of each party are and authoritarian leaders. • It is often used to divide limited resources.
considered, to allow for a mutually • This sometimes involves threats and bribes, • The parties involved may not have the skills
agreed decision. involving the belief that the end justifies the needed to pursue the conflict resolution
• The long-term relationships of parties means. process further to allow for a mutual decision.
are paramount. • It creates an ‘us and them’ mentality. • It is sometimes used to prevent a win–lose
• Communication is open and direct, • The victor may gloat; the loser may shrink or situation from occurring.
resulting in trust and acceptance rather retire to lick their wounds.
than suspicion. • The loser may seek reprisal.
• This strategy requires a high degree • The outcome may cause intergroup conflict.
of patience and skill in problem-solving.
CORE 3 - FAMILIES AND COMMUNITIES
Family
Acronyms
Family Structures - Levels Of Community Roles Individuals Adopt Influences On
Snacks For Bed! Organisation - In Families And Socialisation - Mr
S Same Sex L Local Communities - Hopp
N Nuclear S State S Satisfying Needs M Media
A Adoptive N National B Building Relationships R Relatives
C Childless G Global P Promoting Wellbeing H Health Professionals
C Communal O Online Networks
K Kinship P Print/Digital
S Sole Parent P Paid Carers
F Foster
B Blended
E Extended
D De Facto
Family My own definition: A group of people who rely on one another strongly and have a deep connection with
• defining family one another. Families today come in different forms, definitions and are constantly changing.
• the Australian Census A family is two or more people, one of whom is at least 15 years of age, who are related by blood, marriage
Dictionary glossary definition of (registered or de facto), adoption, step or fostering, and who are usually resident in the same household.
family
Family structures
• adoptive Family structure Description
• blended
• childless Adoptive Adoption is an option whereby permanent care is provided for children who are
• communal unable to live with their birth families. It is a legal process where all legal rights
• de facto and responsibilities are transferred from birth parents to adoptive parents
• extended ➔ Function - to take in children who have been neglected and provide them with
• foster a home, love and care
• nuclear Adoption numbers have declined 50% over the past 25 years, from 668 in
• same-sex couple 1995-96 to 334 in 2019-20
• sole parent
• kinship Blended A blended family is a couple family that contains both a natural parent and
step-parent – that is, a blended family has at least one child who is the biological
child of both parents and at least one child who is the stepchild of either parent.
➔ Function - spending time developing a relationship with your stepchild will lead
to better relationships within the whole family
Childless A couple with no children (of any age) present is known as a childless family.
Childless couples can be childless for a number of reasons. It may be a
temporary stage prior to beginning a family, the children may have left the family
home or there may have been the death of a child. In other cases, some couples
have made a conscious choice regarding children: they understand the economic
and emotional demands of parenting and consequently have little desire to be
parents themselves.
➔ Function - to fulfil the emotional support, companionship and material
resources for the family members
In 1997, 41.2% of Australian couples were childless and in 2007 this grew to 47.1
De Facto A de-facto family is where a couple of the opposite or same sex live together in
the same household but are not married to each other; they are partners,
common-law husband and wife, lovers, boyfriends or girlfriends.
Young people are studying, travelling and starting their careers prior to getting
married, house and rental prices are extremely high and returning home to live
with parents may not be an option. Moving in with a partner becomes
advantageous nancially, emotionally and physically.
➔ Function - allows for parties to merge their lives together for all practical
purposes
Extended One core family plus at least one relative living in the same house.
↳ eg. A grandparent, aunt, uncle or cousin
➔ Function - allows for them to work together towards common goals eg raising
children and keeping up with household duties.
Forster When children and young people, through no fault of their own, cannot live with
their own parents or families. Foster carers can provide short- or long-term care.
Non-biological children, needing care, are placed with another individual or family
(regardless of structure) for an unspecified length of time.
➔ Function - providing the child with a safe, nurturing environment to grow up in
where they can learn and develop.
Nuclear A nuclear family can be viewed as a heterosexual couple and their offspring.
While nuclear families are traditionally the norm and are still the most common
family structure, it is the family structure type that statistically has the lowest
growth rate. Declining marriage rates and fertility, rising divorce rates and other
social trends mean that a reduced number of people will live in the family norm in
the future
➔ Function - to meet the needs of society and its members. Draws attention to
the positive aspects of family life and allows for a place where children are safe
and cared for.
In 1997, 43% were a nuclear family that included children who were 15 or
younger. In 2016 this plunged to 37% with dependant children
Same-sex couple A same-sex couple can be dened as two people of the same-sex in a sexual
relationship, living either with or without children.
➔ Function - providing appropriate structure for children, being caring, accepting
and warm and allowing the child to grow safely.
In the 2016 Census, 10484 dependant children under 25yrs old were counted as
living in a ‘same sex couple’ family.
Sole-parent A sole-parent family consists of a lone parent with at least one dependent or
non-dependent child (regardless of age) living in the household.
↳ eg. Divorce, separation, death of a partner or the use of artificial reproductive
technologies
➔ Function - to raise the child single handedly, to be nurturing and warm, to
provide attention, positive praise and to encourage good behaviour creating a
sense of security.
When only one adult member is living in the household, they take on all the roles
traditionally expected of two parents: financial responsibility, domestic labour,
child-rearing and, ultimately, all other family functions.
2011 Census, 24.3% lived with one natural or adoptive parent
2016 Census, 15.8% of families in Australia were one parent families
Health Health is understood holistically; it includes both the physical and mental
condition of a person. A family’s values regarding health will influence their
choices in regard to diet and exercise, regardless of family structure.For
those who are health conscious, diets will consist of foods that have
complex carbohydrates, are high in fibre and low in fat, sugar and salt.
Exercise, where possible, will be prioritised. Parents may make time for
physical activity and children and teens may participate in organised sport.
Families will have regular health and dental checks and will likely recognise
any health problems early.Health choices will rely on financial resources –
private health care may be difficult to afford for low-income earners. Though
this does not depend directly on family structure, some structures have
greater earning power.
Employment Employment refers to being engaged in paid work. The earning power that
comes from employment may be crucial to fulfilling any number of the other
specific needs.A person’s earning power and employment opportunities are
related to their skills and abilities, rather than their family structure.
However, family structure may influence work hours and patterns (e.g.
full-time, part-time or casual).Within families, it is most often the adults who
are employed but, for some families, adult members may not be able to
work; in these situations, adolescents may gain employment to help support
the family. It is important to remember that earning power and
opportunities for employment come from an individual’s skills and
abilities; family structure will not influence this.
Sense of identity This is your idea of who you are. It can be influenced by family structure,
but is more related to the relationships around you and how you are
able to form them. Adult family members model behaviours that
dependants adopt. As children age, their personalities and identities evolve
due to other influences, such as peer groups, schools, the media and
other significant people in their lives (e.g. sporting coaches or
religious leaders). Culture will also influence who you are. Customs,
languages and traditions will influence friendships, hobbies and
extracurricular activities. While peer groups, schools, the media, significant
others and culture do not influence family structures, certain family
structures may place different values and ideals on these factors, which will
influence a sense of identity.
Education Education refers to learning knowledge and skills. It can be met through
formal education (e.g. school) or informal education (e.g. life experiences).
Regardless of family structure and financial resources, all children aged
5–17 must be in some form of government-approved schooling.The value
placed on education will impact on where a child goes to school and the
rules and limits set regarding school and homework. A child’s life
experiences may relate to their family structure; this, as well as the
influences of culture, holidays, interests and meeting different people, will
expose family members to an informal type of learning.
Adequate standard of Having an adequate standard of living (including having food, clothing and
living shelter) is important to everyone. No family structure is immune to financial
crisis or trauma. Earning power and stability in earning power is usually the
responsibility of an adult family member, and will generally dictate a family’s
standard of living. Where there is a family member who is unable to work,
the family can access government payments to ensure it has an adequate
standard of living. Many charity groups also assist in meeting this need, but
this requires family members to reach out and seek help.
• building relationships : Relationships are built through the interactions between individuals
- Relationships can develop through the way in which individuals are treated and the ways, standards or
boundaries they uphold for themself
- A way of encouraging the building of relationships includes demonstrating how to act appropriately with
others
- Relationships between family members are characterised by:
• showing respect for others
• having trust and confidence in each other
• sharing a purpose, intention or aspiration
• being open and honest in communication.
↳ eg. a parent may teach their child manners and the skill and capacity to share with others in order to build
relationships
• promoting wellbeing : An interaction between two or more people where one member helps or encourages another to achieve
and practise a healthy sense of wellbeing.
Communities
Communities Definition: A group of people living in the same place or having a particular characteristic in common.
• definitions of a community
• reasons for community People may belong to a number of communities through school, social life, cultural life and sporting
formation,eg common activities.
interest/purpose
Geographic reasons
Communities that are developed as a result of where they are situated. As geographical locations
become urbanised, communities are formed.
Hiking, surfing, ski, Canberra
Interest-based reasons
Developed due to the shared interests and needs of individuals.
Communities form on the basis of culture, religion, politics, business, sport, leisure, recreation, music,
craft or friendship. Communities are predominantly linked by social and emotional bonds.
Harry potter, disabilities, sole parents, mums n bubs
Other reasons
Cultural/ethnic
Influenced by the shared beliefs and values of individuals. May promote the traditions and customs of a
culture or ethnicity and encourage participation
Chinese new year, greek communities
Sexual based
Individals who share the same sexual beliefs and preferences.
Homosexual
Questionnaires as a Questionnaires are a research tool used for collecting primary data. The data collected may be qualitative or
primary research method quantitative.
• developing reliable questions - When researchers are using the qualitative method, they can use questionnaires to ask respondents
open-ended questions when an in-depth answer is required; they enable the respondents to convey their
values, ideas and opinions.
- The researchers can then analyse the responses that are either in support or in opposition to the
researchers’ hypothesis.
Questionnaire definition: A set of formally prepared questions that seek information on a person’s
knowledge, beliefs, feelings, opinions, likes or dislikes; it is completed by the respondent.
Survey definition: A set of formally prepared questions that seek information on a person’s knowledge,
beliefs, feelings, opinions, likes or dislikes; it is filled in by the researcher after asking the respondent
question.
Closed questions
Elicit a limited range of responses. They are often easier to collate and interpret.
A check box, frequency or Likert scale (such as never/sometimes/always), attitudinal scale (strongly agree
through to strongly disagree).
Open-ended questions
Provide the opportunity for an open response that is not guided by the researcher. A line or space is
provided on the questionnaire for the respondent’s answer; for example, ‘Why are informal support networks
important to your family? ______’
• Questions can be designed to collect both • Questions may be misinterpreted and cannot be
quantitative and qualitative data explained to the respondent
• It is quick to distribute to respondents • It requires respondents to have satisfactory
• Data can be collected from a large group of literacy skills.
people in a reasonable timeframe. • The amount of information collected can be
• Questions are completed by respondent and limited
avoid interviewer bias • It is time consuming to design questions and
• Closed questions are easy to tally and present present them neatly
statistically. • If there are too many questions or too many
• Quantitative data is easy to interpret details required, respondents may not participate or
• Each respondent is given an equal opportunity to complete the questionnaire
respond to each question, providing greater • The researcher has to wait for responses to be
reliability. returned
Roles groups adopt within Perhaps the most highly prioritised role for community groups is the provision of resources required to
communities achieve an adequate standard of living for both individuals and families.
• satisfying specific needs - Food may be made available in numerous forms, such as fresh food or pre-prepared meals during crisis or
emergency relief periods, daily drop-in centre meals or food parcels.
- Shelter services may focus on emergency or temporary accommodation for sufferers of homelessness or
domestic violence.
- Clothing is commonly collected from donations and re-distributed through ’opportunity’ shops, often with
up-cycling or recycling tips.
Health, education and employment needs can also be satisfied by community groups that specialise in a
specific area.
For example:
• beyondblue and the Royal Flying Doctor Service specialise in health
• Life Education and the Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden Foundation specialise in education
• Disability Employment Australia and YWCA NSW specialise in employment
• building relationships Relationships between individuals or within groups can take countless forms. Whether the relationships are
within families, between friends, at school, work or for leisure, or are short term or enduring, their
effectiveness can ultimately define the quality of an individual’s life.
Positive and effective relationships within community groups are often characterised by:
• showing respect for each other
• having trust and confidence in each other
• sharing a purpose, intention or aspiration
• being open and honest in communication.
• promoting wellbeing A sense of wellbeing can be very personal, but community groups have a role in promoting a positive
concept of wellbeing through their engagement with individuals and families. In times of hardship, promoting
wellbeing will emerge as part of providing a supportive environment; that is, developing caring relationships,
promoting a sense of connection and belonging, and satisfying specific needs.
Sometimes the role of a community group is focused on educational, social or recreational purposes (e.g. a
PCYC basketball program), and therefore the promotion of wellbeing may not be clearly visible. In this case
it is more likely to be holistic and integrated within routine activities, coaching, games and subsequent
interpersonal relationships.
Religious group (e.g. Raise money Hold events where Social wellbeing
The Salvation Army) people are able to come (talking)
together
Health services group Foundational mental Build a community Overall wellbeing will be
(e.g. beyondblue state and educational around those people benefitted
and information
Emergency services Emergency care, aids Encouraging the quality Being available in
group(e.g. Careflight) recovery and diversity of the emergency situations,
workplace, donations having someone they
can count on
• processes
– arbitration Decision making processes
– consensus The type of decision-making process selected will be influenced by the nature of the issue, the complexity
– election of the decision and the target group involved; resources, such as the amount of time and money available
– voting to support the decision-making, must also be considered. The following decision-making processes are
– referendum examples that are commonly found in community groups.
Arbitration
Arbitration is a process that seeks to resolve a dispute. First, evidence is presented and a discussion is
had between the different parties. Then, a ruling is made by the chairperson (arbitrator). This decision is
legally binding.
Consensus
Consensus aims to include everyone in the decision-making process. Opinions are discussed and any
objections are resolved so that widespread agreement is achieved without taking a vote
Election
The election process gives individuals an opportunity to express their views and be involved in the
decision-making process by choosing (voting) for one option over another. The choice may be public
(seen) or private (unseen).
Voting
A vote is a formal expression of an individual’s choice in a decision-making process. It may be for or
against a proposed motion, a certain candidate, a selection of candidates, or a political party.
Referendum
A referendum aims to include all adults in an electorate in the decision-making for an important policy
proposal or change in the constitution. It requires the support of a two-thirds majority to be successful.
The declaration of change can only come about if there is a double majority vote – this means that more
than half of the population have to agree to the change, and half of all the states need to agree to the
change (so, in Australia, 50 per cent of the population in four or more states need to agree to the change).
• environmental
All communities experience some amount of environmental change. Some changes occur over a short
period, and are expected and cyclical; for example, seasonal variations in temperature or rainfall.
Responses may also be planned by local governments or community groups, to reduce the impact of
environmental damage upon families and communities. Examples are the New South Wales Rural Fire
Service’s back burning hazard reduction and the promotion of bushre survival planning.
• technology
During circumstances when families and communities are experiencing change, technology is able to
perform various functions. It is possible to enhance wellbeing by:
• Connecting individuals and communities
• Providing services
• Enabling procedures, systems or techniques to take place
• Providing access to learning and education.
Types of support Informal
• informal, eg relatives, Informal support can come from people such as relatives, friends and neighbours. Relatives provide and
friends,neighbours receive support and assistance from family members who reside either within the same household or in
• formal, eg government another household. Friends and neighbours may also provide support and assistance; for example, they
agencies, community may share childcare duties or be available for a social chat
organisations
Formal
Formal support comes mostly from government agencies or community organisations; for example,
childcare facilities, recreational and sporting facilities, employment agencies, community centres, social
security allowances and disability services. The need for these formal supports may vary throughout an
individual’s life span and a family’s life cycle.
Childhood (5-12) This stage is characterised by beginning school, learning and trying different
activities and establishing friendship groups.
Security and Safety
• Housing - to provide security from elements
• Perception of danger and being cyber safe- lacks while child's brain &
decision making skills are still developing - this puts children at risk of danger
Health
• Nutritious diet - variety of foods
• Physical activity to enhance balance and coordination
Education
• Develops friendships through independent interaction
• Begins using technology Sense of Identity
• Appropriate gender construction and roles
• Self concept,self esteem and growing independence
Employment
• Flexible employment for parents is available
• Carers may be used Adequate
Standard of Living
• Safe housing
• Appropriate clothing (clean/fitting)
Adolescence (13-18) It is the transitional period between childhood and adulthood. Is characterised
by physical changes as a result of hormones and the physical changes
accompanied by social and emotional adjustments.
Security and Safety
• Understanding of risk taking behaviour (drugs and alcohol)
• Knowledge of safe sexual activity
Health
• Regular exercise
• Hygiene, association with body odour, menstruation (girls) and skin
maintenance
Education
• Move to and completion of secondary school (potential of boarding school -
ROSA and HSC)
• Learning about laws; rights and responsibilities
Sense of Identity
• Opposite or same sex attraction, hormonal fluctuations (stress and
confusion)
• Coming of age cultural rituals ( bar mitzvah, conformation ) religious rituals
and celebrations
Employment
• Work experience / placement for experience
• Work health and safety, ability to be assertive and know their rights
Adequate Standard of Living
• Knowledge about lifestyle disease and access to foods that are nutritious
• Clothing that projects an appropriate image and conforms to adolescent
sense of identity
Adulthood (18-65) It is a time of complex decision-making; individuals must make such decisions
as whether to study further, get a job or travel, leave the home, marriage,
children are born and careers are established.
Security and Safety
• Safe housing (location)
• Secure employment
Health
• Sexual peak
• Balanced diet and exercise/leisure required
Education
• Furthering in education/employment
• Education in technology
Sense of Identity
• New relationships
• Alcohol/drug use/contraception - personal freedom
Employment
• Time off - re-establishing careers
• work/family/recreation balance
Adequate Standard of Living
• Nutritious foods
• Housing close to resources and infrastructure
The aged (65+) It is characterised by a reduction in physical ability, deteriorating health, and
the loss of a spouse and friends, little responsibility therefore, if health is good,
individuals can look forward to travel, a stress-free retirement.
Security and Safety
• Close proximity to services
• Government payments (pension)
Health
• Dealing with previous lifestyle choices
• Knowing medication
Education
• Understanding new cultures and technologies
Sense of Identity
• Contact with others (support)
• Involvement with family
Employment
• Phased retirement/complete retirement
• Offer skills training
Adequate Standard of Living
• Financial stability
• Suitable housing and home care
Literature review as a Literature review - a secondary research method involving a search and evaluation of existing knowledge
secondary research on a particular topic. The steps of this are:
method 1. Research information on the given area
• accessing sources of data 2. Summarise that^ information
• advantages and 3. Analysing information and identifying areas of controversy
disadvantages 4. Presenting information in a logical/organise style or format
Advantages Disadvantages