FUNDAMENTALS

OF SURVEYING
Introduction to Surverying and
Linear Measurements
 CONTENTS
TABLE OF
01
Definition of Surveying
also called "geomatics"

Methods of Linear

02
Measurement
pacing and measurement by
taping

03
Errors and Their Sources
difference between an
observed value for a quantity
and its true value

04
Precision and Accuracy
Difference between Precision
and Accuracy

Pacing and Tape

05
Measurement
Calculation of length
 Surveying
Chapter l: Definition of
Surveying, also called "geomatics", is defined in various ways,
two of which are being highlighted here.
● It is the science, art, and technology of determining the
relative positions of points above, on, or beneath the Earth's
surface, or of establishing such points.
● It is discipline which encompasses all methods for measuring
and collecting information about the physical earth and our
environment, processing that information, and disseminating
a variety of resulting products to a wide range of clients.
● The presentation of information from surveying activities may
either be graphically in the form of plans or numerically in the
form of tables. Surveying usually involves measurement,
calculations, the production of plans, and the determination
of specific locations.
 Surveying
The presentation of information from
surveying activities may either be
graphically in the form of plans or
numerically in the form of tables.
Surveying usually involves
measurement, calculations, the
production of plans, and the
determination of specific locations.
Surveying is one of the important subjects
of civil engineering. Without taking a
survey of the plot where the
construction is to be carried out, the
work cannot begin. The people in
charge of surveying activities are
called surveyors.
 NOW

and Now
Surveyors Then
AERIAL/SATELLITE BASED METHODS
AUTOMATED PROCESSES
COMPUTERIZED SYSTEMS TO
PREPARE AND DELIVER ALL DATA

THEN
GROUND BASED METHODS
MANUAL PROCESSES
COMPUTATIONS, ANALYSES, MAPS AND
PLOTS ARE PREPARED THROUGH
HARD COPY (PRINTED) FORM
 Surveying
Classifications of
Geodetic Plane Survey
Survey except for leveling, the reference base
the curved surface of the Earth is for fieldwork and computations is
considered by performing the assumed to be a flat horizontal
computations on an ellipsoid surface. The direction of a plumb
(curved surface approximating line (and thus gravity) is considered
the size and shape of the Earth) parallel throughout the survey
region, and all observed angles are
presumed to be plane angles.
 Surveying
Types of
Topographic Hydrographic Aerial Surveys
surveys Surveys are made from an airplane, and for
are concerned with the are those made for determining the purpose of mapping the terrain.
measurement and mapping the shape of the bottom of The control for such a map is
of the physical features of lakes, rivers, harbors and obtained from ground surveys, but
the earth. These features oceans. They also include the the details are obtained from aerial
are all natural and measurement of the flow of photographs. This includes making
manmade features. water in streams and the measurements and interpretations
estimation of water resources. from aerial photographs.

Astronomic Mining Surveys Computing

Surveys are those made to determine is a specialized area of
survey control for the surveying where complex
are surveys made to
development of both surface and computer programs are
determine the latitude,
underground mines within the used to solve problems
longitude and azimuth
mining industry, and the within the surveying
from observations to the
determination of volumes in mine industry.
stars.
production.
 Surveying
Types of
Engineering Cadastral Surveys Consulting
Surveys is another specialized
cover surveys carried are concerned with the area of surveying
out as part of the measurement, definition and where specialist
preparation for, and mapping and recording of surveyors are hired
carrying out of, property boundaries. for a short period of
engineering works, time to advise on the
including roads, requirements for a
railways, pipelines,
specific task or to
drainage etc.
perform the specific
task.
 Chapter Il:
Methods of
Linear
Measurement
There are actually a lot of methods of
linear measurement. However,
covered in this module in detail
are pacing and measurement by
taping. Also covered in this
section are pointers about units of
measurement, precision, and
accuracy.
 Measurement
Units of
SYSTEM OF
ENGLISH METRIC
MEASUREMENT

Inches/Feet/
Yards /MiIes
LENGTH meter
/NauticaI
Miles/Fathom

AREA Sq.in. / Sq.ft. Sq.m

VOLUME Cu. in. / Cu. ft. Cu.m

Degrees / Degrees /
ANGLE
Radians Radians
 Observation
Indirect
Observation vs
Direct
Direct Indirect
Observation Observation

is made by using is made by using

your senses. The instruments and
surveyor here is measuring devices.
directly involved in The surveyor here
takes advantage of
the measurement
technology in order
of distances and
to study the area in
angles. Direct
consideration.
observation is a Indirect observation
thorough study of is more of a bird's
the area. eye view of the area.
 Their Sources
Errors and
● By definition, an error is
the difference between
an observed value for a
quantity and its true ● Where E is the error in
value, or observation, X is the
observed value, and x̄ its
𝐸 = 𝑋 − x̄ true value. It can be
unconditionally stated that
● There are two types of (1) no observation is exact,
errors, namely, (2) every observation
systematic and random contains errors, (3) the true
errors. Systematic errors value of an observation is
stem from bias and can never known, and therefore,
be controlled. Random (4) the exact error present
errors are accidental is always unknown.
and are beyond our
control.
 accordingly.
and are classified
stem from three sources,
Errors in observations
Instrumental errors
result from any imperfection in the construction or
adjustment of instruments and from the movement of
individual parts. For example, the graduations on a scale
may not be perfectly spaced, or the scale may be warped.
The effect of many instrumental errors can be reduced, or
even eliminated, by adopting proper surveying procedures
or applying computed corrections.

Personal errors
arise principally from limitations of the
Natural errors human senses of sight and touch. As an
are caused by variations in wind, example, a small error occurs in the
temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, observed value of a horizontal angle if
atmospheric refraction, gravity, and magnetic the vertical crosshair in a total station
declination. An example is a steel tape whose instrument is not aligned perfectly on the
length varies with changes in temperature. target, or if the target is the top of a rod
that is being held slightly out of plumb
● Accuracy is defined as the nearness of the observed values to

Accuracy
Precision and
the true value.

Accurate Not Accurate

Precise Precise

Accurate Not Accurate

Not Precise Not Precise

● Precision is defined as the nearness of the observed values with

each other.
● The most probable value (M) is defined ƩM is the sum of the individual

Variance
Deviation, and
Residual, Standard
Most Probable Value,
using the formula below:
measurements M, and n is the
σ𝑀
ഥ=
𝑀 total number of observations.
𝑛 This formula is based from the
theory of probability.

● Upon determining M, we can now get the Residuals are theoretically identical to
residual (v), which is defined as the difference errors, with the exception that residuals
between the most probable value and any can be calculated whereas errors cannot
observed value of the quantity. because true values are never known.
Thus, the residuals rather than the errors
are the values actually used in the
analysis and adjustment of survey data.

● Some other values that can be used to measure

.
precision include the standard deviation (σ) and The variance is simply the square of
the variance (σ2). the standard deviation. The greater the
standard deviation, the more spread
out the survey data are. The formula
for the standard deviation is given.
 PACING AND
TAPE MEASURING
Pacing consists of counting the number of steps or paces in a required distance. A pace is
defined as the length of a step in walking. It may be measured from heel to heel or from
toe to toe (A stride is defined as twice the value of a pace). In surveying, pacing means
moving with measured steps; and if the steps are counted, distances can be
determined if the length of a step is known.
Pacing furnishes a rapid means of checking measurements taken by other methods. It is
suitable in determining approximate distances in situations where low precision of
measurement is sufficient.
Pace factor (PF) is the equivalent unit of
The Pace Factor
measurement per number of paces. By this, and How to
you can determine a distance by counting
your steps (paces). Distance is determined
Determine It
by multiplying the number of paces by your
pace factor (MNP = mean number of paces,
PD = pace distance).

PD = MNP x pF
 STEP 1

pace factor
In order to determine a
Count the number of steps from one point
to another with its distance provided.
It is usually done with many trials.

STEP 2
Add the number of paces recorded for the
trials performed on a straight-line
distance, and then compute the number
of paces.
MNP = No. of paces / No. of trials

STEP 3
Compute the pace factor, PF, by
dividing the known distance of
line AB by the mean number of
paces, MNP.
PF = Length of AB / MNP
A line 100m long was paced four times by a surveyor with the following data: 143, 146.50,

Example #1
142.50, and 144. Another line was paced four times by the same surveyor with the following
data: 894.50, 892, 891.50/ and 895. Determine the approximate length of the line.
During his surveying class of Enzo is a CE Student, he determined his pace factor by walking on a 50m
line with the following results; 62, 61.50, 63, 61, 62. His family owns a triangular lot and it is known that

Example #2
lines AB and BC are perpendicular with each other. Michael average paced from A-B is 15 and B-C is 18
in order to determine the area of the said lot. Using the following data, what is the area of the lot?
 by Taping
Measurement
Lining in Applying tension.
Plumbing
Marking tape lengths,
Reading the tape, and
Recording the distance.
● Shown below is a standard taping setup. Measurement by taping has

by Taping
Measurement
two main purposes or tasks:
(1) First is observing an unknown distance between fixed points, such as
between two stakes in the ground. This is called measuring. An unknown
distance between two fixed points can be measured.
(2) Second is laying out a known or required distance with only the starting
mark in place. This is called laying out or laying off. A required distance can
be laid off from one fixed point.
Taping is performed in six steps:
● Lining in,
● Applying tension,
● Plumbing,
● Marking tape lengths,
● Reading the tape, and
● Recording the distance.
three fundamental sources of taping error

Taping
Errors in
Instrumental error — a tape may differ in actual length as compared to its nominal or
graduated length because of manufacturing errors.

Natural error — tape lengths can be affected by temperature, wind, and other forces of
nature.

Personal error — there will always be a human factor when it comes to taping. There can
be errors in measurement reading, pin marking, and other parts of the taping process.

We have four main taping errors, namely, slope, incorrect tape length, temperature,
pull, and sag corrections.
 Slope Correction

Taping
Errors in
Slope correction can be shown in the figure on the right. In here, L is the tape
measurement and H is the actual horizontal distance measured. Because of the angle of
inclination a, H can be computed as

H = Lcosα
If the difference between the tape ends (d) is measured, H can be computed as
A 100-ft steel tape usually is standardized for each of the two sets of conditions—
for example, 680 F, a 12-lb pull, with the tape lying on a flat surface (fully
supported throughout); and 68 0 F, a 20-1b pull, with the tape supported at the
ends only.
 Incorrect Tape Length and Temperature Correction

Taping
Errors in
An error, caused by incorrect tape length, occurs each time the tape is used. If the
true length of a tape is not equal to its nominal value, the correction can be
determined as

Where CL is the incorrect tape length correction, I the actual tape length, I' the
nominal tape length, and L the measured length of the line.

The temperature error occurs when the actual temperature of the tape is not equal to
the standardized temperature of the tape. The temperature correction can then be
determined as

Where CT is the temperature correction, k is the coefficient of thermal expansion, Tl

the tape temperature at the time of measurement, and T the tape temperature at
standard length. The coefficient of thermal expansion of steel is 6.45 x 10 -6 per
unit length per O F, or 11.6 x 10 -6 per unit length per 0 C
 Pull Correction

Taping
Errors in
The Pull error occurs when the actual pull applied of the tape is not equal to the standard pull of the tape. If
the actual tension is greater than the standard pull, then the tape will elongate. If the actual tension is
less than the standard pull, then the tape will shorten. The pull correction can then be determined as

Where Cp is the pull correction, PI is the actual pull applied to the tape, P the standard pull for the tape, A
the cross-sectional area of the tape, and E the modulus of elasticity of the tape. The modulus of
elasticity regulates the amount of change in length. The modulus of elasticity of steel is about lb/in 2 or
200 Gpa
 Sag Correction

Taping
Errors in
Sag error mark happens when there is an unsupported length that forms a catenary. Thus
the actual length of the horizontal chord is less than the graduated distance measured
by the tape (thus, the sag correction is always negative). Sag can be reduced by
increasing the applied pull, but cannot be eliminated unless the tape is supported all
throughout its length. The formula for sag correction is

Where Cs is the sag correction, Ls is the unsupported length of the tape, and w is the
weight of the tape per unit length.
Interpretation of
Taping Errors
and Sample
Problem
A 100-ft steel tape standardized at 68 0 F and supported through under a tension of 20 1b was found to be

Sample Problem3
100.012 ft long. The tape had a cross-sectional area of 0.0078 in 2 and a weight of 0.0266 lb/ft. This tape is
used to lay off a horizontal distance CD of exactly 175.00 ft. The ground is on a smooth 3% grade; thus, the
tape will be used fully supported. Determine the correct slope distance to layoff if a pull of 15 1b is used and
the temperature is 87 O F.
A 30-m steel tape standardized at 20 0 C and supported throughout under a tension of 5.45 kg was found to be 30.012 m

Sample Problem4
long. The tape had a cross-sectional area of 0.050 crn 2 a weight of 0.03967 kg/m. This tape was held horizontal, supported
at the ends only, with a constant tension of 9.09 kg, to measure a line from A to B in three segments. The data listed in the
following table were recorded. Apply corrections for tape length, temperature pull, and sag to determine the correct length
of the line.
THANKS
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