Principle of computer graphics Dept.

of Mech Engg, SCSVMV

SRI CHANDRASEKHARENDRA SARASWATHI VISWA

MAHA VIDYALAYA
(University Established under section 3 of UGC Act, 1956)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT –II PRINCIPLE OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Topics:
1. Geometric Modelling – Wireframe, Surface and Solid
2. Parametric representation of curves& surfaces, Constructive Solid Geometry and B-Rep
3. World/device coordinate representations
4. 2D and 3Dgeometric transformations, Matrix representation - translation, scaling,
rotation

GEOMETRIC MODELLING

Aim: To understand the various requirements for the information that is generated during the
geometric modelling stage.
Objective:
 To Study various types of geometric models possible and their applications
 Recognise the various types of surfaces and their applications as used in geometric
modelling
 Appreciate the concept of parametric modelling which is the current mainstay of most of
the 3D modelling systems

Pre-requisites: To have basics knowledge of projection of various entities using computer

graphics.

Pre-test MCQ:
1. Basic entities of CAD modelling
a. Line
b. Arc
c. Circle
d. All of the other options
2. Which of the algorithm is very familiar in projection of lines?
a. Genetic algorithm
b. Fuzzy algorithm
c. DDA algorithm
d. ABC algorithm
3. Colour raster display uses three electron guns, namely:
a. Red, green and blue
b. Red, green and yellow
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c. White, blue and black

d. Red, black and white
4. DDA is the acronym of digital differential analyzer algorithm
a. True
b. False
c. Don’t know
d. None of the other options

Introduction to geometric modelling

The total product cycle in a manufacturing environment involves a large number of interconnected
functions. The concept of a product originates in the designer’s mind. If it is to be translated into
reality, he needs to present it in a relevant form for the manufacturing engineer to understand and
carry out the necessary operations on it for its production (Fig. 2.1). The total process will have to
be carefully integrated such that a large amount of duplication of work is avoided. This may consist
of some kind of a problem identification based on market research, product feedback or some
innovative new idea. Based on this input, some preliminary ideas could be developed. These
preliminary ideas can then be expanded into some preliminary designs, which are basically gross
designs, without going really into the various principles involved. Based on all this, one or more
candidate designs could be generated which needs further exploration. For all these activities,
geometric modelling becomes the central part that is manipulated at all these stages as shown in
Fig. 2.1. Traditionally, product drawings were made together with the prototypes for passing across
the information. However, in a computerised environment, the information a designer generates
can form the basic unit which is accessed by a number of other elements of a CAM system, as
explained in the first chapter. Hence, it is important that the geometric model generated should be
as clear and comprehensive as possible so that the other modules of the modelling and
manufacturing system are able to use this information in the most optimal way. The functions that
are expected of geometric modelling are

Figure 2.1 Total product cycle in a manufacturing environment

Design Analysis
• Evaluation of areas and volumes
• Evaluation of mass and inertia properties
• Interference checking in assemblies

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• Analysis of tolerance build-up in assemblies

• Analysis of kinematics—mechanics, robotics
• Automatic mesh generation for finite element analysis
Drafting
• Automatic planar cross-sectioning
• Automatic hidden line and surface removal
• Automatic production of shaded images
• Automatic dimensioning
• Automatic creation of exploded views for technical illustrations

Manufacturing
• Parts classification
• Process planning
• Numerical-control data generation and verification
• Robot program generation
Production Engineering
• Bill of materials
• Material requirement
• Manufacturing resource requirement
• Scheduling
Inspection and Quality Control
• Program generation for inspection machines
• Comparison of produced part with design
In view of such varied applications, the geometric-modelling technique used has to provide all
such facilities for interaction. The modelling system should be able to describe the parts,
assemblies, raw material used, and the manufacturing requirements. From geometric models (of
parts, assemblies, stock and tools), it is possible to obtain manufacturing, assembly and inspection
plans and command data for numerically controlled machine tools. Another important aspect to be
considered with geometric modelling is the fact that the ways of traditional designers are followed
as far as possible. This is easier said than done. But what brings out this interaction is the
‘interactive graphic environments’ provided by most of the operating systems. The user (designer)
is able to see his designing process instantly, and is thereby in a position to take any corrective
action as required. However, in the batch mode of operation, which was prevalent in most of the
earlier modelling systems, this aspect was missing. Therefore, it becomes necessary for the
geometric modelling system to provide complete information on all aspects related with the further
use of the system and at the same time be simple and in tune with the designer’s methods. Requicha
and Voelker [1981] specified the following properties to be desired of in any geometric modelling
(solids) system.
1. The configuration of the solid (geometric model) must stay invariant with regard to its location
and orientation.

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2. The solid must have an interior and must not have isolated parts.
3. The solid must be finite and occupy only a finite shape.
4. The application of a transformation or other operation that adds or removes parts must produce
another solid.
5. The model of the solid in E3 (Euler space) may contain infinite number of points. However, it
must have a finite number of surfaces which can be described.
6. The boundary of the solid must uniquely identify which part of the solid is exterior and which
is interior.

GEOMETRIC MODELS
There are a large number of geometric modelling methods that have been represented in the
literature referenced in the end. All these models satisfy the requirements presented in the
previous article.

The geometric models can be broadly categorised into two types:

1. two-dimensional, and 2. three-dimensional.
The two-dimensional models were the first ones to be developed in view of their relatively lesser
complexity. However, their utility is limited because of their inherent difficulty in representing
complex objects. Their utility lies in many of the low-end drafting packages, or in representing
essentially two-dimensional manufacturing applications such as simple turning jobs (axi-
symmetric), sheet-metal punching or flame or laser cutting. Serious CAM applications are
extremely difficult in operation, if they start from the two-dimensional geometric modelling.
Hence, hardly any application exists with only a two-dimensional geometric modelling. In
contrast, three-dimensional geometric modelling has the ability to provide all the information
required for manufacturing applications. There are a number of ways in which the three-
dimensional representation can be arrived at.
The three principal classifications can be
1. the line model (wireframe modelling),
2. the surface model, and
3. the solid or volume model.

Figure 2.2 - 3D representation techniques

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Of these, the line model is the simplest and is used in low cost designing systems. The complete
object is represented by a number of lines with their endpoint coordinates (x, y, z), and their
connectivity relationships. This is also called wireframe representation. Though it appears simple,
as seen in Fig. 2.3, there is an ambiguity possible as it is difficult to understand
the outside of the solid represented by the wireframe model in Fig. 2.4. Thus, the line model or
wireframe model is inadequate for representing the more complex solids. It is also possible to draw
some impossible solid objects using wireframe modelling as shown in Fig. 2.5. However, in view
of the simpler manipulation methods used in organizing the wireframe models, these are used in
low-end designing and manufacturing systems. Examples could be AutoCAD, Versa CAD,
Personal designer of Computer Vision, Micro Station, CADKEY, etc. To fully describe the nature
of the solid, it is essential to store further information in addition to the vertex data.
Most of these systems have now progressed to provide comprehensive three-dimensional facilities
in addition to the two-dimensional methods described above.

Figure 2.3 A geometric model represented in wireframe model

Figure 2.4 Ambiguities present in the wireframe model

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Figure 2.5 impossible objects that can be modelled using a wireframe model

Figure 2.6 Generation of 3D geometry using planar surfaces

The surface model is constructed essentially from surfaces such as planes (as shown in Fig. 2.6),
rotated curved surfaces (ruled surfaces) and even very complex surfaces. These are often capable
of clearly representing the solid from the manufacturing point of view. However, no information
regarding the interior of the solid model is available which can be relevant for generating the NC
cutter data. Further, the calculation of properties such as mass and inertia is difficult. Thus, this
model, as a complete technique for constructing the solid, is extremely tedious and is not generally
attempted. But these facilities are available as part of the modelling technique, and are used when
such a surface is present in the product for design. For example, this method is used more for
specific non-analytical surfaces, called sculptured surfaces, such as those used for
modelling car bodies and ship hulls.
The solid or volume model consisting of the complete description of the solid in a certain form is
the most ideal representation, as all the information required for manufacturing can be obtained
with this technique. This is the most widely used method and a number of different techniques are
employed in representing the data related to the solid, the details being presented below. A
comparison of the capabilities and applications of the various modelling techniques is presented
in Table 2.1.

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Table 2.1 Comparison of the different modelling methods

WIRE FRAME MODELING

In wire frame modeling the object is represented by its edges. In the initial stages of CAD, wire
frame models were in 2-D. Subsequently 3-D wire frame modeling software was introduced. The
wire frame model of a box is shown in Fig. 2.7 (a). The object appears as if it is made out of thin
wires. Fig. 2.7(b), 2.7(c) and 2.7(d) show three objects which can have the same wire frame
model of the box. Thus in the case of complex parts wire frame models can be confusing. Some
clarity can be obtained through hidden line elimination. Though this type of modeling may not
provide unambiguous understanding of the object, this has been the method traditionally used in
the 2-D representation of the object, where orthographic views like plan, elevation, end view etc
are used to describe the object graphically.

Figure 2.7 ambiguity in wire frame modelling

SURFACE MODELING
In this approach, a component is represented by its surfaces which in turn are represented by their
vertices and edges. For example, eight surfaces are put together to create a box, as shown in Fig.
2.8. Surface modeling has been very popular in aerospace product design and automotive design.

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Surface modeling has been particularly useful in the development of manufacturing codes for
automobile panels and the complex doubly curved shapes of aerospace structures and dies and
moulds.

Figure 2.8 Surface representation

Figure 2.9 Typical approaches in surface modelling

Apart from standard surface types available for surface modeling (box, pyramid, wedge,
dome, sphere, cone, torus, dish and mesh) techniques are available for interactive modeling
and editing of curved surface geometry. Surfaces can be created through an assembly of
polygonal meshes or using advanced curve and surface modeling techniques like B-splines
or NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-splines). Standard primitives used in a typical surface
modeling software are shown in Fig. 2.9. Tabulated surfaces, ruled surfaces and edge
surfaces and revolved are simple ways in which curved geometry could be created and
edited. Surface modeling is discussed in detail later in this chapter.
SOLID MODELING
The representation of solid models uses the fundamental idea that a physical object divides the 3-
D Euclidean space into two regions, one exterior and one interior, separated by the boundary of
the solid. Solid models are:

• bounded
• homogeneously three dimensional
• finite

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There are six common representations in solid modeling.

(i) Spatial Enumeration: In this simplest form of 3D volumetric raster model, a section of
3D space is described by a matrix of evenly spaced cubic volume elements called voxels.
(ii) Cell Decomposition: This is a hierarchical adaptation of spatial enumeration. 3D space is
sub-divided into cells. Cells could be of different sizes. These simple cells are glued
together to describe a solid object.
(iii)Boundary Representation: The solid is represented by its boundary which consists of a
set of faces, a set of edges and a set of vertices as well as their topological relations.
(iv) Sweep Methods: In this technique a planar shape is moved along a curve. Translational
sweep can be used to create prismatic objects and rotational sweep could be used for
axisymmetric components.
(v) Primitive Instancing: This modeling scheme provides a set of possible object shapes
which are described by a set of parameters. Instances of object shape can be created by
varying these parameters.
(vi) Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG): Primitive instances are combined using Boolean
set operations to create complex objects.

In most of the modeling packages, the approach used for modeling uses any one of the following
three techniques:

 Constructive solid geometry (CSG or C-Rep)

 Boundary representation (B-Rep)
 Hybrid method which is a combination of B-Rep and CSG.

CLASSIFICATION OF WIREFRAME ENTITIES

Curves are used to draw a wireframe model which consists of points and curves. In general,
curves can be classified as follows:
1. Analytical curves: This type of curve can be represented by a simple mathematical
equation, such as a circle or an ellipse. It has a fixed form and cannot be modified to
achieve a shape that violates the mathematical equations. The analytical curves are:
a. Line
b. Arc
c. Circle
d. Ellipse
e. Parabola
f. Hyperbola
2. Synthetic curves: An interpolated curve is drawn by interpolating the given data points
and has a fixed form, dictated by the given data points. These curves have some limited
flexibility in shape creation, dictated by the data points. The synthetic curves are:

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a. Hermite cubic spline

b. Bezier
c. B-spline
CURVE REPRESENTATION METHODS
The mathematical representation of a curve can be classified as:
1. Non-parametric
a. Explicit
b. Implicit
2. Parametric
Non-parametric Representation
The explicit non-parametric equation is given by:
y = C1 + C2X + C3X2+C4X2
The implicit non-parametric equation is:
(X–XC )2 + (Y–YC)2 = r2
In this equation, no distinction is made between the dependent and the independent variables.
The limitations of non-parametric representation are:
1. Explicit non parametric representation is based on one to one mapping. This cannot be
used for the representation of closed curves such as a circle or multi valued curves such
as parabola.
2. If the gradient of a curve at a point is vertical its value is infinity which cannot be
incorporated in the computer programming.
Line
A line is defined by connecting two points P1 and P2. A parameter u is defined such that it has the
values 0 and 1 at P1 and P2 respectively. The equation of the line is given by:
P=P1+u(P2-P1) 0≤u≤1
The length of the line is given by

𝐿 = √(𝑋2 − 𝑋1 )2 + √(𝑌2 − 𝑌1 )2 + √(𝑍2 − 𝑍1 )2

The unit vector is given by
𝑃2 − 𝑃1
𝑛=
𝐿
In matrix form

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𝑋 𝑋1 𝑋2 𝑋1
{𝑌 } = { 𝑌1 } + 𝑢 [{ 𝑌2 } − { 𝑌1 }]
𝑍 𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍2

Figure 2.10 Circle defined by center and radius

Circle
The simplest non-linear curve is unquestionably the circle. A circle with center (Xc, Yc) and
radius r has an equation as follows,
(X-Xc)2+(X-Yc)2=r2
If the center is the origin the above equation is simplified to
X2+Y2=r2
The above equations referred to as the non-parametric (implicit) form of the circle. The
parametric form of a circle is
X=Xc+rcosu
Y=Yc+rsinu 0≤u≤2ᴨ
Z=Zc

The above parametric form uses trigonometric functions.

PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF SYNTHETIC CURVES

The analytical curves are insufficient to meet the requirements of mechanical parts that have
complex curved shapes such as propeller blades, aircraft wings, ship hulls, automobile body, etc.
These components require free-form or synthetic curves. The designs of curved boundaries and
surfaces require curve representations that can be manipulated by changing data points, which will
create bends and sharp turns in the shape of the curve. These curves are called synthetic curves,
and the data points are called control points. If the curve passes through all the data points, it is

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called interpolated curve. The smoothness of the curve is the most important requirement of a
synthetic curve. The most popular synthetic curves are hermite cubic, Bezier and B- Spline.
Hermite Cubic Curve
The Hermite cubic curve is determined by defining two positions and two tangent vectors at the
data points (Figure 2.11). The Hermite cubic curve is also known as a parametric cubic curve, and
cubic spline. This curve is used to interpolate given data points but not a free-form curve, unlike
the Bezier and B-spline curves. The most commonly used cubic spline is a three-dimensional
planar curve (not twisted). It is represented by a cubic polynomial. Several cubic splines can be
joined together by imposing the slope continuity at the common points. The parametric equation
of a cubic spline is given by:

P(u)=∑3𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑢𝑖 0≤u≤1 (1)

Figure 2.11 Hermite cubic curve

Where ai are the polynomial coefficients and u is the parameter.
Expanding the above equation we get
P(u) = a0+a1u+a2u2+a3u3 (2)
If (x,y,z) are the coordinates of point P, above equation can be written as
x(u)= a0x+a1xu+a2xu2+a3xu3 (3)
y(u)= a0y+a1yu+a2yu2+a3yu3 (4)
z(u)= a0z+a1zu+a2zu2+a3zu3 (5)
the tangent vector to the curve at any point is obtained by differentiating equation with respect to
u to give
P’(u)=∑3𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑖𝑢𝑖−1 0≤u≤1 (6)
Equation (6) at point P can be written as
x’(u)= a1x+2a2xu+3a3xu2 (7)
2
y(u)= a1y+2a2yu+3a3yu (8)
z(u)= a1z+2a2zu+3a3zu2 (9)
The coefficients can be evaluated by applying the boundary conditions at the end points.
Substituting the boundary conditions at u = 0, and u = 1 in Equations (5) and (6), we get:

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P0=P(0)=a0
P1=P(1)=a0+a1+a2+a3
P’0=P’(0)=a1 (10)
P’1=P’(1)=a1+2a2+3a3
Solving these four equation simultaneously for the coefficients we get
a0 = P0
a1 = P’0
a2 = 3(P1 – P0) – (2P’0 + P’1) (11)
a3 = – 2(P1 – P0) + P’0 + P’1
Substituting Equations (11) into Equation (2) and re-arranging gives:
P(u) = (2u3 –3u2 + 1) P0 + (–2u3 + 3u2) P1 + (u3 –2u2 + u) P’0 + (u3–u2 )P’1 0 ≤u≤ 1 (12)
The tangent vector is
P(u) = (6u2 –6u ) P0 + (–6u2 + 6u) P1 + (3u2 –4u + 1) P’0 + (3u2–2u)P’1 0 ≤u≤ 1 (13)

The functions of u is equations (12) and (13) are called blending functions
The matrix form of equation (12) can be written as
2 2 1 1 𝑃0
−3 3 −2 −1 𝑃1
P(u) = [u3 u2 u1] [ ]{ } (14)
0 0 1 0 𝑃′0
1 0 0 0 𝑃′1
The matrix form of equation (13) can be written as
0 0 0 0 𝑃0
6 −6 3 3 𝑃1
P(u) = [u3 u2 u1] [ ]{ } (15)
−6 6 −4 −2 𝑃′0
0 0 1 0 𝑃′1

The important characteristics of a cubic spline curve are as follows:

1. The order of the curve is 3.
2. The geometric information of a cubic spline curve consists of the set of data points and the two
end tangent vectors.
3. The spline curve passes through the end points (u = 0 and u = 1).
4. The curve shape can be changed by changing its end points or tangent vectors.
5. If the two endpoints are fixed, the shape of the spline can be changed by changing either the
magnitudes or the directions of the tangent vectors.
In design applications, cubic splines are not as popular as the Bezier and B-spline curves. There
are two reasons for this. These are:

1. The curve cannot be modified locally, i.e., when a data point is moved, or an end slope is
changed, the entire curve is affected as shown in Figure 2.12.

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2. The order of the curve is always constant (cubic), regardless of the number of data points. An
increase in the number of data points increases shape flexibility, However, this requires more data
points, creating more splines that are joined together (only two data points and slopes are utilized
for each spline).

Figure 2.12 Control of spline curve

Bezier Curve
A Bezier curve is defined by approximating a set of data points. Given n + 1 points (called control
points) P0, P1, P2, ...,Pn in space, the Bezier curve defined by these control points is:
P(u) = ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝐵𝑛,𝑖 (𝑢)𝑃𝑖 0≤u≤1 (16)
Where the coefficients are defined as follows
𝑛!
𝐵𝑛,𝑗 (𝑢) = 𝑢𝑖 (1 − 𝑢)𝑛−1
𝑖! (𝑛 − 𝑖)!
Therefore the point that corresponds to u on the Bezier curve is the weighted average of all control
points where the weights are the coefficients Bn,i(u). the line segments P0, P1, P2,.. Pn-1 called
legs joining in this order form a characteristic polygon. Functions Bn,i(u) are referred to as the
Bezier basis functions or Bernstein Polynomials. Note that the domain of u is [0, 1]. As a result,
all basis functions are non-negative. In the above, since u and i can both be zero and so do 1 – u
and n–i, we adopt the convention that 00 is 1.

Figure 2.13 Bezier Curve

Following are the important characteristics of a Bezier curve:
1. The degree of a Bezier curve defined by n + 1 control points is n: In each basis function, the
exponent of u is i + (n – i) = n. Therefore, the degree of the curve is n.

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2. P(u) passes through P0 and Pn : This is shown in Figure 2.13. The curve passes though the
first and the last control points.
3. Non-negativity: All basis functions are non-negative.
4. Partition of unity: The sum of the basis functions at a fixed u is 1. It is not difficult to verify
that the basis functions are the coefficients in the binomial expansion of the expression 1 = [u + (1
– u)] n . Hence, their sum is one. Moreover, since they are nonnegative, we conclude that the value
of any basis function is in the range of 0 and 1. Since all basis functions are in the range of 0 and
1 and add to one, they can be considered as weights in the computation of a weighted average.
More precisely, we could say “to compute P(u), one takes the weight Bn,i (u) for control point Pi
and sum them together.”
5. Convex hull property: This means that the Bezier curve defined by the given n + 1 control
points lies completely in the convex hull of the given control points. The convex hull of a set of
points is the smallest convex set that contains all points. In Figure 2.14, the convex hull of the 11
control points is shown. Note that not all control points are on the boundary of the convex hull.
For example, control points 3, 4, 5, 8 and 9 are in the interior. The curve, except for the first two
end points, lies completely in the convex hull. This property is important because we are
guaranteed that the generated curve will be in an understood and computable region and will not
go outside of it.

Figure 2.14 Illustration of convex hull property

6. Variation diminishing property: If the curve is in a plane, this means that no straight line
intersects a Bézier curve more times than it intersects the characteristics polygon. Take a look at
Figure 2.15. Line 1 intersects the curve three times and the polyline seven times; line 2 intersects
the curve and its polyline twice; the line 3-intersects the curve four times and the polyline seven
times. You can draw other straight lines to verify this property. So, what is the meaning of this
characteristic? It tells us that the complexity (i.e., turning and twisting) of the curve is no more
complex than the characteristic polygon. In other words, the characteristic polygon twists and
turns more frequently than the Bezier curve does, because an arbitrary line hits the control polyline
more often than it hits the curve. Take a look at Figure 6.18, the characteristic polygon is more
complex than the curve it defines.

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Figure 2.16 Complexity of characteristic polygon.

7. Affine invariance: If an affine transformation is applied to a Bezier curve, the result can be
constructed from the affine images of its control points. This is a nice property. When we want to
apply a geometric or even affine transformation to a Bezier curve, this property states that we can
apply the transformation to control points, which is quite easy, and once the transformed control
points are obtained the transformed Bezier curve is the one defined by these new points. Therefore,
we do not have to transform the curve.
8. Moving control points: Changing the position of a control point will change the shape of the
defined Bezier curve. Suppose a control point Pk is moved to a new position Pk+v, where vector v
gives both the direction and length of this move. This is shown in Figure 2.17.

Figure 2.17 Effect of control point

Let the original Bezier curve be as follows:
P(u) = ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝐵𝑛,𝑖 (𝑢)𝑃𝑖 0 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 1 → (1)
Since the new Bezier curve is defined by P0, P1..Pk+v,…..Pn its equation D(u) is:

Q(u) = ∑𝑘−1 𝑛
𝑖=0 𝐵𝑛,𝑖 (𝑢)𝑃𝑖 + 𝐵𝑛,𝑘 (𝑢)(𝑃𝑘 + 𝑣) + ∑𝑖=𝑘+1 𝐵𝑛,𝑖 (𝑢)𝑃𝑖

= ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝐵𝑛,𝑖 (𝑢)𝑃𝑖 + 𝐵𝑛,𝑘 (𝑢)(𝑣)

=P(u)+ 𝐵𝑛,𝑘 (𝑢)(𝑣)

In the above, since only the kth term uses a different control point Pk + v, after re-grouping, we
know that the new curve is the sum of the original curve and an extra term Bn,k(u)v.

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This means:
The corresponding point of u on the new curve is obtained by translating the corresponding point
of u on the original curve in the direction of v with a distance of |Bn,k (u)v|.
More precisely, given a u, we have point P(u) on the original curve and Q(u) on the new curve
and Q(u) = P(u) + Bn,k (u)v. Since v gives the direction of movement, Q(u) is the result of moving
P(u) in the same direction. The length of this translation is, of course, the length of vector Bn,k
(u)v. Therefore, when Bn,k (u) reaches its maximum, the change from P(u) to Q(u) is the largest.
Figure 2.18 illustrates this effect. Both the curves –1 and –2 are Bezier curves of degree 8 defined
by nine control points. Curve 1 is the original curve. If its control point 3 is moved to a new
position, the curve 1 changes to curve 2. On each of these two curves there is the point
corresponding to u = 0.5. It is clear that P(0.5) moves in the same direction to Q(0.5). The distance
between P(0.5) and Q(0.5) is the length of vector B8,3 (0.5)v = 8!/(3!(8 – 3)!) X 0.5 3 (1 – 0.5) 8–
3 v = 0.22v. Hence, the distance is about 22 per cent of the distance between the original control
point 3 and the new control point 3 as shown in the figure.

Figure 2.18 Effect of translation

We can obtain one more important conclusion from the above discussion. Since Bn,k (u) is non-
zero in the open interval (0,1), Bn,k (u)v is not a zero vector in (0, 1). This means that except for
the two endpoints P(0) and P(1), all points on the original curve are moved to new locations.
Therefore, we have: Changing the position of a control point causes the shape of a Bezier curve
to change globally.
9. Bezier curves are tangent to their first and last legs: Differentiating Equation (1) with respect
to u, we get
𝑑
𝑃(𝑢) = 𝑃′ (𝑢) = ∑𝑛−1
𝑖=0 𝐵𝑛−1,𝑖 (𝑢){𝑃𝑖+1 − 𝑃𝑖 } (2)
𝑑𝑢

Letting u = 0 and u = 1 gives P’(0) = n(P1 – P0 ) and P’(1) = n(Pn – Pn-1) The first means that the
tangent vector at u = 0 is in the direction of P1 – P0 multiplied by n. Therefore, the first leg in the
indicated direction is tangent to the Bezier curve. The second means that the tangent vector at u =

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1 is in the direction of Pn – Pn–1 multiplied by n. Therefore, the last leg in the indicated direction is
tangent to the Bezier curve. Figure 2.19 shows this property well.

Figure 2.19 Tangential Property of Bezier curve

B - SPLINE CURVES
B - spline curves gives another effective method, besides that of Bezier curves. Moreover, B -
spline curves are the proper and powerful generalization of Bezier curves. B - spline curve has the
ability to interpolate or approximate a set of given data points. In addition to Bezier curves, the B
-spline curve separates the degree of the resulting curve from the number of the given control
points. The flexibility in the degree of the resulting curve is achieved by choosing the blending
function of B - spline curves with an additional degree of freedom that does not exist in Bernstein
polynomials. Similar to Bezier curves, the B - spline curve defined by n + 1 control points Pi is
given by
𝑛

𝑃(𝑆) = ∑ 𝑃𝑖 𝑁𝑖𝑘 (𝑆), 0 ≤ 𝑆 ≤ 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑖=0

Where Ni, k(S)→B – Spline function

The B-spline functions have the following properties
Partition of unity → Ensures the relationship between the curve and its defining control points is
invariant under transformation.
𝑛

∑ 𝑁𝑖,𝑘 (𝑆) = 1
𝑖=0

Positivity: This property ensures that the curve segment lies completely with in the convex hull
of Pi.
Ni, k(S) = 0 if S [Si+Si+k+1
Continuity:
Nik(S) is (k-2) time continuously differentiable.

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B-Spline function also has the property of recursion which is defined as

𝑁𝑖,𝑘−1 (𝑆) 𝑁𝑖+1,𝑘−1 (𝑆)
𝑁𝑖,𝑘 (𝑆) = (𝑆 − 𝑆1 ) + (𝑆𝑖+𝑘 − 𝑆)
𝑆𝑖+𝑘−1 − 𝑆𝑖 𝑆𝑖+𝑘 − 𝑆𝑖+1
Where
1
𝑁𝑖,1 = { 𝑆𝑖 ≤ 𝑆 ≤ 𝑆𝑖+1 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
0
0
Chose 0 = 0 so equation becomes zero. Equation shows that Ni,1 is a unit step function.

The characteristics of B - spline curves that are useful in design can be summarized as follows:
1. The local control of the curve can be achieved by changing the position of control points, using
multiple control points by placing several points at the same location, or by choosing a different
degree (k - 1). The local control for a cubic B - spline curve by moving P3 to P3* and P3** is
shown in Fig. 2.20. The four curve segments surrounding P3 change only.
2. A non-periodic B - spline curve passes through the first and last control points P0 and Pn+1 and
it is tangent to the first (P1 - P0) and last (Pn+1 – Pn) segment of control polygon, similar to the
Bezier curve, as shown in Fig. 2.20.
3. Generally the lesser the degree, the closer the curve gets to the control points as shown in Fig.
2.21.
4. The second-degree curve is always tangent to the mid points of all the internal polygon segments
as shown in Fig. 2.21.
5. If K equals the number of control points (n + 1), then the resulting B - spline curve becomes a
Bezier curve as shown in Fig. 2.22.
(a) No multiple control points
(b) Multiple control points
6. Multiple control points induces the regions of high curvature of a B - spline curve.

Figure 2.20 Local control of B-Spline curves

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Figure 2.21 Effect of the degree of B-Spline curve on the shape

Figure 2.22 Similar B-Spline and Bezier curves

Advantages of B - spline curve
1. They provide local control of the curve shape as opposed to global control by using a
special set of blending (base) functions that provide local influence.
2. B - spline curves also provide the ability to add control points without increasing the
degree of the curve.

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Principle of computer graphics Dept. of Mech Engg, SCSVMV

CONSTRUCTIVE SOLID GEOMETRY

Constructive solid-geometry methods were explained earlier using the basic primitives shown in
Fig. 2.23 utilising the Boolean operations. This is one of the most widely researched and
understood methodology because of the applications. For example, the intersection operation is
useful in understanding the interference problem in assemblies while the difference operator is
useful for the material removal processes in CNC toolpath planning. A CSG model is held as a
tree structure whose terminal nodes are primitive objects together with an appropriate
transformation and whose other nodes are Boolean set operations as shown in Fig. 2.24
with block and cylinder as primitives.

Figure 2.23 Various solid modelling primitives

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Principle of computer graphics Dept. of Mech Engg, SCSVMV

Figure 2.24 Creating a solid with 3D primitives in solid modelling and the model shown in
the form of Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
As explained earlier, the data structure for b-rep is based on the winged-edge structure while the
CSG representation is based on the concept of graphs and trees. A graph is defined as a set of
nodes connected by a set of branches or lines. If the pairs of nodes in a graph are ordered pairs
then the graph is called diagraph. In a diagraph, branches become arrows indicating the direction
of going from one node to another. A CSG tree is called as inverted ordered binary tree, where the
leaf nodes are primitives, and the interior nodes are regularised set operations. The total number
of nodes in a CSG tree indicates the number of primitives the solid is composed of. If the solid has
n primitives then it will have (n – 1) Boolean operations. The CSG tree then will have a total of
(2n – 1) nodes.

Figure 2.25 common primitives used in CSG modelling

The mathematical description of all the primitives is stored in the CAD system. The typical
primitives (Fig. 2.25) used are
 Block
 Cylinder
 Wedge
 Cone
 Sphere
 Torus
Editing a CSG representation is easy, for example, changing the diameter of the hole in the
example above is merely a case of changing the diameter of the cylinder. However, it is slow in

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producing direct rendered image from a CSG tree. For this purpose, the CSG representation has to
be converted to b-rep before rendering. Hence, many solid modellers use internally b-rep but the
user interface is based on the CSG representation. An object is stored as a tree with operators at
the internal nodes and simple primitives at the leaves. Some nodes represent Boolean operators,
whereas others perform translation, rotation, and scaling. To determine physical properties or to
make pictures, it is necessary to combine the properties of the leaves to obtain the properties of the
root by following the depth-first tree method. The complexity of this task depends on the
representation in which the leaf objects are stored. In some implementations, the primitives are
simple solids, such as cubes, cones or cylinders, ensuring that all regularised combinations are
valid solids as well. In other systems, primitives include half-spaces, which themselves are
unbounded solids. Using half spaces introduces a validity problem, since not all combinations
produce solids. The notion of a regular set is introduced in geometric modelling to ensure the
validity of objects they represent and, therefore, eliminate nonsense objects. A regular set is
defined as a set that is geometrically closed. Under geometric closure, a regular set has interior
and boundary subsets. The boundary contains the interior and any point on the boundary is in
contact with a point in the interior. The main building operators in the CSG scheme are regularised
union (∪∗), difference (–*), and intersection (∩*). These are the set operators which are also called
Boolean operators.
For example, let us assume that we are using two primitives, a block and a cylinder which are
located in space as shown in Fig. 2.26. A “union” operation (A ∪ B) will combine the two to
convert them into a new solid. (Fig. 2.26 (c)) The difference operation (A – B) will create a block
with a hole (Fig. 2.26. (D)). An intersection operation (A ∩ B) will yield the portion common to
the two primitives. (Fig.2.26(E)).

Figure 2.26 CSG operation

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Principle of computer graphics Dept. of Mech Engg, SCSVMV

Post – MCQ
1. Which of function is under geometric modelling in a manufacturing environment?
a. Design analysis
b. Drafting
c. Manufacturing
d. All of the other options
2. Geometric models are categorized into
a. 2 - dimensional & 3 - Dimensional
b. 1 - dimensional & 2 – dimensional
c. 1 – dimensional & 3 dimensional
d. None of the other options
3. Which of the principal is the right 3D representation techniques?
a. Wireframe model
b. Surface model
c. Solid model
d. All of the other options
4. The surface model is constructed essentially from
a. Hollow surfaces
b. Rotated curved surfaces
c. Solid plane surfaces
d. Cubical surfaces
5. Which of the surface is under non analytical surfaces?
a. Plane surface
b. Cubical surface
c. Curved surface
d. Sculptured surface
6. Automatic view generation is possible in
a. Line model
b. Surface model
c. Volume model
d. None of the other options
7. NURBS is an acronym of Non uniform rational B-splines.
a. True
b. False
c. Don’t know
d. None of the other options
8. Which of the common representation is under modeling?
a. Spatial enumeration
b. Cell decomposition
c. Sweep representation
d. All of the other options
9. An interpolated curve is drawn by interpolating the given data points and has a fixed
form, dictated by the given data points is called
a. Analytical curves
b. None of the other options
c. Synthetic curves

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d. Planer curves
10. The curve passes through all the data points, it is called
a. Interpolated curve
b. Planer curve
c. Cubic curve
d. None of the other options
11. Hermite cubic curve is also known as a
a. Parametric cubic curve
b. Analytical curves
c. None of the other options
d. Synthetic curves
12. Bezier curve is defined by approximating a set of
a. Data points
b. Control points
c. Control curves
d. None of the other options
13. Convex hull property means that the Bezier curve defined by the given
a. n + 2 control points lies completely in the convex hull of the given control points
b. n + 1 control points lies completely in the convex hull of the given control
points
c. n + 4 control points lies completely in the convex hull of the given control points
d. n + 3 control points lies completely in the convex hull of the given control points
14. Variation diminishing property means
a. No Curved line intersects a Bézier curve more times than it intersects the
characteristics polygon
b. No straight line intersects a Cubic curve more times than it intersects the
characteristics polygon
c. No straight line intersects a Bezier curve more times than it intersects the
characteristics polygon
d. No tangent circles intersects a Bézier curve more times than it intersects the
characteristics polygon

AUDIO / VIDEO LINKS

https://youtu.be/Gsa7jnI5D50

https://youtu.be/hCiu-NERMy4

SUMMARY
 Geometric modelling plays a crucial part in the overall application of CAD/CAM systems in
manufacturing industries. However, it is important to consider a number
of factors before finalising the selection of a CAD/CAM system that suits a given
purpose.

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Principle of computer graphics Dept. of Mech Engg, SCSVMV

 Information entered through geometric modelling is utilised in a number of downstream

applications such as drafting, manufacturing, inspection and planning.
 Geometric models are three types, viz., line model, surface model and solid model. Line model,
though simple, is rarely used because of the ambiguity present. Surface and solid models are
extensively used in industrial applications.
 Among the geometric construction methods, sweep or extrusion is most widely used, because
of its simplicity and elegance in developing 3D models.
 Solid modelling provides the most unambiguous representation of the solid model, but is more
computing intensive. However, to get the correct geometric model, it is essential to utilise solid
modelling approach.
 Surfaces are more widely used and it is necessary to use different types of surfaces such as B-
splines, Bézier, NURBS, lofted, to get the user requirements fulfilled.
 Constraint- or parametric-based modelling is the main methodology used by most of the 3D
CAD systems. This system helps in grasping the designer’s intent and greatly facilitates the
modification and reuse of the existing designs.

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. Explain the following with an example,
a. Bezier curve
b. B-Spline curve
2. Explain Constructive solid geometry with neat sketch.
3. Explain the parametric representation of synthetic curves.
4. Explain the following
a. Wireframe modeling
b. Surface modeling
c. Solid modeling

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Principle of computer graphics Dept. of Mech Engg, SCSVMV

CAD STANDARDS
Aim:
A large number of applications are used in CAD/CAM, which are manufactured by different
vendors. Therefore, there is a need to establish standards in CAD that help in linking different
hardware and software systems from different vendors to be integrated to serve the requirements
of the industry.
Objective:
To understand, the
 Need for CAD data standardization
 The graphic kernel system and its extensions for developing the graphic software systems
Requirements of graphic data exchange formats and their details such as IGES, DXF and
STEP.
 Dimensional measurement interface specification for communication between coordinate
measuring machine and the CAD data.

Pre-requisites
To have basic knowledge of CAD modelling.

Pre – test MCQ

1. In the following geometric modelling techniques which is not three-dimensional modelling?

a. Wireframe modelling
b. Drafting
c. Surface modelling
d. Solid modelling
2. In the following three-dimensional modelling techniques, which do not require much computer
time and memory?
a. Surface modelling
b. Solid modelling
c. Wireframe modelling
d. All of the above
3. In the following geometric modelling techniques, which cannot be used for finite element
analysis:
a. Wireframe modelling
b. Surface modelling
c. Solid modelling
d. None of the above

COORDINATE REPRESENTATION SYSTEM

Every CAD/CAM system follows certain type of coordinate representation system. While
displaying an image, the mapping of coordinates of the object consisting of 2D and 3D primitives

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occurs onto the display device or workstation. This is obtained through the coordinates
transformations, also referred to as viewing transformations.
Cartesian coordinate system
Cartesian coordinate system is mostly followed by the graphics software design. If coordinates of
an image is defined in other coordinate system (eg., cylindrical or spherical coordinate system),
they must be converted into the cartesian coordinates before using in the graphics software. Fig.
2.27 shows the viewing transformation sequence from local coordinates to the device coordinates.
Broadly, three types of coordinate system are required to input display and store the geometry of
graphics model during the modeling process.
World coordinate system.
World coordinate system (WCS) is the working or user coordinate system, which describes the
image in cartesian coordinates. Firstly the shape of objects is created in the form of graphics of
image, using separate coordinate reference frames, known as local coordinate system. The units
are the user units, which can be anything like mm, m, km, foot, etc., Once all the objects in graphics
images are described by their individual local coordinate systems, they can be placed in the
graphics images with reference to one single reference frame, i.e, cartesian coordinates. The WCS
may
(i) have numerical values that depend on the type of problem.
(ii) have positive values or negative values.
(iii) have range from -α to +α in both x and y directions.
(iv) be represented by floating point numbers. (e.g. 0.125 x 103; mantissa = 0.125 and
exponent = 3)
Normalised coordinate system
For modeling, each graphics output device may follow different coordinates. In some images, we
might want to specify objects dimensions in fraction of a foot, while for some other applications
it may be ‘mm’ (or) ‘km’. It is, therefore, desirable to convert the world coordinates into the
normalized coordinates. i.e, Normalized coordinate system (NCS), to make the coordinate system
independent of several graphics output devices. Normalization may be done from (0,0) to (1,1)
with origin at (0,0) in the lower left corner and co-ordinate (1,1) on the right top corner of the
display devices. To accommodate the differences in scales and aspect ratios, the mapping of
normalized coordinates into square area of the displays is required to maintain the proper
proportions of various images.
Device coordinate system
The device coordinate system is one in which the image of normalized coordinate system will be
displaced in the output device like monitor (soft device), printer/plotter (hard device). A graphics
device understands the device coordinate system in terms of pixels, cm, inch, etc. Depending upon
the pixel density, the DCS would vary from one system to another. The features of device control
system are follows:

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Principle of computer graphics Dept. of Mech Engg, SCSVMV

(i) The pixel density (eg: 1024 X 1024) of the display device depends on the maximum
size.
(ii) Positive values have to be considered.
(iii) Always fixed in size (i.e. size of display surface) irrespective of the problem.
(iv) It should be always represented by an integer number.

Figure 2.27 Viewing transformation sequence from local coordinates to device coordinates

TWO DIMENSIONAL TRANSFORMATION

Basic transformation
The transformations are used to reposition and resize two-dimensional objects on the displays
(alternatively, in the database). The three basic transformations are as follows:
(i) Translation
(ii) Scaling
(iii) Rotation
Any point is represented by its coordinates (x, y, z) from the reference datum in the three
dimensional system. For simplicity and to make it easy to understand, we can analyse the two
dimensional system. Then we can discuss the 3D system.
Translation
Translation is one of the important types of transformation. This is used to move the entity. After
moving, all points of new entity are parallel to all points of the old entity. Moving the drawing or
model across the screen is called translation. This is accomplished by adding to the coordinate of
each corner point ‘the distance’ through which the drawing is to be moved x′=x + m
y′ = y + n

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where, x′, y′ - coordinates of the translated point

x, y - coordinates of the original point
m, n - movements in the x and y direction
In matrix notation this can be represented as (x′, y′) = (x, y) + T
where, T = (m, n), the translation matrix
Scaling
Scaling of an element is used to enlarge it or reduce its size. A drawing can be made bigger by
increasing the distance between the points of the drawing. In general, this can be done by
multiplying the coordinates of the drawing by an enlargement or reduction factor called scaling
factor, and this operation is called scaling. The coordinates of an object is multiplied uniformly
by the scaling factor.

Figure 2.28 scaling of a rectangle

From Fig. 2.28 it is shown that a rectangle is enlarged using scaling. The scaling matrix is given
as follows:
𝑆𝑥 0
S= [ 0 𝑆𝑦 ]

where,
S - Scaling matrix
Sx - Scaling in x direction
Sy - Scaling in y direction
Sx and Sy need not be equal. A circle can be transformed into an ellipse by unequal scaling
factors Sx and Sy. If the scaling factors are less than 1, it will reduce the size of the object and

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the object is moved towards the origin. If it is greater than 1, then it will enlarge the size of the
object and object is moved away from the origin.

P′ = [𝑋 ′ , 𝑌′] = [𝑆𝑥 × 𝑥, 𝑆𝑦 × 𝑦]
The above equation can be represented in a matrix form as follows:
𝑆𝑥 0 𝑥
P′ = [ 0 𝑆𝑦 ] [𝑦]
P′ = [S].[P]
While zooming or magnifying the object, uniform scaling ((i.e) Sx = Sy) is applied. Zooming or
magnifying is only a display attribute and is used only to the display and not stored in actual
geometric database.
Rotation
Rotation is also an another important transformation. In this transformation, all the points of an
object are rotated about the origin (or) about any base point by an angle. For a positive angle, the
object is rotated in anticlockwise direction and vice versa.
Consider a point P in xy plane. P is rotated in the anticlockwise direction to get new position P′
through an angle of Ɵ as shown in Fig. 2.29

Figure 2.29 Rotation of a square

The new position [x′,y′]
The original position is (x,y)
The rotation of the object by some angle will also move the object. In matrix notation, the
procedure would be as follows: (x′, y′) = (x, y) R
Where
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Principle of computer graphics Dept. of Mech Engg, SCSVMV

𝑐𝑜𝑠Ɵ 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ
R=[ ] → Rotation matrix
−𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ɵ

THREE DIMENSIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Transformations by matrix methods can be extended to three-dimensional space. The procedure
used for two dimensional transformations can be extended to three dimensional by adding z axis.
The transformation matrix will then be 3 × 3.
Translation
For a three dimensional element, the translation point will be given as,
T = (m, n, p)
where, m, n, p are the coordinates of translation point or increment. In matrix notation, it is
given as,
(x′, y′, z′) = (x, y, z) + T

Scaling
The scaling transformation is given by,
𝑚 0 0
S = [0 𝑛 0]
0 0 𝑝
where,
m, n and p are the units needed, to be scaled. For equal values of m, n and p, the scaling is linear.
Rotation
For each axis, the rotation in three dimensions varies.
For Z axis
Rotation about the Z axis by angle Ɵ is given by the matrix
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0
Rz = [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0]
0 0 1
For Y axis
Rotation about the Y axis by angle Ɵ is given by the matrix
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ
Ry = [ 0 1 0 ]
−𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ɵ
Rotation about the x axis by angle Ɵ is given by the matrix
1 0 0
Rx = [0 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ɵ −𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ]
0 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ɵ

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Principle of computer graphics Dept. of Mech Engg, SCSVMV

Post – MCQ

1. World coordinate system (WCS) is also knows as

a. User coordinate system
b. Normalized coordinate system
c. Screen coordinate system
d. None of the other options
2. Scaling of an element is used to
a. Trim or edit the only lines
b. Enlarge it or reduce its size
c. Delete all the lines
d. Copying of all the lines
3. Device coordinate system is in which the output can be displayed in
a. Printers
b. Monitors
c. Devices
d. All of the other options
4. NCS is the acronym of normalized coordinate system
a. True
b. False
c. Don’t know
d. None of the other options
5. The range of world coordinate system is
a. 0 to 1
b. -1 to +1
c. -α to +α
d. –Ɵ to +Ɵ

AUDIO / VIDEO LINK

https://youtu.be/iWxS2zpaRjk

https://youtu.be/I8o4kK9QRL4

SUMMARY

 Geometric transformations can be handled conveniently using matrix algebra.

 For this purpose, it is necessary to use homogenous representation of vertex data.
 Various transformations that are quite useful are translation, rotation, scale and reflection.
 It is possible to extend these basic transformations for more complex transformations.
 The 2D transformation methods can be easily extended into 3D.
 The 3D geometry data needs to be converted into 2D by adopting a suitable projection
system such as orthographic, isometric or perspective projection.

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Principle of computer graphics Dept. of Mech Engg, SCSVMV

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain 2D transformation in CAD.

2. Explain the various coordinate system in CAD.

REFERENCES

1. P.N. Rao, CAD/CAM: Principles and Applications 3rd Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, India,
2010.
2. Ibrahim Zeid and R. Sivasubramaniam, Mastering CAD/CAM, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw
Hill, India, 2009

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