Mulungushi University

School of Agricultural Science and Natural Resources

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 INTRODUCTION

Black rot disease caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris is a worldwide problem causing
serious damage to all crops of the Brassicaceae family and is of concern to both scientists and
farmers (Ryan et al. 2011). It is a destructive disease of a wide range of crucifer plants; cabbage
(Brassica oleracea pv. capitata L.) being one of the main hosts. (Bila et al. 2009). Methods for black
rot control have included the use of certified seed, resistant cultivars, cultural practices, physical and
chemical treatment of seeds (Williams, 1980; Onsando et al., 1992). This paper will therefore start by
giving brief highlights on how black rot affects cabbage, and the potential and/or actual losses in
cabbage production. The paper will then discuss research which has been conducted on black rot and
talk about how the findings may contribute to a better management of black rot. Finally, the paper
will ssuggest an integrated disease management (IDM) plan that can help minimise damage by the
caused by black rot to cabbage.

EFFECTS OF BLACK ROT ON CABBAGE AND LOSSESS RESULTING FROM BLACK ROT
IN CABBAGE PRODUCTION

Black rot, as can be seen in figure I and figure II, is characterized by V-shaped, chlorotic to necrotic
lesions, at the margin of leaves and blackened vascular tissues. As the disease progresses,
parenchyma cells surrounding vessels in the main stem also turn black and the plant becomes wilted,
stunted and finally rots (Williams, 1980; Alvarez, 2000). Diseased leaves and heads have a poor
market value, and are unsuitable for storage as they quickly rot after harvest. The black rot pathogen
survives in infected seeds or in un-decomposed plant debris in or on soil as well as on collateral hosts
and weeds (Randhawa and Schaad, 1984; Kocks and Zadoks, 1996). During seed germination the
pathogen invades the vascular tissues of the epicotyl and infects foliage before being released
through guttation droplets at leaf margins (Alvarez, 2000). Water splash, wind-driven rain and
aerosols aid secondary spread of the pathogen leading to widespread disease when the weather is
favourable.

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 figure I figure II

Black rot has been a major disease constraint of cabbage production to smallholder farmers in Africa
where substantial crops losses are experienced, especially during the warm and wet seasons (Mguni,
1996; Massomo, 2002). According to Lo and Wang (2001), Bila (2008), the loss caused by this
disease on cabbage ranges from 30–70%, depending on the prevailing weather conditions. In
Zambia, the disease causes severe damage leading to total crop loss during the warm and wet
seasons. Low productivity and in some cases, unsustainable production, contribute directly to the
poverty of individuals who derive all or part of their livelihoods from smallholder farming systems
across the developing world and Zambia in particular (Varela et al. 2003, Otipa et al. 2013).

DISCUSION OF RESEARCH ON BLACK ROT

A study by Massomo et al. (2005) titled ‘Cabbage Production in Tanzania: Challenges Faced by
Smallholder Farmers in the Management of Black Rot Disease’ can contribute to the better
management of black rot because the study found that black rot has increasingly become the major
constraint to sustained production of cabbage in Tanzania. On-farm surveys were carried out in
northern Tanzania to gain an insight on cabbage production practices in relation to the prevalence of
black rot. The studies revealed a rapid increase in cabbage acreage characterized by inappropriate
cultural practices and wide spread occurrence of black rot. The black rot problem seemed to be
aggravated by continuous cropping due to shortage of land, cultivation of susceptible cultivars and
lack of suitable disease management strategies. Other challenges faced by farmers in the
management of black rot included problems in seed quality, marketing and the adverse influence of
middlemen in cabbage cultivation. Massomo et al. (2005) suggested that seed companies should also
improve promising cultivars such as Gloria F1 for black rot resistance and avail these cultivars to the
national agricultural research system in developing countries for further testing and dissemination. In
close collaboration with respective seed companies, agricultural research systems should continue

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with introduction and screening of cabbage cultivars for black rot resistance as well as demonstration
and dissemination of promising cultivars using farmer participatory research approach. In addition,
agricultural researchers should continue to work on the development of alternative strategies, such as
biocontrol, for the integrated management of black rot. The research and extension systems should
also jointly address the need for training farmers in cabbage production, with emphasis on black rot
management strategies and proper usage of pesticides. Since most of the cabbage farmers are literate,
it is recommended that information and educational materials, such as posters and leaflets are
produced and disseminated to guide and enable farmers to achieve good cabbage yields.

Research carried out by Bila et al. (2009) titled ‘Cabbage Production and Black Rot Disease
Management by Small Holder Farmers in Southern Mozambique’ found that black rot has been a
main disease constraint of crucifers grown by smallholder farmers in Mozambique. On-farm survey
was conducted through triangulation of several social methods. The number of cabbage crops grown
per year ranged from one to four. Four Brassica seeds sources were used by the farmers, namely:
shops, friends, middle man and own production. The research found that around five Brassica
varieties namely, Glory F1, Glory of Enkhuizen, Copenhagen Market, Tronchuda and Starke are
grown in the studied areas. It was also discovered that farmers as well as the Extension Service
Officers in the surveyed regions were not aware about the range of symptoms caused by the black rot
pathogen in Mozambique. Moreover, Bila et al. (2009) found that both groups underestimated the
role of seed and seedling infection as source of primary inoculums in disease development. However,
it was observed during field visit that seedbed contained transplants quite often contaminated. Those
seedbeds were located in close proximity to older crucifer’s plant plots. Furthermore, many small
farmers produce seedlings in non clean soil under overhead irrigation. On the other hand, flood
irrigation was commonly practiced in cabbage field production. The use of cabbage refuses as
livestock feed and ploughing of plant debris in the field were the most important methods for plant
debris disposal. Most of the farmers used chemical methods and less susceptible cultivars whenever
available to control black rot.

The findings of Bila et al. (2009) may contribute to a better management of the black rot firstly,
because they highlight the ignorance of famers and extension workers on the symptoms of the
disease and also that both groups underestimated the role of seed and seedling infection as source of
primary inoculums in disease development. Nelson et al. (2001) noted that farmers in developing
countries have substantial difficulty in managing plant diseases partly because they lack access to
information and technology. Therefore, this finding means that it is important to carry out
sensitisation to famers and extension service workers on the symptoms of black rot for early

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identification and treatment of the disease as part of a good management plan. This information is
important as famers in Zambia may also be making the same mistakes as the one in Mozambique so
the leassons learned theres my Bila et al (2009) can be used to guide the creation of an intergrated
disease management plan that takes into account the mistakes made by the famers in this study when
suggesting strategies to deal with black rot.

Another research study by Meenu et al. (2013) title ‘Black Rot: A Devastating Disease for Crucifers’
can contribute to the management of black rot in cabbage because the study found that black rot is
the most destructive disease causing heavy losses to the crucifers like cabbage. The disease can cause
significant yield losses when warm, humid conditions follow periods of rainy weather during early
crop development. Late infections can provide a wound for other rot organisms to enter and cause
significant damage during storage. The bacterium survives in infected seed even up to three years.
Therefore, more emphasis should be given on the removal of seed borne infections. Black rot
management begins with the identification of potential disease survival sources and utilizing an
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategy including host resistance, planting disease free seed,
avoiding spreading the disease and proper sanitation. Sanitation is the main method that reduces,
excludes or eliminates the initial sources of disease. General sanitation practices include crop
rotation, disinfecting seed, rouging diseased plants, elimination of refuse piles and eradication of
alternative hosts. The development of crop varieties with disease resistance or tolerance to black rot
has been the focus of many crop breeding programs worldwide. Today, many crucifer hybrids with
black rot tolerance are available for both fresh and processing commercial production.

Another research by Ombuna et al. (2019) titled ‘Control of Black Rot Disease in Cabbage by
Integration of Mulching, Pruning and Hot Water Treatment of Seeds’ found that black rot disease of
cabbage has been a major hindering factor to cabbage production in Kisii County, Kenya. The study
may contribute to the better management of black rot because the researchers found that the
conventional technique for controlling black rot in Kenya has been the use of chemicals. However,
this method of control has not been effective as the disease is seed borne. In addition, most chemicals
pollute the environment and make it unconducive for the survival of other important organisms such
as decomposers. Therefore, Ombuna et al. (2019) suggested the integration of hot water treatment of
seeds, mulching, pruning and plant debris management as an approach that can effectively manage
black rot. To achieve this objective, seeds of Gloria Hybrid cabbage were inoculated with a bacterial
suspension of X. campestris pv. campestris isolated from leaf segments obtained from plant leaves
with characteristics symptoms of black rot disease. A portion of the inoculated seeds were treated
with hot water at 50oC for 25 minutes and later planted in the field to evaluate the effects of

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mulching, pruning and plant debris management on black rot disease. Another portion of the
inoculated seeds were not treated with hot water and were planted to serve as a control. Disease was
scored on a scale of 1–9 based on the length of the V-shaped lesions developed on the margin of
plant leaves. The results obtained in this research are important to the management of black rot in
cabbage as they show that integration of hot water treatment of seeds, mulching, pruning and plant
debris management led to 76.1% less black rot disease and a 78.3% increase in marketable yields.
Hence such treatment is recommended as the best approach to manage black rot disease of cabbage
in the field.

In a different study by Vega-Álvarez et al. (2021) titled ‘Black Rot Disease Decreases Young
Brassica oleracea Plants’ Biomass but Has No Effect in Adult Plants’ can contribute to the better
management of black rot because it highlight the importance of prevention and early treatment of
black rot as black which catch the disease latter in their life cycle fair far better than those which
catch it early. The study found that black rot disease causes important yield losses in Brassica
oleracea L. crops worldwide. In temperate areas, yield losses are mostly due to the discarding of
those plants showing chlorotic and necrotic lesions, since they may be unmarketable. However, the
biomass loss caused by the diversion of resources from the primary to the secondary defence
metabolism could also affect the final crop yield. Vega-Álvarez et al. (2021) focused on studying the
impact black rot invasion on the biomass production of young and adult cabbage plants. The results
have shown that black rot infection reduces biomass and photosynthesis in the aerial parts of
seedlings and modifies their water percentage in a time-dependent manner. However, when adult
plants were inoculated in the field, no effect was detected on the leaves or the biomass of marketable
products. This was probably due to a better immune response when compared to seedlings. These
finding are important and contribute to the management of black rot in cabbage because they show
that since the first developmental stages cabbage crops are especially vulnerable to black rot, plant
disease control should be increased at this early stage in order to avoid yield losses of marketable
products at the adult stage.

INTERGRATED DISEASE MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR BLACK ROT IN CABBAGE

Integrated disease management (IDM) can be defined as “a decision-based process involving

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and antagonists as well; use of economic or treatment thresholds when applying chemicals and
integrated use of multiple, suppressive tactics.

CULTURAL CONTROL

Before planting:

Use only certified, black rot-free seed; the bacterium can survive up to 3 years in seed. Seed should
be treated at 50°C for 25 minutes, and 20 minutes for cauliflower and broccoli). An alternative is to
soak the seed in 0.5% sodium hypochlorite for 30 minutes.

Nursery practices: Decontaminate seedling trays by dipping them in 10% bleach, rinse and dry. Raise
nursery plants in soil-less potting mix, or pasteurised soil mixes. Keep nursery areas at distance from
fields where cabbage (and other brassica) crops are grown. Inspect seedlings frequently; if infections
occur, destroy the seedlings and those in a buffer region around. Select well-drained fields, and plant
on raised beds.

During growth: Remove weeds from around the cabbage (and other brassica) fields, especially weeds
in the brassica family. Ensure there is enough space between plants in the field.

After harvest: Remove the remains of the crop immediately after harvest, or plough in the remains;
the bacterium can survive several months in stems or leaf debris in the soil.

Practice crop rotation so that there is a 3-4-year gap between susceptible brassicas grown on the
same land.

CHEMICAL CONTROL

Chemical control is not recommended for this disease where cabbages (and other brassicas) are
grown for household use. Where they are grown for sale, it is recommended that copper fungicides
be used as preventative sprays in nurseries. Spraying of plants in the field is not recommended.

There are several products including organic formulations. They differ in type of copper and in
amount of metallic and biologically active copper. Applying a mancozeb fungicide with copper (or
using ManKocide) can increase copper activity. Bacterial pathogens, including the one causing black
rot, can develop resistance to copper. Actigard, a plant activator, is also labeled for managing black
rot. Regalia acts similarly by boosting the plant’s defense mechanisms. It is a biopesticide and
approved for organic production. These need to be applied starting before infection to obtain the
most benefit. They are recommended used in a program with fungicides that act directly on the
pathogen. There are several other biopesticides labelled for black rot. Bacterial pathogens can be

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difficult to manage with fungicides partly because of their ability to multiply quickly. Therefore a
preventive application schedule is considered best with all fungicides, and they should be used as
part of an integrated management program. (Brown and Ogle 1997)

CONCLUSION

This paper highlighted on how black rot affects cabbage, and the potential and/or actual losses in
cabbage production. The paper then discussed research which has been conducted on black rot and
talk about how the findings may contribute to a better management of black rot. Finally, the paper
will suggested an integrated disease management (IDM) plan that can help minimise damage by the
caused by black rot to cabbage. We greatly recommend that agriculturalist take note of the
discussions of this paper and apply the suggested IDM plan when growing cabbage in order to
effectively manage black rot and prevent losses.

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 Reference

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