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Welded Lap Joints of Thin Steel Sheets With Diffe
Welded Lap Joints of Thin Steel Sheets With Diffe
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Welding deformation in arc welded lap joints of thin steel plates with different strengths were quantitatively
Welding deformation investigated by experimental measurement and numerical simulation. Four welding deformation components
Arc welded lap joint were discussed in detail. There is a relatively uniform distribution of transverse shrinkage along the welding
Numerical simulation
direction and a largest angular distortion in the middle transverse section. The bottom plate of the lap joint
Material properties.
presents larger longitudinal shrinkage and deflection obviously in comparison with top plate. Two lap joints with
different strength were discussed comparatively. It is observed that the DP590 lap joint with higher strength has
larger angular distortion and smaller shrinkage and deflection in the longitudinal direction, and no obvious
variation in transverse shrinkage. Correlation between material properties and welding deformation of arc
welded lap joints were investigated by parametrical numerical simulations. The results show that the welding
deformation varies considerably among various steels with different yield strength (YS) and coefficient of
thermal expansion (CTE) although they have the same heat input.
* Corresponding author at: State Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150001, China
** Corresponding authors at: Joining and Welding Research Institute, Osaka University, 11–1 Mihogaoka, Ibaraki, Osaka, 567-0047, Japan
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Y. Liu), [email protected] (N. Ma).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.11.038
Received 29 September 2020; Received in revised form 15 November 2020; Accepted 27 November 2020
Available online 17 December 2020
1526-6125/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Y. Liu et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 61 (2021) 507–517
different constraint conditions, respectively. The effect of jig constraint welding, and the lap length was 20 mm. The number of tack welds was
was analyzed in detail with numerical simulation. Suman et al. [11] and three and the size was approximately 10 mm in length. To reduce the
Zubairuddin et al. [12] reported that preheating could reduce the influence of initial stresses, all the plates were performed stress relief
welding distortion in single-pass and multi-pass welding. Cozzolino heat treatment at 600℃ for 2 h, and the surface of welding plates near
et al. [13] simulated the fusion welding and post-weld rolling process the welding position was polished prior to tack welding. A metal active
and confirmed that the welding residual stresses and distortion in butt gas (MAG) welding process was employed. The shielding gas was 80 %
joints could be reduced by rolling method. Zhang et al. [14] studied the Ar and 20 % CO2. The welding parameters were 150A for current, 20 V
angular deformation in HSLA thick-plate T-joints at different constraint for arc voltage, 55 cm/min for welding speed and 20 L/min for gas flow.
conditions and proposed a presetting method to control the deforma Two sets of lap joints with different strength were welded under
tion. Thus, the welding deformation behaviors and mechanism have unrestricted conditions with same welding parameters. The base metals
been well understood and various process details could also be repro were DP590 (hot rolled high strength steel for automotive application)
duced in welding calculations. However, these research efforts have and SPCC (cold rolled mild steel), and their corresponding welding filler
mainly concentrated on the deformation behaviors caused by welding materials were YM-60A and YM-24S. The specimens of lap joints after
process in bead-on plates, butt-welded plates and fillet joints. Limited welding are showed in Fig. 2(a) and (b), respectively.
studies such as those by Huang et al. [15] have discussed welding
deformation behaviors in lap joints although they have been extensively 2.2. Welding-induced deformation
used in the industrial field. In this work [15], a modified iterative
method (ISM) was proposed and used in the welding simulation of arc As shown in Fig. 2, several through-holes with a radius of 1.5 mm
welded lap joints. This work mainly discussed the modified ISM for were machined on both top and bottom plates before welding for the
welding simulation without further analysis of welding distortion in lap measurement of welding-induced deformation. Three dimensional co
joints. ordinates of these holes were measured after assembly and after cooling,
Arc welded lap joint has been widely employed to assemble auto respectively, so that the deformation components induced by welding
motive bodies due to its continuous weld, which could provide increased process could be calculated by the difference between the two sets of
bearing capacity in both stiffness and strength if compared to the coordinates.
discrete weld in resistance spot welding (RSW) process [16]. And there In this study, four typical components of welding deformation
is a growing demand for the materials with high strength and thin including transverse shrinkage, longitudinal shrinkage, angular defor
thickness under the requirement of light weight and energy efficiency in mation and longitudinal deflection in arc welded lap joints as shown in
the automotive industry. Based on the welding deformation behaviors Fig. 3 were evaluated with measured coordinates data. As shown in
discussed by Wang [17], unstable deformation and even buckling was Fig. 4(a) and Fig. 5(a), the in-plane deformation component transverse
more likely to occur when a thin plate with higher tensile strength was shrinkage and the out-of-plane deformation component angular distor
used. The problem of out-of-plane deformation induced by welding tion were estimated at transverse sections of X = 10, 50, 150, 250, 290
process becomes more prominent in this context. The welding defor mm, and Fig. 6(a) and Fig. 7(a) indicates that the longitudinal shrinkage
mation behaviors in lap joints and its influence by material properties of and deflection are measured at longitudinal sections of Y=-70, -30, 0,
thin sheet plates require further analysis. 30, 90 mm.
In this study, two lap joints of thin steel sheets with different strength As shown in Fig. 4, there are relatively uniform distribution of
(DP590 and SPCC steel) were welded by the metal active gas (MAG) transverse shrinkage along the weld line because the welding heat input
welding process with same heat input. The welding deformation com remains unchanged during the whole welding process, which could
ponents were measured with a 3D coordinate measuring machine. generate relatively constant plastic strain in the transverse direction.
Corresponding FE models for the two arc welded lap joints were And no significant difference was observed between DP590 and SPCC
developed to simulate the welding process. A good correlation was ob lap joints.
tained between simulated results and measurements. Furthermore, Fig. 5 shows that the angular deformation of the middle cross-section
parametric calculations were performed to investigate the welding presents larger value than that of the two side sections along the weld,
deformation in the lap joints with various YS and CTE, and their which is probably due to the effect of longitudinal deflection on angular
deformation mechanism was discussed in detail. deformation. A large upward deflection of the bottom plate (longitudi
nal section 5 in Fig. 7) can be observed, which inevitably contributes to
2. Experimental study enlarging the angular deformation of the middle cross-section. By
contrast, DP590 lap joint has greater angular distortion than SPCC lap
2.1. Welding experiment joint due to the variation in strength. It is probably because the DP590
lap joint has a larger difference of transverse plastic strain in the
As shown in Fig. 1, two thin sheet plates with the same dimensions thickness direction.
(300 mm × 100 mm×3.2 mm) were assembled as a lap joint by tack As shown in Fig. 6, there are much larger longitudinal shrinkage in
the section close to the welding line than that of sections away from
welding line. And the values of top and bottom plate at the same dis
tance from the weld line are clearly asymmetric with a larger shrinkage
in bottom plate and a lower one in top plate. This phenomenon differs
from that of butt welded plate [10]. The reason seems to be that large
longitudinal deflection of the bottom plate has a contribution to its
shrinkage value. Compared with DP590 steel, SPCC lap joint presents a
much larger longitudinal shrinkage.
Fig. 7 clearly indicates that the bottom plate gives a larger longitu
dinal deflection compared with the top plate in both cases. It indicates
that the edge of bottom plate (section 5) has the largest deflection value
and the edge of top plate (section 1) has the minimum one. And inter
estingly, the deflection of SPCC lap joint is greater than that of DP590 in
all the longitudinal sections, which largely indicates that the SPCC lap
Fig. 1. Schematic of the arc welded lap joints. joint has much larger shrinkage force than DP590 from the point of view
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Fig. 2. Specimens of arc welded lap joints: (a) 3.2 mm DP590 plates, (b) 3.2 mm SPCC plates.
Fig. 3. Sketch of welding deformation components in arc welded lap joints: (a) transverse shrinkage; (b) angular deformation; (c) longitudinal shrinkage; (d)
longitudinal deflection.
Fig. 4. Transverse shrinkage of DP590 and SPCC lap joints: (a) transverse sections; (b) transverse shrinkage.
of deformation mechanism. neglected in this study. (c) Isotropic hardening was assumed for the
materials in welding models. (d) Gravity was assumed to have no effect
3. Welding numerical simulation for lap joints on welding deformation in small size welded components.
In the present study, three dimensional thermomechanical FE model
3.1. Finite element model and material properties based on Abaqus was employed to calculate the welding heat transfer
process and welding deformation. The finite element model and
Welding simulation is very complicated, several assumptions are boundary conditions for lap welded plate are shown in Fig. 8. Fine mesh
stated firstly: (a) Modelling of welding process is a multi-physics prob was used near the weld line with a minimum size of 0.8 mm due to high
lem, the process of fluid flow, weld solidification and phase trans temperature and stress gradients, and a mesh transition technology was
formations during welding was not included in the current model. (b) A adopted for computational efficiency. The FE model had a total of
weakly coupled thermomechanical model was assumed. That is to say 28,788 elements and 36,934 nodes. Six freedoms of three points were
the effect of welding deformation on welding thermal field was fixed to ensure that the model could be deformed freely without rigid
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Fig. 5. Angular deformation of DP590 and SPCC lap joints: (a) transverse sections; (b) angular deformation.
Fig. 6. Longitudinal shrinkage of DP590 and SPCC lap joints: (a) longitudinal sections; (b) longitudinal shrinkage.
Fig. 7. Longitudinal deflection of DP590 and SPCC lap joints: (a) longitudinal sections; (b) longitudinal deflection.
Fig. 8. Finite element model and boundary conditions of arc welded lap joint.
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motion during the whole welding simulation. In the case of small deformation, the quadratic terms in the Green-
The temperature-dependent physical and mechanical properties of Lagrange strain tensor can be ignored, but for the large deformation
DP590 and SPCC steel were presented in Fig. 9. And the weld fillers were problem, the nonlinear terms must be included, which is usually called
given the same material properties as the corresponding base metal due geometric nonlinearity [15]. Large strain theory was used in the present
to the similarity in chemical composition and strength. Material prop model because there was a high probability of a large and even unstable
erties between adjacent temperature points were obtained using a linear deformation during welding simulation. The contact behavior between
interpolation method, and they were given the same value as at 1000℃ the top and bottom plates was included in current model to prevent
when the temperature was above 1000℃. nodal penetration. and the friction was neglected.
3.2. Welding heat transfer simulation 4. Comparison of simulated results and measurements
A sequential coupled thermal mechanical simulation was carried out The simulated out-of-plane deformation of DP590 and SPCC lap
to investigate the welding deformation behavior of the two lap joints joints after welding were compared in Fig. 11. It can be observed that the
with different strength. A simplified heat source model with uniform two lap joints both have a saddle-shaped deformation and the bottom
volume heat generation rate was employed in this study. Thermal effi plate presents much larger out-of-plane deformation compared with top
ciency of the welding arc was set to 0.9. The ambient temperature and plate. Since the arc welded lap joints have a fillet weld, the top plate had
initial temperature of the lap joints were both set to 20 ℃. The film a fully penetration along the edge while the bottom plate was partially
coefficient of all the surfaces due to convection was given 24 W/(m2℃) penetrated, which was deformed much like a bead-on welded plate. In
[1], while the film coefficient of the back surface was assumed to be this case, a saddle-shaped deformation could be easily generated in arc
enlarged 10 times considering the heat dissipation from the metal welded lap joints.
platform in the back. Fig. 12 shows the comparison of welding deformation components
The transient thermal filed at 20 s from welding beginning was between numerical simulation and measurements. It shows that the
drawn in Fig. 10(a), from which it can be seen that there is large tem simulated results generally agree well with measured data both in the
perature gradient near the heat source, while a relatively uniform dis cases of DP590 and SPCC lap joints. A convex distortion along the weld
tribution with lower temperature can be observed in the rear region. The line could be found in Fig. 12(a), which shows that the longitudinal
peak temperature of each node during welding was recorded as a field deflection of SPCC lap joint is larger than that of DP590. However, the
variable FV1 to verify the fusion zone shape and penetration depth. deformation mode along the middle transverse direction presents a
Based on the measured results, the weld width was about 5 mm and the concave shape as shown in Fig. 12(b), and the DP590 lap joint gives a
maximum penetration depth in the bottom plate was around 0.8 mm, slightly larger angular distortion. The discrepancies in welding distor
which was well reproduced by FE simulation as shown in Fig. 10(b). tion between the two lap joints could be well predicted in numerical
results as discussed in section 2.2.
In order to evaluate the effect of geometric nonlinearity in current
3.3. Mechanical analysis in welding simulation
models, the out-of-plane deformation of SPCC lap joint with and without
considering the nonlinear term in Eqs. (3) was compared in Fig. 13. It
The total strain increment could be expressed as the sum of several
clearly indicates that the FE model with small strain theory has given
components in the mechanical analysis for welding simulation [18–20]:
much smaller deformation. Therefore, large strain theory is recom
Δεtotal = Δεe + Δεp + Δεt + Δεtr (1) mended for the welding simulation of thin-walled structures.
where Δεe , Δεp , Δεt , andΔεtr are the elastic strain increment, plastic 5. Parametric studies
strain increment, thermal strain increment and strain increment due to
volume change in solid-state phase transformation (SSPT), respectively. 5.1. Simulation cases with varying material properties
The last item could be neglected in the absence of low temperature SSPT
as discussed by Deng [19]. Materials with various strengths have been widely used in compo
The strain-displacement relationship is described by the Lagrangian nent manufacturing for different mechanical performance. In this study,
formula, and the Green-Lagrange strain on component form can be the deformation behaviors of arc welded lap joints with varying yield
written as strengths (YS) and coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) were inves
( )
1 ∂ui ∂uj ∂uk ∂uk tigated by means of parametric analysis since the two parameters have a
εij = + + (2) dominant influence on welding simulated results [21].
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi ∂Xi ∂Xj
For comparison purpose, two parameters rYS and rCTE were defined
Fig. 9. Temperature-dependent material properties of DP590 and SPCC steel: (a) physical properties; (b) mechanical properties.
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Fig. 10. Temperature distribution: (a) thermal field at 20 s from welding beginning; (b) peak temperature on cross section during the whole welding process.
Fig. 11. The simulated out-of-plane deformation in arc welded lap joints (scale: ×5): (a) SPCC; (b)DP590.
by the following equations : with small CTE and austenitic stainless steel with large CTE. The FE
models for parametric studies have the same geometry and heat input,
σY (T)
rYS = (3) and the remaining material parameters were assumed to be the same
σY,r (T)
with DP590 steel.
The welding deformation components, transverse shrinkage, angular
α(T)
rCTE = (4) deformation and tendon force on the middle transverse section and
αr (T)
longitudinal deflection along the weld line were investigated. All the
where σY (T) and α(T) are the YS and CTE of the steel to be studied, deformation components were extracted from the mid-plane of the plate
σ Y,r (T) and αr (T) are the YS and CTE of DP590 steel as a reference. thickness to avoid the difference in deformation between the weld and
As shown in Table 1, totally 12 cases of welding numerical simula back surface. As shown in Fig. 14, a net transverse shrinkage was used to
tion were performed to evaluate the welding deformation behaviors evaluate the true transverse contraction in current model since it was
among different steels with a wide range of YS and CTE. The minimum usually influenced by angular deformation. In order to compare the
rYS is 0.3 corresponding to the mild steel, and the maximum value is 2.5 longitudinal shrinkage in arc welded lap joints easily, the tendon force
considering the application of ultra-high strength steel in manufacturing [22] was used in this study, which could be expressed as follows:
industry. The range of rCTE is from 0.75 to 1.4 covering common steels
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Fig. 12. Comparison of welding deformation between numerical simulation and measurements: (a) longitudinal deflection along weld line; (b) transverse deflection
along middle section; (c) transverse shrinkage; (d) longitudinal shrinkage.
Fig. 13. Out-of-plane deformation of SPCC lap joint (unit: mm, deformation scale: 5 times).
∫
direction, which provides a underlying mechanism for longitudinal
F= Eεpx dydz (5)
deformation of welded joints. A larger tendon force generally corre
sponds to a larger longitudinal deformation [19].
Where E is Young’s modulus; εpx is the residual plastic strain in longi To make the comparison easier, the transverse shrinkage S(rYS ),
tudinal direction. Tendon force indicates the shrinkage force in welding angular distortion θ(rYS ), tendon force F(rYS ) and longitudinal deflection
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Table 1 weld surface becomes larger as YS increases, which illustrates that the
Numerical cases of arc welded lap joints with various YS and CTE. bending strain has a growing trend, while the averaged shrinkage strain
Group Parameters Values Reference Total through the plate thickness keeps relatively unchanged with the
material cases increasing YS.
A rYS 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 1, 1.5, 2, DP590 7 As shown in Fig. 15(b), a remarkable decline can be seen in both
2.5 tendon force and longitudinal deflection with the increasing of rYS at
B rCTE 0.75, 0.85, 1, 1.2, 1.4 DP590 5 lower YS and the decline becomes less significant as rYS increases to 1.
Based on fully restrained one-bar model as discussed by Li et al. [23],
which is also called Satoh test [24], the critical heating temperature to
β(rYS ) in the cases of group A with various rYS were normalized by the generate residual plastic strain could be given by:
corresponding values (S0 , θ0 , F0 , β0 ) in DP590 lap joint, which can be
defined by Eqs. (6)–(9). The same goes for lap joints with different rCTE ΔTY = σY /αE (10)
in group B. And the residual plastic strain ε can be calculated by the following
p
x
S(rYS ) equation:
ns (rYS ) = (6)
S0 εp = − αΔTY = − σY /E (11)
θ(rYS ) Eqs. (10) indicates that high strength material tends to produce
nθ (rYS ) = (7)
θ0 narrower plastic zone since it needs higher ΔTY , while it tends to
generate larger value of plastic strain based on Eqs. (11). The contour
nf (rYS ) =
F(rYS )
(8) plots of longitudinal plastic strain in the cases of rYS = 1 and rYS = 2
F0 were also extracted from the FE models for a clearer comparison as
shown in Fig. 17. The results show that the lap joint with lower YS has a
nβ (rYS ) =
β(rYS )
(9) much wider plastic zone than that with higher YS, although they have
β0 smaller values. In this way, larger tendon force could be developed to
If these normalized values are larger than 1.0, it means that the produce larger longitudinal deflection in the lap joint with lower YS.
evaluated steel have a larger welding deformation compared with Furthermore, the increased angular deformation in high strength lap
DP590 lap joint. Otherwise, it indicates that the welding deformation in joint could also improve the longitudinal bending stiffness to reduce the
the lap joint to be studied is smaller than the corresponding deformation deflection in longitudinal direction. It should be noted that Eqs. (10)–
component in DP590 lap joint. (11) based on simplified Satoh test is a basic concept for understanding
welding mechanics, where the temperature dependent material prop
erties and work hardening are not taken into account. Thus, Satoh test
5.2. Welding deformation with different YS
with real material properties was performed to evaluate the plastic
strain history during heating and cooling process. It is found that the
For the lap joints with various YS in group A, the normalized trans
variation in ΔTY and residual plastic strain with different rYS obtained
verse shrinkage ns (rYS ), the normalized angular deformation nθ (rYS ), the
from Satoh test presented the same rule as in Eqs.(10)~(11) (see sup
normalized tendon force nf (rYS ) and the normalized longitudinal
plementary material).
deflection nβ (rYS ) are shown in Fig. 15. Significant changes in welding
deformation can be observed at lower YS, while there is no obvious
change as YS increases to a certain value. Furthermore, the transverse 5.3. Welding deformation with different CTE
deformation plotted in Fig. 15(a) is less sensitive to the variation of YS in
comparison with longitudinal deformation in Fig. 15(b). In the cases of group B with various CTE, the normalized transverse
In Fig. 15(a), it shows that the transverse shrinkage remains almost shrinkage ns (rCTE ), the normalized angular deformation nθ (rCTE ), the
constant when rYS is greater than 1, and it has a decreasing trend when normalized tendon force nf (rCTE ) and the normalized longitudinal
rYS becomes less than 1. The angular deformation is slightly increased as deflection nβ (rCTE ) are shown in Fig. 18(a)-(c). It seems that the welding
rYS increases. To understand the variation of transverse deformation deformation in arc welded lap joints is more sensitive to rCTE than rYS .
with various YS, the transverse plastic strain distributed in the thickness And all the normalized welding deformation components are increased
of bottom plate was extracted from the FE model since they have a almost linearly with rCTE increasing.
dominant contribution to the transverse deformation, which was shown The variations in transverse shrinkage and angular deformation with
in Fig. 16(a). It can seen that the transverse plastic strain on the back different CTE can also be explained by the transverse plastic strain
surface decreases with the increasing YS, while the plastic strain on the distributed in the plate thickness in Fig. 19(a), which indicates that the
Fig. 14. Sketch of the net transverse shrinkage in arc welded lap joint.
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Fig. 16. Plastic strain distributions on the middle cross section in arc welded
lap joints with various YS: (a) transverse plastic strain distributed in the plate
thickness; (b) longitudinal plastic strain distributed in Y direction.
Fig. 15. Normalized welding deformation components with various YS: (a)
6. Conclusions
transverse shrinkage and angular deformation; (b) tendon force and longitu
dinal deflection.
In the present study, welding deformation components in arc welded
lap joints of thin steel sheets with different strength were quantitatively
transverse plastic strain on weld surface and back surface are both
studied by experimental measurement and numerical simulation.
enlarged with rCTE increasing, but the increase on weld surface is more
Parametric calculations were performed with a wide range of YS and
prominent. Consequently, the distribution characteristics of the trans
CTE, and their variation in welding deformation was analyzed in detail.
verse plastic strain determine the generation of larger contraction strain
The main conclusions are as follows:
and bending strain in the lap joints with larger CTE.
Fig. 18(b) shows that both the normalized tendon force and longi
(1) The welding induced deformation simulated by FE models agreed
tudinal deflection are increased linearly as the factor rCTE increases,
well with experimental measurements both in DP590 and SPCC
which can also be analyzed by Eqs.(10) and Eqs. (11). Meanwhile, the
lap joint. And the larger strain theory was recommended in the
longitudinal plastic strain distributed on middle cross section (Fig. 19b)
welding simulation of thin-walled structures.
also suggests that there are not only wider plastic zone but also larger
(2) A saddle-shaped distortion was produced in the both lap joints.
plastic strain in longitudinal direction with the increasing CTE, which
And the DP590 lap joint with higher strength has larger angular
will inevitably improve the tendon force in lap joints to produce larger
deformation and smaller longitudinal shrinkage and deflection in
longitudinal deflection. Same as in section 5.2, Satoh test with real
comparison with SPCC lap joint.
material properties was conducted to evaluate the plastic strain history
(3) The lap joints with higher YS tend to generate larger transverse
among various rCTE during heating and cooling process. It shows that the
shrinkage and angular distortion and smaller tendon force and
variation in ΔTY with different rCTE obtained from Satoh test presented
longitudinal deflection, while the welding distortion keeps rela
the same rule as in Eqs.(10), and the residual plastic strain showed an
tively unchanged when the YS increases to a certain value.
increasing trend as rCTE increases, which could not be captured by Eqs.
(4) All the normalized welding deformation components are
(11) but was consistent with the variation of residual plastic strain in
increased almost linearly with rCTE increasing since there are both
Fig. 19(b) (see supplementary material).
wider plastic zone and larger plastic strain in the lap joints with
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Fig. 17. Contour plot of longitudinal plastic strain on the middle cross section: (a) rYS = 2; (b) rYS = 1.
Fig. 19. Plastic strain distributions on the middle cross section in arc welded
lap joints with various CTE: (a) transverse plastic strain distributed in the
thickness; (b) longitudinal plastic strain distributed in Y direction.
Fig. 18. Normalized welding deformation components with various CTE: (a) interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
transverse shrinkage and angular deformation; (b) tendon force and longitu the work reported in this paper.
dinal deflection.
Acknowledgments
higher CTE, and the bending strain through plate thickness is also
enlarged. The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from China
(5) Compared with YS, the welding deformation of lap joints is more Scholarship Council (Grant No. 201806120148) and Project to Create
sensitive to the value of CTE. Research & Educational Hubs for Innovative Manufacturing in Asia.</
GS2> Author Yong Liu appreciates the acceptance as an
<GS2>international joint researcher at Joining and Welding Research
Declaration of Competing Interest
Institute, Osaka University.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
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