THE TURKIC-SPEAKINGPEOPLES

OF THE FORM ER U.S.S.R.<.)

Prof. Dr. Türkkaya ATAÖV

Introduction
,
The Turkic family of languages is the most numerous in the Soviet Union. The
Turkic, Mongolic and Tungus-Manchu languages are sametimes groupcd together as a
single Altaic language. Taken together, theyare at times referred to as Turanian -
Mongolic family as welL. Sametimes, theyare listed as ~ndepcndent language familics.

In any case, I wish to dwell hereonlyon the Turkic languages in the former
USSR. They include about 25 clOscly relatcd dialects spoken by our northem neighbors.
Those whose mother tongue is a Turkic language inhabit a vast territory extending from
the Caucasus to the most eastem comers of Siberia. However, most of them 'live just
across our borderin the east, in the former Soviet Central Asia, the Volga region and
parts of the vast area generally callcd Siberia. There are a number of Turkic languages and
dialects. Aıı of them have a resemblance in one way or anather to Turkish. Rather,
Anatolian and European Turkish is a derivative of Central Asian Turkish. Central Asia
was "our" original homeland. This statement has no racist or expansionist pretensions.
The dispcrsion of the Turkic -. spcaking peoples in a number of direetions from the
Central Asiaıic mainland is a hiSlelrical ıruıh ıhaı Sbviet scieıııific works do not
contradicl. There are many Russian and'non-Russian Sovieı publications that affirm this
basic facl. This is amatter of cullural affinity; the Turkic languages have a common
core. i have personally spoken with the Caucasians, Central Asians and other Turkic
pcoples living even ncar t,he Kamchatka Peninsula. i know that basicaııy it is the same
language. The extent of their relationship to the common core may varyin each case but
a personwho knows Turkish can understand many of the other varieties. The dialects
may be loaded wİlh Persian, Anıbic and Russian words but the constrlıction, the grammar
and most of the vocabulary are either identicalar similar.

if there are shades of difference, they should be explained on account of the

historical experience of the various branches of the Turkic pcoples. The scattering of the
, ,

(.)Submitıed to the international seminar on "the Impact of Nascent Soviet Changes on

. Central Asia and the Region," 21-22 January 1992, Peshawar, Pakistan.
 170 TÜRKKA YA ATAÖV

Turks eaused the emergenee of several language groups and subgroups. Scholars of
Turkie languages generally agree that there are five broad groups. The first encompasscs
the languages of the Turkie pcopIcs of the Caucasus, namcly the Azerbaijani, Kumyk,
Karachai-Balkar and the Nogai. Azerbaijani is the language of the Azeri Turks of
Transcaucasia. It belongs to the southwest Oghuz group of the Turkic division of the
Altaie language family. it has four C10sely related dialect groups. The (eastcm) Baku
dialect form s the basis of the modem Azeri literary language. Now, the Azeris are toying
with the idea of reverting to ıhe Latin script first used between 1929 and 1939.

Kumyk language belongs to the Oghuz group of the Kypchak division of the
Turkie language branch. As people they live in northem Daghestan (Caueasus). The
Karachai-Balkar language also belongs to the Kipchak division. The Nogai are the
descendants of the Turco-Mongolic nomads (the Golden Horde) that movcd into the steps
of north Caucasus. The language of the Turkmens of north Caucasus, who came from
Turkmenia (Central Asia) should also be included in this fırst group. They live mainly in
the Stavropol Tecritory.

The second group incll.!des the languages of a number of Turkie pcopIcs living in
Central Asia and Kazakhstan: Uzbek, Turkmen, Kirghiz, Kazak, Karakalpak acid Uigur.
Th~ Uzbek language belongs with Uigur to the Karluk (Chagatai) division of the Turkic .
branch. Turkmen belongs to the. Oghuz division, and Kirghiz and Kazakh are part of the
Nogai group. Karakalpaks are bilingual (Karakalpak and Uzbek).

The third group eonsists of the languages of the Volga region and the Urals. They
are spoken by the Tatars, Bashkirs and the Chuvash. The two are very dose to each
other. Tatar belongs to the Kipchak-Bolgar group of the Kipchak division of the Turkie
.branch. Bashkir has two dialccts. Chuvash is a disıinct group in the Turkic branch. Some
linguists consider it a Hunnie language.

The fourth group includes the languages of those Turkic peoples who -live in
westem Latvia, the Ukraine (induding the C~imea) and in southcm Moldavia. Theyare.
the Gagauz, Crimean Tatars and Karaim. This group also includes the Urums (Greeks
who have assimilated Turkish eulture), the Krymehaks and the Lithuanian (and
Byelorussian) Tatars. The Urums are a \ittıc over 100,000 persons, the Krymehaks are
less than 2,000 and the last mentioned have their language. Only written evidenee of the
lauer remains.

The fıfth group consists of the languages of the Turkie peoples of Siberia: Yakut,
Tuvinian., Altaie, Khakas, Shor and Chulym languages. The last two do not possess a
written form. On aeeount of hi.storieal development, large and smail groups of Turkic-
speaking peoples may be found almost in every part of the Soviet Union. But in same
cases, they eonstitute the basic indigenous population within eertain administrative
units. For instance, the Azeris, Uzbeks, Kazakhs; Turkmens and Kirghiz made up the
stock population of Union Republies that bore their names. Some, like the Bashkir and
the Karakalpak, are administratively organized at a lower status. Eaehof these Turkie
branches have specifie historical, ethnographie, eultural and other charaeteristies which
influenced the development of their languages.
 /
171
THE TURKIC - SPEAKING PEOPLES

ı. Uzbek :

The ırzbeks are the most numerous Turkic-speaking peoples in the fonner USSR,
third in size af ter Russians and Ukrainians. Uzbekistan is in Soviet Central Asia betwen
Amu Derya and Sir Derya Rivers, the Aral Sea and the slopes of the Tien Shan
mountains.It has a population of 19.6 million of which 69 percent are Uzbeks, II
percent Russians, 4 percent Tatars, 4 percent Kazakhs, 4 percent Tajiks, 2 percent
Karakalpaks and 1 percent Koreans. The Uzbek SSR included the Karakalpak
Autonomous SSR.

There were relatively large groups of Uzbeks living in other rcpublics of the Soviet
Union. Some of them also live abroad. The Uzbek language serves the Turkic Uzbek
people, who constitute the largest nation in Central Asia. The language has long
possesscd a wrilten form. it compriscs a number of dialect groups: Karluk, Oghuz and
Kipchak, eaçh with sub-dialects. The dominant one is the Karluk (or Chagatai) group,
spoken in the main urban centres. The central dialects, as a result of Iranian influence,
have lost vowel harmony. The southem Karluk dialects stili maintain it. The dialects
around Khiva (Khwarezm) are basically Oghuzic (a result of Turkmen influence) with a
strong Kipchak element. .

The fırst lilCrary Turkic language of Uzbekistan (pre-Uzbek) was bascd on a Kurluk
dialect (ıoth-11Lh cenL). A new literary language, introduced later, was used until the .
15th century, or until the arrival of the Uzbck invaders. This was based on the Oghuz
language. Since the 15th century, the people of Uzbekistan used a Karluk dialect
(Otagatai).

Although the language had a writlCn form, bcfore 19 i7 the masses were generally
illilerate. The rich literature in old Uzbck was accessible to a smail elite. There were few
literary persons and the general Icvel of culture was low. There were no institutes of
higher leaming. There are now 3 i such educational centers. In 19 i3, a year before the
start of the First World War, only 37 books in Uzbek had bcen published. In the 1980s,
the yearly average was about a thousand, with a total circulation of over 15 million.

The Uzbck language experienccd signifıcant changes. Until 1928 the Arabic script
was uscd. It was changcd to Latin and then (1940) to Cyrillic. Between 1922-29 various
literary forms based on local dialects were employed. In 1929 the Kipchak dialect became
the official literary Uzbek language. In i934 it was replaccd by the Tashkent (meaning
"The City of Stone"in Turkish) dialecL

In the meantime, the vocabulary was enriched by an abundant stream of words

(including Russian). The Uzbck language benefitcd from the contributions of leading
writers from various ages. The names of Aini, Aibek, Gulyam and Kerbabayev were
already known bcfore 1945. Uzbek literature has been enrichcd by the works of giftcd
wrilCrs in recent decades: Rashidov, Sheikhzade, Kakhar, Uigun, Gairati, Safarov, Zulfıa,
Kaipbcrgenov, Yusufov ...

2. Kazakh :.

The Kazakh language was mainly spoken in the wide steppes of the Kazakh SSR.
Kazahstan is a very large area. If it had bcen situated in Europe, it would have been the
 172 TÜRKKAYAATAÖV

largest (2,717,000 sq. km.) country of ıhaı conıinent. Its papulaLİon is 16.5 million,
only 36 percent of which are Kazakhs. It is importanı lO note ıhat 4 i percent are,
Russians and 6 percent Ukrainians. There are of course large groups of Ka7.akhs in oıher
Soviet Republics, including 477,820 in Russia's Federation, 476,310 in the Uzbek SSR,
the rest residing in Turkmenia, Kirghizia a~d Tajikistan. \

The Kazakhs are ethiıically, culturally and linguistically related to the Kirghiz and
Karakalpaks. SameLİmes, they are considerc~d as a division of a Kirghiz people.
Forrnerly, the pastoral Kazakhs were dividcd info three territorial groups (hordes): Elder,
Central and Younger.

The Kazakhs were converted to Islam pri:narily under the infiuence of the Tatars.
This'was supported by the Russian Tsars who preferred the Kazakhs to be supported by
the Tatars rather than the anLİ-Russian and much more conservative Central Asialic
Turkic peoples, Almosı the total (98 percent) of ıhe Kazakhs consider the Kazakh
language to be their moıher ıongue. Kazakh belongs lO ıhe Nogaİ group of the Kipchak
division of the Turkic branch. Kazakh has three dialccts which correspand to three hordes.
The. Kazakh literary language was based on the Central dialect which used the Arabic
script It was changed lo the Latin script in i929 and to Cyrillic in 1938.

3. Azerbaijani :.

Azerbaijani is the ianguage of the naLİve peoples of Azerbaijan. The Union

Republie had a populaLİon of 6,9 million pcople, of which 78 percent were Azeris, 8
percent Russians and 8 percent Armenians. In turn, 5 percent were Azeris in the
Armenian SSR.

There were Azeris who lived in the other Union Republics. Beyand the böundaries
of the USSR, they were found primarily in the iIleighboring territory of Iran. In the 1926
census, the Azerbaijanis appear as "Turks" (Tyurki). Theyare predominantly Shiite
Moslem in religion, with a significant Sunni Masıem minority. In the 1950s, the
Meshkelians, formerly classified as "Turks", were reelassified (in the i950s) as
Azerbaijanis. Their places having been changed. it is unc1ear under what designation the
Meshketians are listed in later censuses. In 1979 a group appeared under the designation
"Turki"; these were probably Meshketians who dcclared themsclves Turks.

The Azeri language belongs to the southwest Oghuz group of the Turkic division.
It iS.very similar to Anatolian Turkish. Before 1917 the Azeri literary language found
only limited use sinee the vası majority of the population was iIIiıerate. Limitations of
the Arabie alphabet, spelling and terrninology c~nstituted the principle obstaclc to the
development of the Azerbaijani national culture and edueation. Umil 1929 Azeri'was
written in the Arabic script (being virtually the same written language as Ottoman
TurlCish), at whieh time it was ehanged to Latin, and in 1939 to Cyrillic.

The basic vocabulary of the Azeri language is made up of original Azeri (Turkish)
words that, were widely employed by such early C1assical wriıers as Nasimi, Khatai,
Fuzuli and Vakif. Arabic and Persian words may be e.xplained by the hisıorical link
between them and ıheir neighbors. But as.the literary language devcloped, native Azeri
words replaeed foreign terrns. At t~e same 'time the Azeri tcrrninology has bccn emiched
by a large number of international terms that are: adoptcd togcıher with new conccpts that
J
 THE TURKIC - SPEAKING PEOPLES 173

aeeompany lhe new life. The Laıin seripı will probably be employed heneeforth,
bringing Azeri even closer lO modem Turkish.

4. Turkmen :

The Turkmen language is ıhe language of the basic naıive naıionality of

Turkmenisıan in Central Asia. The form er Union Republie's populalion was 3,5
million, of whieh 68pereenı were Turkmen, l3 pereenL Russians and 9 percent (Turkie)
Uzbeks. Turkmens also lived in ıhe regions of Khorezm, Bukhara and Surkhan Darya, in
the Karakalpak ASSR of Uzbekistan and in the Russian Federaıion (Stavropol), in the
norın of Daghestan and in lhe Dzhilikul Region of the Tajik SSR. Close to a million
Turkmens live in Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey, Iraq, Syria and Ch ina.

Theyare lhe deseendanlS of ıhe early Oghuz Turks. AIthough eulıurally related to
the oıher people of Central Asia, linguisLİeaııy theyare closer lO the Azeris. Theyare
divided into major terriıorial-tribal groups, eaeh of whieh has a dialect. The main
Turkmen tribes are the: Teke (who alone aeeount for 35 percent of ıhe total Turkmen
populaıion, Tamut, Ersari, Salur, Saryk, GokIcn, Chudor, Alili, Karadash (Black) stone)
and Emreli.

Their language belongs to the Oghuz division of ıhe Turkie braneh. In the 18th
century rich liıeraıure was already being published in ıhe Turkmen language. The works
of Makhıumkuli were mainly responsible for the establishmenL of liıerary standards.
UnLil 1917, however, the Turkmen liıcrary language was not widely r-cad. The proportion
of the iIIitcrate was loo great. The objeeıive proeesses of eonsolidaıion and development
of the Turkmen nation have resulted in an inerease in the role of the liıcrary language in
the life of the pcople a<; weıı as in reduction of differenees among dialcelS.

The written form was originally based on the Arabie script. It was ehanged to Latin
(1928) and then to Cyrillie (1940).

5. Kirghiz :

The Kirghiz language is employed by the Kirghiz who formed 48 percent of lhe
pcople of the Kirghiz'SSR(total:4.2 million), 26 percent are Russians and12 percent
Uzbcks. Some of the Kirghiz also lived in four other Union Republies. A few hundred
thousand Iived ouıside the USSR - in the Sinkiang-Uigur Auıonomous Region (formerly
referred to as "Chinesc Turkestan" of ıhe Peoplc's Republie of China, in the weslem
regions of the People's Republie of Mongolia and in the norıheasıern parts of
Afghanistan and Pakistan. .

Seholars eonsider the Kirghiz to be one of the most aneient peoples of Central
Asia. In terms of their origin, theyare relalCd, not only with the pcoples of Central Asia
and Kazakhstan, but also with the tribes of Sinkiang,

They were first mentioned in sourees that date baek to 201 B.C. Linguistieaııy and
eulturally theyare C10sely rclated to ıhe Kazakhs and lO a lesser degrcc the Karakalpaks.
They have ofıen been eonfused wiıh the Kazakhs. Before 1917 they were caııed
Karakirghiz. They then formed a nationaliıy divided into separaıe tribes. In Soviet Lİmes
they were unified into a natİon.
174 TÜRKKA YAAT AÖV
;

Kirghiz belongs to the Nogai group of the: Kypchak division of the Turkic branch.
Becausc of past divisions into separaLe tribal groups, the Kirghiz language was also
divided into numerdus sub-dialecıs. From a historical point of view it is customary to
distinguish three stages in the dcvelopıneııı of the language: Ancient, Middle and New
Kirghiz (from the 15th century). The first Kirghiz alphabet (1924) was based on 25
Arabic leners. it was changed to Latin (1928) and then (1940) to Cyrillic.

As a language with a recently acquired wriuen fonn, the Kirghiz language provides
an iIIustration of the rapidity wiıh which a language may deveIop when ilS bearers
experience a Ieap forward in their social progress. The social functions of the Kirghiz
language have widened considerably since the 1920s. While formerly the dialecL<;served
relatively narrow spheres of lik and primiliye forms of production, today it is employed
in the life of a modernizing nation.

A major role in the flourishing of a language that on'ıy recently acquired a written
formis played by fiction. In this context it is imponant to note the rapid growth of a
writers organization in Kirghizia and the appcarance of many gifted authors, including
Chenghiz Aitrnatov. There are 85 members in the Kirghiz Writers Union at the present
time.

6. Tatar
, .
The Tatar language was cmployed in many republics and regions of the former
Soviet Union. The Tatars are the descendants of various Kipchak - speaking tribcs that
mig'rated westward from southem Siberia in the lOth-13th cemuries. Thosç groups that
maintaincd dialeclS of Kipchak (the Turkic hranch of the Ural - Altaic language family)
and who adoptcd Sunni Islam became known as Tatars.

The ıcrm Tatar in the Soviet period was ınistakenly applied to many non - Tataric
people as well. it was uscd in th~~general. linguistic sense to designate various Turkic
peopleand in a religious sense tp deseribe Moslem pcople and even sometimes in an
ethno - racial sense to refer to pcçıple that app<~ared "oriental". Thus, such pcople as the
Azeris, Balkars and a number of Siberians wcreerroncously callcd Tatars. '

By the 16th century the t(~rmTatar bccame basically synonymous with the Golden
Horde and its various branches and territorial divisions (Kazan, Crimean, Nogai and Wc st
Sibcrian). The Tatar people are composedof several groups. There are the Kazan Tatars
(the largest and" the most importanı around the Volga), Crimean Tatars (who were
deportcd to Central Asia in 1944), Nogai Tatars of Astrakhan (induding the Kundrov and
Karagash), West Siberian TaLars (Tara, Baraba, Tobol, Tom, Tyumen, Tobülsk),
Lithuanian, Kara and Glazov Tatars.

Under the influence of the Eastem Orthodox Church of Kazan a number of Tatars
converted to Eastem Orthodox. TIıey bccame known as Krya<;hen (Christianizcd) Tatars.
Until the Iate 1930s the Kryashen had their own liıcrary language which used the Cyrillic
script. There were also a group of Mordvinians (Meshchera) assimilatcd by the Tatars
(Mishars). Both of these were considered distinct ethnic groups umi.! the 1930s when
they were cIassificd as Tatars.
 175
THE TURKlC - SPEAKlNG PEOPLES

. The classical writers uscd the Kazan dialect and wrote in the Arabic script. The
Crimean Tatars had their own literary language until their deportation (1944).

The Tatar language was already formed centuries ago under the Kazan Khanate. Its
literary tradition is represented by the age-old works of such Tatar poets as Muhamedyar,
Kuli, Imeni, Salikhov and Kandali. Tatar was one of the oldest literary languages in the
USSR .

. The literary language matured with the growth of the Tatar middle class (after the
1850s). A new stage bcgan arter 19 i7. Tatar literary language became accessible to all
layers of the population. It is in this period that it prevai1ed over individual dialects. Rich
fiction works and poetry came into the Soviet period, including the immortal works of
Musa DjaliL. Same publishing of Crimean Tatar was also seen since the 1960s .. The
Cyrillic alphabet(1940) has replaced Latin (1928).

7. Chuvash :

The Chuvash language is employed by the Chuvash nation. Theyare the

descendants of Volga Bolgars. Of the total 1,175,366 Chuvash population, about one
half lived on the territory of the Chuvash ASSR. Theyare divided into two ethnographic
groups, which carrespand to the major dialect divisions: Viryal (upper) and Anatri
(lawer) Chuvash. The Chuvash language forms a distinct group in the Turkic branch. Its
liıcrary version is based on the Analri dialect.The language of the Chuvash was based'on
the Russian script (1873) mainly because the Chuvash are Eastem Odhodox in religio!'\.
Interest in that language increased particularly arter the founding of the University of
Kazan, which had become a center of the study of many Turkic tongues. Professor NJ.
Ashmarin, the leading spccialist on this topic, is the author of a monumental 17 -
volume dictionary ot the Chuvash language.

8. Bashkir :

The Bashkir ethnic group was formed on the basis of a number of Turkic tribes:
Kipchak, Kanly, Min, Kirghiz and others. Of the total 1,371,452 people, most of them
(75 percent) lived on the territory of the Bashkir ASSR. Smail groups of Sahkirs were
alsa found in severalother region s, such as the Tatar AŞSR, Orenburg, Kurgan and
Chelyabinsk OblasLS. . .

The Bashkir language is one of the languages that has recently acquired a writlen
form. it was developed during the Soviet period. Shortly afıcr the proclamation of Soviet
authority in Bashkiria, the question of creating a Bashkir national language assumed a
leading place. In 1918 a high - lcvel mecling of Bashkirs and Tatars considered the issue,
creating in the meantime a. Central Commission and resolving organizational problem s
related to the training of national personnel, the establishment of publishing houses and
a national theater. An ad hoc commission elaborated a Latin written form in 1923,
changed to Cyri1lic in 1940.

The Bashkir language belongs to the Kipehak division of the Turkic branch. it is
very close to Tatar. In the last census (1979) about a third of the Bashkirs dcclared Tatar
their native tongue. The Bashkirs are Sunni Masıem. Among them there is a smail
minority of Eastem Orthodox Christians, the Nagaibak.
 176
TÜRKKAYA ATAÖV

9. Yakut

The Yakut language is employed over a vast territory in the northeastem part of
Siberia. Their total population was 328,018 in 1979. Their language bclongs to the old
Uigur group of the Eastem division of the Turkic branch. The dominant thcory on their
origin was that they were a group of Turkic-speaking people from around the region of
Lake Baikal who were forced to move nonhward by the ancestors of the Mongolic
Buryats in the 13th century. Yakut serves as a linguafranca for same of the surrounding~
people such as the Dolgans, Yukargirs. Evenks anClEvens.

The Yakutyan should not be confused with the Yakuts. The form er are a group of
Russians who Iived along the Lena River, mixed with local Yakuts and adopted the
'Yakut culture but kept the Russian identity and language. Theyare considercd Russians.
Anather group of Russians settled aIong the Kolyma River where they mixed with local
Yakuts. They ,are caIlcd Kolymchan and unlikc the Yakutyan, they gaye up the Russian
language and culture and became totally Yakutized. But theyare stili c1assified as
Russians. '

The Yakut language holds a spccial place among the other Turkic languages. it is
archaic in character, having preserved many ekments of the ancient Turkish languages.
Most words are stili of Turkic origin. Words borrowed during the Soviet period derive
primarily from the press, radio and television and retain ,their specific features. The
alphabet was Latin (1929), later changed to Cyrillie (1939). The religion of the Yakuts is
a mixture of Eastem Orthodox and shamanist - animist beliefs.

lO.Karakalpak :'

Karakalpak is the language of the Karakalpak nationality, which constitutes 31

percent of the populatian of the autonomous republic in Uzbekistan bearing that name.
"Karakalpak" 'in Turkish means "BlaekFur Cap" (Russian: Chyorniye Klobuki). The
people are related linguistically and culturally to the Kazakhs and the Kirghiz. There
were about 320,000 Soviet Karakalpaks. In addİlion, the Karakalpaks alsa live in the
Khorezm and the Ferghana regions of Uzbckistan, the Taşhauz region of Turkmenia, 'the
Astrakhan region of the Russian Federation and several areas of Kazakhstan. Theyare
Sunni Moslem-in religion and are under strong Uzbek influence.

Karakalpak, the language, belongs. to the Nogai group of the Kipchak divisİon of
the Turkic branch. it took shape in the Kipchak !ribes which formed union s first with the
Golden Horde and later with the Great Nogai Horde. A local variant of the common
CentralAsian literary language caIled "Turki" existed in Karakalpakia already before
1917. But, bccause of the very law rate of literacy, its significance was reduced to a
minimum. It was during the Soviet period that the problems of a writlen form and of a
literary language were resolved. In 1924 areformed Arabic alphabet was adapted. We
know from our experience in Turkey thin the Arabic script' does not serve a Turkic
language well. It was replaced by Latin (i 928) and then by Cyrillic (i 940.
 THE TURKIC - SPEAKING PEOPLES
177

ıı. Klimyk

nıe Kumyk language served the Turkie~speakiog nalionality of the Daghestan

ASSR. Theyare Sunni Moslem, with some Shiite Moslems in Derbent and
Mohaehkale. They live primariıyon the nOrlhem steppesof Daghestan. Even though
numerically small (300,000), their eu1Lural, linguistic, poliLİeal and economie influenee
was grcaL Kumyk served as a /ingua franca for all eastem North Caueasians. Differem
views exist conceming the'origin of the term "Kumyk". One intetpretation is that it
eomes from the Turkish word "Kum" meaning "sand".

The Kumyk language bclongs to the Oghuz group of the Kipchak division of the
Turkie braneh. il has three cIoscly related dialects - Khasavyurt, Buinak and Kailak. A
wriuen tradilion has existed since the last century. Individual works of ficlion also
appeared. One may eite the "Colleetion of Nogai and Kumyk Poems" by Osmanzadeh,
printed in Sı. Petersburg (1883). But the development of the Kumyk literary language
occurred af ter i 9 i 7. At first the wriuen form was based on Arabic, but bccausc that script
poorly reflected the traits of the Kumyk phonelie system, it was replaeed by Latin (1929)
and later by Russian charaeters (1938): .

12. Karachai - Balkar :

The Karachai - Balkar language scrves two pcoplcs, the Karaehais and the Balkars.
Theyare deseendanL,> of a mixture of peoples, mainly the Kipchak Turks. Theyare both
Sunni Moslcm in religion. Together they 'are about 200,000. They were deported tö
Central Asia in 1944, where they remained until 1959. The Karaehai formerly lived in
the mountainous southem region of the Karaehai - Cherkess AO but sinee their return to
the region they have bcen resculed in the foothills of thatterritory. The Balkar lived in
the Kabardino - Balkar ASSR, but sinee their return have lived in the foothills of the
same region.

In the remote past they possessed common aneestorso This is indieated by their
eommon language, whieh is a remnant of the Turkie tribe that gaye its name to the Alan
union of tribcs. The bcginnings of the formation of a literary language coincide with
Soviet power in the north Caueasus and with the appcaranee'of the works of Kazimov,
Kuliyevand others. Because of the absence of a wriuen form before 1917, researehers
studied only the traditions and the dialects. The Karaehai- Balkar language was fırst
(1924) written in Latin and then in Cyrillie (1939).

13. Nogai :

The Nogai language is spoken mainly in the Stavropol Territory and in the
Karachai - Cherkess Autonomous Region. There are also individual groups elsewhere.
The Nogai are the deseendants of the Tureo-Mongoloid nomads that moved into the
steppes of north Caueasia. They represent a rC1atively small remnant of a onee more
powerful and numerous people. In the pre-Soviet period, the Nogai were being
assimilated by the Circassians (in the west) and by the Kumyks (in the east). The Nogai
of the Crimea and Romania were assimilated by the Crimean Tatars and those of
. Astrakhan by the Astrakhan Tatars. As a result of eontinuouspressure form Russian
seulers in north Caueasia, there was a stcady migralion of Nogai to Turkey, the Crimea .
and Romania (Dobrugea). The majority emigrated to Turkey in the mid 186Os. The
178 TÜRKKAYA ATAÖV

Nogai are Sunni Masicm in religion. Their language belongs to the Kipchak - Nogai
group of the Turlcic branch. Two Nogai literary languages were estnblished in 1928: Ak
(White) and Kara (Black) Nogai. Only an insignificam part of the Nogais were literate
OOfore 1917.Their wriııen language was the NonbCaucasian version of "Turki." Initially
"they used Latin, but since 1938 they have uscd the Russian alphabel.

14. Tuvinian :

The Tuvinian language was spoken by most inhabitnns of the Tuva ASSR in
south-centr,ı1 Siberia. There were 166,082 Tuvins in the USSR. Theyare of mixed
origin, but are mainly Turkic - Mangals. AlLhough the Tuvinian territory was a "clicm
state" of the Soviet Union since 1921, it was formally incorporated in 1944. Same
Tuvins are assimilated by other Siberian peoples. Their language belongs to the old
Uigur group of the Eastem division of the Turkie branch.

It has retnincd a number of archaic traits that make it akin to Ancient Oghuz and
Ancient Uigur Turkic langUages. Before the Soviets the language did not have a wriııen
form. In 1930 they used Latin, but changed to Cyrillic (1943).

IS. Uigur:

The Uigur language belongs (w ith Uzbek) to the Karluk division of the Turkic
branch. The greater part (same four miIlion) of the Uigurs live in the Uigur Autonomous
District (Sinkiang Province) of !:he P.R. of China. The Soviet Uigurs livcd primarily in
south-eastern Kazakhstan, ea<;tem Uzbekistnn (especiaIly around Andizhan) and in the
main cities of Kirghizia. The word "Uigur" has been known sincethe times of the
aneient Turkish inscriptions on the Orhan River and from Chinese sources. That name
vanishcd for a long time, but they were self - designmed as Uigur since 1921.

Theyare alsa known according to placc of origin or mode of livelihood: Kashgarlik

(from Kashgar), Turpanlik (from Turpan), Aksuluk (from Aksu) of Tranchi ("farmer" in
Uigur). The Soviet Uigurs were the descendants of the Uigur migrants from Chinese
Turkestan. They migrated to Central Asia but maintained place names of origin. In the
earlyand mid - 20th century there were two minor waves of immigration from Chinese
Turlcestan.

They had a literary language aıready in the lOth century during the Karakhanid
State. It was reflected in the works of Uigur pocts and writers sueh as Khirkiti, Novbati,
Zelili, Nizari, Shakir and Bilala. The modem Uigi.ır literary language dates back only to
1946. The literary Uigur language in China is based on the southem diakct and uses the
Latin (formerly Arabie) scripl. The .Uigurs are Sunni MasIem. The markcd dccline in the
Soviet Uigur population was the result of the assimilation of many Fergana Uigurs by
the UzOOks.

16. Khakas :

The Khakas language is spoken along the midstream area of the Yenisey River.
Ninety percent of them liye in the Khakas Autonomous Region in southem central
Siberia. Before 1917 they did not have a cammon name. They were divided into five
 ,
\

THE TURKIC - SPEAKING PEOPLES 179

terriLoriaI groupings. Theyare a very smail group (75,000) but theyare among the most
ethnrcaHy complçx pcoples. .

Their dominant language is Kaeha, whieh belongs to the Uigur group of the
Eastem division of the Turkie branch. They used fırst CyriHie(1924), then Latin (1928-
38) and CyriHic again. Their religionis a mixture of shamanist - animist and Eastem
Orthodox beliefs. i

17. Allaic

The Allaic language serves the naLİve inhibitans of the Gomo - Allai Autonomous
Region in the Russian Federation. They live primarily in Wesıem Siberia. Although
theyare a smail people (slightly above 60,(00), there are two groups of Allais: Southem
and Northem. They include a number of pCoples which have evolved from an ancient
Turkic ethnic base. In the pre-Soviet period each of these ıribal - territorial groups was
considered a distinct pcople with its own dialect. The Allai language stili has two dialects
belonging to different divisions of the Turkic branch.

The writlCn form was first creatcd by missionaries in the 1840s and was basedon
the Teleut dialect. But books published at that time were primarily of a religious
characler.

The religion of the Altai is a mixture of shamanist - animist and Eastem Orlhodox
beliefs: After the Revolution a litcrary language bccame a common language for alL.The
alphabet was first CyriHic (1923-28), then Latin (1928-38) and Cyrillic again:

ıs. Gagauz :

The Gagauz is a Turkish dialect with many Slavic additions. The Gagauz as pcople
(180,000) are Christianized (Eastem Orthodox) Turks who migrated to Bessarabia
(Moldavia) in the Iate 18th and early 19Lhcenturies.

Their language belongs to the Oghuz division of the Turkic branch. In the iriter _
war period, Moldavia was part of Romania, and thercfore, the 1926 Soviet census reflects
only those living outside Moldavia (primarily, in adjacent arcas in the Ukraine).

As far as the USSR is concemed, the Gagauz language was spoken in the southem
regions of Moldavian SSR, and in adjacent areas of the Odessa Region in the Ukrainian
SSR. Individual Gagauz villages are alsa found in Kazakhstan and in Central Asia (since
1910). There are Gagauz minorities in Romania and in Bulgaria. A leading Romanian
Gagauz is Professor M. Gupoghlu, an acknowledged authority on Ottoman history .
. Foreign Turkologists consider Gagauz as a Turkish 'dialect

Attempts to create a written form of the Gagauz language were undertakcn between
1910 and 1930. In partieular the Kishinev diocese published books translated by the
Gagauz priest M. Chakira first on the basis of the Russian alphabet and then of the
Romanian alphabel. it was only in 1957, foııowing a decree of the Presidium of the
Supreme Soviet of the Moldavian SSR, Lhat the written form of the Gagauz language
was inlroduced.
 180
TÜRKKA YA ATAÖV

Candusion :

These are the basic languages in the Turkir family, spoken in the former USSR.
They include a number of other languages or diakcts. Taken together, they make up the
second place there arter the SIavic languages., And the people who speak Turkic
languages inhabit a vast area from the Caucasus to parts of Sibcria. One or the other
Turkic dialect is predominant in the whole of Central Asia and Kazakstarı. There is also a
genetic kinship betwecn the Turkic and the Mongolian and Tungus - Manchurian
languages, on which i have not dwelled here .