Topic 4.

Independence Movements in Latin America

This topic in particular should be especially familiar to you. As citizens of a Latin American
country, we have a good notion of the conditions and events that brought about the
independence of the Spanish viceroyalties and provinces in America at the beginning of the
nineteenth century. Nevertheless, in this explanation, you are invited to challenge your beliefs
and supposed knowledge on this particular topic in order to make a critical analysis of actual
circumstances that brought about this rift: its causes, but also its consequences, its benefits, but
also its disadvantages.

Explanation

4.1 Background and Causes of Independence Movements in Latin America

Beginning in the first half of the sixteenth century, Spain occupied and colonized large territories
of continental America. There a society began to form that was completely different from that on
the Iberian Peninsula. The unique weather conditions, the vast geography, and the presence of
varied ethnic groups characterized the development of an exceptional colonial society.

Toward the end of the seventeenth century, the viceroyalties of New Spain (now Mexico) and
Peru had reached surprising political and social maturity and had developed several Creole
institutions and customs that were practically autonomous. That is, the colonies were somewhat
free from Spain's rule, developing their own institutions. However, they still answered to the
crown and kept up a nominal appearance of loyalty to the Spanish monarchy. This system
permitted widespread corruption. The viceroys and other politicians sent less money and metal
than what they had actually collected in taxes and mining. The reduced income from the colonies
led the Spanish empire to suffer a financial crisis which reached its climax under Charles II (r.
1665-1700), the last of the Austrian monarchs in Spain. You can easily deduce one of the factors
which facilitated this type of corruption: the colonies' distance from the mother country.
Remember that the only means of transportation at the time was by boat. Under favorable
conditions, the ships took approximately forty days to convey information from one side of the
Atlantic to the other. Thus, Spain's control over the colonies was severely limited.

As you learned in one of the previous topics, with the death of Charles II, the male line of the
Austrians came to an end. In the absence of a direct descendent, the throne was passed to the
deceased monarch's great-nephew, Philip V, Duc d’Anjou. The new king was the grandson of
Louis XIV of the House of Bourbon, king of France. With the ascension of the Bourbons, the
relationship between Spain (the empire's capital) and its American kingdoms took a new
direction. Near the mid-eighteenth century, these territories were first referred to by the term
colonies.

Can you imagine living in this period of Mexico’s history? We have some fairly reliable sources
on life in this time. The first Mexican newspaper, the Mexican Gazette, was published in 1722.
This newspaper might tell us that in 1767, the Jesuits were forced out of New Spain. Why do you
think this religious order would pose a threat to Spain? The Bourbons began a policy, commonly
known as the Bourbon Reforms, through which the monarchs attempted to reduce corruption
and increase their control over the American colonies. These reforms changed territorial
boundaries and regulated tax collection, changes which were necessary for the empire and
disastrous for the Creoles. With these changes, the Creoles lost much of the position, power, and
privilege which they had worked to build in the preceding centuries.
The Creoles began to feel their power slipping out of their hands with the arrival of a new elite
from the Peninsula toward the second half of the eighteenth century. As part of the reforms,
these officials occupied the most important positions in the new government system, academic
institutions, the military, and even the church. In other words, the Bourbon dynasty didn't trust
children of Spaniards born in America with matters of civil service. In their place, the
monarchs sent Spaniards who would identify themselves completely with the mother
country and defend the interests of the Crown. This policy led to rivalry between the Creoles
and the gachupines (the term used to refer to Spaniards born in Europe). The Creoles sought to
defend themselves, asserting their rights and legal qualifications before a government that clearly
favored Peninsula-born Spaniards.

Far to the contrary of what you have probably heard, there was never a strict caste system in
America. Actually, it was the norm for the European and native groups to mingle and intermarry
in the Spanish-American populations. Although they were obviously aware of this situation, the
Creoles made up a caste rhetoric to give the appearance of racial purity. The Creoles hoped to
associate themselves with their European ancestors while at the same time distancing
themselves from the indigenous groups, the African Americans, and the descendants of
interracial marriage who populated the Spanish-American cities.

Historians have commonly confused this rhetoric, which is also represented in the video, with the
practical reality of a system of racial differentiation. However, sources from the period have
shown that colonial society was a broad field of contrasts and peculiarities, with exclusive and
deceitful ranking. In an age when there was no knowledge of genetics and insufficient
genealogical records, it was impossible to maintain a system of castes. The population could not
be labeled according to the elaborate categories gathered by the artistic genre of casta painting.
You must understand Spanish-American society in order to fathom the importance of the rivalry
between the Creoles and Europeans. This social rift was significant because it would eventually
lead to separatist feelings.

The Bourbon Reforms and the distinction between Americans and Europeans were the main
internal factors that eventually led to the breakout of the independence movements.

But a complete analysis of the situation must also recognize the external factors that made the
Creoles wish for independence:

● The flow of ideas from the Enlightenment and the new direction of thought about
liberty and democracy began to spread among academic circles in America.
● The American and French Revolutions established a clear precedent of civil
insurrection that was successful. This example showed the capacity of the people to
organize themselves and overthrow a regime unfavorable to their hopes and
interests.

Toward the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries, a series of events
broke out that would bring an abrupt end to Bourbon reign and policy. These events would
decidedly aid the American colonies in gaining their independence:

1. Louis XVI, cousin to King Charles IV of Spain, was executed in France.

Imagine you are one of the Creoles living in this period. You are frustrated by the lack of political
opportunities and inspired by the revolutionary movements. You would certainly have thought
that it was time to rise up and take advantage of the break with the status quo in Spain. Thus it
was that between 1809 and 1811 a series of rebel movements began to spring up throughout
Spanish America. The following table gives the leaders of these movements according to the
areas they liberated:

Table 4.1 Liberators of Latin America

American Territories

New Spain
 Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, and New
Granada

(Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela)

Río de la Plata (Argentina)

Chile
On the other hand, what was the situation in Spain during this time that contributed to the
success of the independence movement in New Spain? In reality, the capital of the Spanish
empire was worn out and broken by war with Napoleon. Thus, Spain proved incapable of
directing a defensive front against the insurrection in America. Near 1820, Spain had practically
lost control of all its colonies on the continent, except for Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Santo Domingo
(now the Dominican Republic). Spain initially refused to recognize the loss of this vast territory.
However, by the fourth decade of the nineteenth century, Spain had begun to establish
diplomatic relations with its former colonies, which by that time had become independent
republics.

Consider the case of New Spain. Born in 1800, it would be celebrating ten years of existence
when its independence movement began and twenty-one years when the movement ended,
resulting in the country of Mexico. It would then go through a monarchy, a federal republic, a
centralist republic, the first French invasion, and war with the United States. Finally, well into the
60s, it would witness the second French intervention and the rise of Maximilian’s Empire.

4.2 New Nations, Sociopolitical Structures, and Territorial Redistribution in Latin American
Countries

With their recently achieved independence, the new Spanish-American leaders now faced a big
problem: choosing the best form of government for the new Latin American countries. Faced with
a multitude of proposals and a lack of general assent, the new countries tried to establish
monarchies, federal republics, centralist republics, and confederations.

Mexico had the following types of government:

Monarchy: Monarchy:
First Mexican Second
Empire Mexican
(Agustín de Federal Centralist Empire Restoration of
Iturbide; Republic Republic (Maximilian, the Federal
1822-1823) House of Republic
Habsburg;
1864-1867)

While independence provided great opportunities for the Americans to organize their territories
as they wished, it also left a political vacuum which became evident with the instability
experienced in nineteenth-century Latin America. In this period, Latin America was marked by
the lack of a common identity and national unity as well as the absence of agreement on
political policy. Lacking these requirements for stability, the Latin American territories
suffered a period of chaos and internal rebellions. This difficult political situation favored
foreign invasions and war between neighboring territories. In spite of Simón Bolívar's vision
of a united America, the former Spanish empire in America ended up breaking into numerous
republics. The distribution of territory and the formation of new identities was a rough and
tortuous task.

At some point, you have probably asked yourself why the United States was able to gain
independence in a relatively short time. But more importantly, you may have wondered why this
new nation managed to become consolidated in such a short time while Latin America suffered
many years of political instability and foreign invasion. The disadvantages of Latin America can
be summarized as follows:

● The Spanish colonies in Latin America possessed a large expanse of land, with vast
territorial boundaries that were difficult to control.
● The territories lacked a sense of national identity and unity.
● There was little consensus on new government policy.
● Most of the population was illiterate and lacked a formal education.

Details of the viceroyalty of New Spain and New Granada:

On the other hand, the former Portuguese viceroyalty of Brazil, now an independent empire,
achieved a leading role in the region. This new empire waged war on its neighbors, considerably
extending its borders. A particularly noteworthy example of Brazil's military prowess is the War of
the Triple Alliance (1864-1870), in which Brazil formed an alliance with Argentina and Uruguay
against Paraguay. The result of the conflict was devastating for Paraguay, which lost not only the
rich and extensive Chaco region, but also at least one third of its population.

Can you imagine living in the midst of this instability? Many people were born under the colonial
regime and grew up in the midst of rebel uprisings. Then, after the emancipation, they witnessed
the overthrow of their new country's government on numerous occasions.
Latin America had entered the concert of independent nations, but in order to develop, it had to
first find a new identity, unite its people under new symbols and ideals, and establish a stable
form of government. These tasks all turned out to be difficult, costing many lives. However, the
legacy of this struggle has shown itself to be valuable and positive, providing the Latin American
people with their desired liberty and the right to determine their destiny.

4.3 The Political and Economic Influence of the United States and Its Relationship with
Latin America

As was mentioned in the previous topic, the United States achieved independence by 1783. In
1787, the new country adopted the model of the federal republic under a president and entered a
period of extraordinary political and social stability. This stability allowed the US to grow
economically and develop a strong army. The success of the country of the stars and stripes is
reflected in the leadership role it would project to the rest of the continent following the
independence of Latin America.

In 1823, the Monroe Doctrine was signed, espousing the maxim “America for the Americans.”
This maxim effectively announced the active role the United States would maintain in Latin
America from that point on. With this principle, a well-organized army, and skillful diplomacy, the
US assumed an active, interventionist role which would become evident on many occasions.

Click play on the following video to visualize the United States' political expansionism. As the
video begins, it displays this self-description: “Between 1776 and 1887, the United States seized
over 1.5 billion acres from America’s indigenous people by treaty and executive order. The
Invasion of America shows how by mapping every treaty and executive order during that period.
It concludes with a map of present-day federal Indian reservations.”

The main goals of the US were the following: to make every trace of European influence in
America disappear, to gain permanent allies, and establish favorable markets for its products. To
achieve these goals the United States did not hesitate to intervene diplomatically and militarily in
Latin America to defend its self-assumed position as a world power. Probably because of its
proximity, Mexico suffered the worst consequences of US political interventionism, losing
more than half its territory following the war of 1846-48. We are generally taught that one or
more politicians, mainly Antonio de Santa Anna, should be held exclusively responsible for this
event. However, this loss was in reality the result of the lack of unity among Mexicans, political
instability, and the ambition of the neighbor to the north.

To learn more about the processes of colonization in Latin America, we recommend you watch
the followings videos:

​ Video 1
​ Video 2
​ Video 3
​ Video 4
​ Video 5
​ Video 6
​ Video 7
​ Video 8
​ Video 9
​ Video 10
 Click to view video

Diamond, J./National Geographic. (2005). Guns, Germs, and Steel. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ojU31yHDqiM

Conclusion

As you will have realized, the eighteenth century was a crucial period for the territories from
California to the Patagonia for several reasons. First, the Creole population (the children of
Europeans born in America) developed a sense of patriotism. Second, they witnessed the
replacement of the Spanish dynasty (from the Austrians to the Bourbons). Finally, the changing
international scene would make way for one of the most important political breaches in world
history. This rift would mark the end of an era that had spanned three centuries.

Do you know why this crucial, controversial incident in our history is of value to you? This
incident provides the basis for valuing your role as citizen. You can now recognize the arduous
sequence of conflicts that had to be waged, the lives that had to be lost, and the agreements that
had to be signed in order for a new nation to be established. Latin America passed through a
deep and painful transformation to become free and independent nations.

If you understand this period in all its complexity—the causes and results of independence and
the search for a national identity—you will be better prepared to reflect on your condition as a
Mexican. You most likely have already reexamined the importance of history for society,
recognizing history as the provider of narratives and experiences to construct our identity.

Checkpoint

Check to see if you can do the following:

● Understand the role of the Bourbon Reforms in the rise of a Creole identity with a
desire for independence.
● Recognize the difficulties which Latin America experienced in its search for a viable
and stable national government.