Algae - Information

11/25/21, 3:51 PM Algae, Phytoplankton and Chlorophyll - Environmental Measurement Systems
Algae, Phytoplankton and Chlorophyll

What are Algae?

Algae are aquatic, plant-like organisms. They encompass a variety of simple structures, from single-celled
phytoplankton floating in the water, to large seaweeds (macroalgae) attached to the ocean floor 2. Algae can be
found residing in oceans, lakes, rivers, ponds and even in snow, anywhere on Earth.
So what makes algae only plant-like, instead of plants? While algae are often called primitive plants, other terms, like
protists, can be used 4. Protist may be a more accurate term, particularly for the single-celled phytoplankton 8.
However, larger, more complex algae, including kelp and chara, are often mistaken for submerged plants.
The difference between these seaweeds and submerged plants is in their structure. Macroalgae are simpler, and
attach themselves to the seabed with a holdfast instead of true roots 4. Aquatic plants, whether floating, submerged,
or emergent (starting in the water and growing out) have specialized parts such as roots, stems and leaves 3. Most
plants also have vascular structures (xylem and phloem), which carry nutrients throughout the plant. While algae
contain chlorophyll (like plants), they do not have these specialized structures 8.
As algae can be single-celled, filamentous

(string-like) or plant-like, they are often difficult
to classify. Most organizations group algae by
their primary color (green, red, or brown),
though this creates more problems than it
solves 4. The various species of algae are
vastly different from each other, not only in
pigmentation, but in cellular structure,
complexity, and chosen environment 4,5. As
such, algal taxonomy is still under debate,
with some organizations classifying algae
under different kingdoms, including Plantae,
Protozoa and Chromista 4,6,8,9. While the
overarching kingdom classification is not
always agreed upon, the species, genus,
family, class and phylum of each alga
generally are 6.
To further complicate this nomenclature,

single-celled algae often fall under the broad
category of phytoplankton.

Algae are sometimes considered protists, while other times they are classified
as plants or choromists. Phytoplankton are made up of single-celled algae
and cyanobacteria.
What are phytoplankton?

Phytoplankton are microorganisms that drift about in water. They are single-celled, but at times they can grow in
colonies large enough to be seen by the human eye 16. Phytoplankton are photosynthetic, meaning they have the
ability to use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into energy 11. While they are plant-like in this ability,
phytoplankton are not plants. The term “single-celled plants” is a misnomer, and should not be used. Instead,
phytoplankton can be divided into two classes, algae and cyanobacteria 10. These two classes have the common
ability of photosynthesis, but have different physical structures. Regardless of their taxonomy, all phytoplankton
contain at least one form of chlorophyll (chlorophyll A) and thus can conduct photosynthesis for energy.
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Phytoplankton, both algae and cyanobacteria, can be found in fresh or saltwater 13. As they need light to
photosynthesize, phytoplankton in any environment will float near the top of the water, where sunlight reaches 10.
Most freshwater phytoplankton are made up of green algae and cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae 13.
Marine phytoplankton are mainly comprised of microalgae known as dinoflagellates and diatoms, though other algae
and cyanobacteria can be present. Dinoflagellates have some autonomous movement due to their “tail” (flagella), but
diatoms are at the mercy of the ocean currents 12.
Microalgae
There are thousands of species of planktonic algae, or microalgae, floating in water all over the world. Green algae,
diatoms and dinoflagellates are the most well-known, though other microalgae species include coccolithophores,
cryptomonads, golden algae, yellow-green algae and euglenoids 1. There are so many diatoms drifting in the oceans
that their photosynthetic processes produce about half of Earth’s oxygen 9. While diatoms and dinoflagellates are
forms of planktonic algae, they can be incorrectly classified as red or brown algae 9. Red and brown algae are not
considered phytoplankton as they are not free-floating. True red and brown algae are rarely single-celled, and remain
attached to rock or other structures instead of drifting at the surface 1,17. Multicellular green algae is also not
considered phytoplankton for the same reasons. To be considered a phytoplankton, the algae needs to use
chlorophyll A in photosynthesis, be single-celled or colonial (a group of single-cells), and live and die floating in the
water, not attached to any substrate 1.
Phytoplankton come in many different structures, but all except for cyanobacteria are algae. Collage adapted from drawings and
micrographs by Sally Bensusen, NASA EOS Project Science Office
Cyanobacteria: Blue-Green Algae

Despite their ability to conduct photosynthesis for energy, blue-green algae are a type of bacteria. This means that
they are single-celled, prokaryotic (simple) organisms. Prokaryotic means that the cyanobacteria do not have a
nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles within their cell wall 5.
Cyanobacteria are the only bacteria that contain chlorophyll A, a chemical required for oxygenic photosynthesis (the
same process used by plants and algae) 1,14. This process uses carbon dioxide, water and sunlight to produce
oxygen and glucose (sugars) for energy. Chlorophyll A is used to capture the energy from sunlight to help this
process. Other bacteria can be considered photosynthesizing organisms, but they follow a different process known
as bacterial photosynthesis, or anoxygenic photosynthesis 14. This process uses bacteriochlorophyll instead of
chlorophyll A 19. These bacteria cells use carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide (instead of water) to manufacture
sugars. Bacteria cannot use oxygen in photosynthesis, and therefore produce energy anaerobically (without
oxygen) 18. Cyanobacteria and other phytoplankton photosynthesize as plants do, and produce the same sugar and
oxygen for use in cellular respiration.
In 2011, Lake Erie experienced the worst blue-green algae bloom in decades (Photo Credit: MERIS/NASA; processed by
NOAA/NOS/NCCOS )
In addition to chlorophyll A, blue-green algae also contain the pigments phycoerythrin and phycocyanin, which give
the bacteria their bluish tint (hence the name, blue-green algae) 15. Despite not having a nucleus, these
microorganisms do contain an internal sac called a gas vacuole that helps them to float near the surface of the
water 13.

What is chlorophyll?
Chlorophyll is a color pigment found in plants, algae and phytoplankton. This molecule is used in photosynthesis, as
a photoreceptor 20. Photoreceptors absorb light energy, and chlorophyll specifically absorbs energy from sunlight 15.
Chlorophyll makes plants and algae appear green because it reflects the green wavelengths found in sunlight, while
absorbing all other colors.
However, chlorophyll is not actually a single

molecule. There are 6 different chlorophylls that
have been identified 1,22. The different forms (A, B,
C, D, E and F) each reflect slightly different ranges
of green wavelengths. Chlorophyll A is the primary
molecule responsible for photosynthesis 1,15. That
means that chlorophyll A is found in every single
photosynthesizing organism, from land plants to
algae and cyanobacteria 1. The additional
chlorophyll forms are accessory pigments, and are
associated with different groups of plants and algae
and play a role in their taxonomic confusion. These
other chlorophylls still absorb sunlight, and thus
assist in photosynthesis 20. As accessory pigments,
they transfer any energy that they absorb to the
primary chlorophyll A instead of directly
participating in the process 1,21.
Chlorophyll B is mainly found in land plants, aquatic The different forms of chlorophyll absorb slightly different wavelengths
plants and green algae 1. In most of these for more efficient photosynthesis.
organisms, the ratio of chlorophyll A to chlorophyll
B is 3:1 21. Due to the presence of this molecule,
some organizations will group the green algae into the Plant Kingdom. Chlorophyll C is found in red algae, brown
algae, and dinoflagellates 15. This has lead to their classification under the Kingdom Chromista 4. Chlorophyll D is a
minor pigment found in some red algae, while the rare Chlorophyll E has been found in yellow-green algae.
Chlorophyll F was recently discovered in some cyanobacteria near Australia 22. Each of these accessory pigments
will strongly absorb different wavelengths, so their presence makes photosynthesis more efficient 20.
Other Color Pigments

Chlorophyll is not the only photosynthetic pigment found in
algae and phytoplankton. There are also carotenoids,and
phycobilins (biliproteins). These accessory pigments are
responsible for other organism colors, such as yellow, red,
blue and brown. Like chlorophylls B, C, D, E and F, these
molecules improve light energy absorption, but they are
not a primary part of photosynthesis. Carotenoids can be
found in nearly every phytoplankton species, and reflect
yellow, orange and/or red light 15. There are two
phycobilins found in phytoplankton: phycoerythrin and
phycocyanin. Phycocyanin reflects blue light and is
responsible for cyanobacteria’s common name – blue-
green algae. Phycoerythrin reflects red light, and can be
found in red algae and cyanobacteria.
Some algae will appear green despite the presence of

these accessory pigments. Just as in plants, the
chlorophyll in algae has a stronger relative absorption than
the other molecules. Like a dominant trait, the more
intense, reflected green wavelengths can mask the other, Each pigment absorbs and reflects different wavelengths, but
less-reflected colors 20. In green algae, chlorophyll is also they all act as accessory pigments to chlorophyll A in
found at a higher concentration relative to the accessory photosynthesis.
pigments. When the accessory pigments are more
concentrated (such as in red algae, brown algae and
cyanobacteria), the other colors can be seen 23.

What is Photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is the process by which organisms use sunlight to produce sugars for energy. Plants, algae and
cyanobacteria all conduct oxygenic photosynthesis 1,14. That means they require carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight
(solar energy is collected by chlorophyll A). Plants and phytoplankton use these three ingredients to produce glucose
(sugar) and oxygen. This sugar is used in the metabolic processes of the organism, and the oxygen, produced as a
byproduct, is essential to nearly all other life, underwater and on land 1,24.
Photosynthesis uses water, carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce

energy and oxygen.
Underwater Photosynthesis
Phytoplankton drifting about below the surface of the water still carry out photosynthesis. This process can occur as
long as enough light is available for the chlorophyll and other pigments to absorb. In the ocean, light can reach as far
as 200m below the surface 25. This region where sunlight can reach is known as the euphotic zone. Phytoplankton
and other algae can be found throughout this zone.
What Affects Photosynthesis?

As light is required for photosynthesis to occur, the amount of light available will affect this process. Photosynthetic
production peaks during the day and declines after dark 24. However, not all light can be used for photosynthesis.
Only the visible light range (blue to red) is considered photosynthetically active radiation 1. Ultraviolet light has too
much energy for photosynthesis, and infrared light does not have enough. If phytoplankton are exposed to too much
UV light, the excessive solar energy can break molecular bonds and destroy the organisms’ DNA 27.
Within the visible light spectrum, chlorophyll

strongly absorbs red and blue light while reflecting
green light 48. This is why phytoplankton,
particularly cyanobacteria, can thrive at the bottom
of the euphotic (sunlit) zone, where only blue light
can reach. As blue light is both high in energy and
strongly absorbed by chlorophyll, it can be used
effectively in photosynthesis.
Turbidity, or the presence of suspended particles in

the water, affects the amount of light that reaches
into the water 1. The more sediment and other
particles in the water, the less light will be able to
penetrate. With less light available, photosynthetic
production will decrease. In turbid water,
photosynthesis is more likely to occur at the
water’s surface than on the lakebed, as more light
is available. .
Blue and red light are used more efficiently in photosynthesis.

Water temperature will also affect photosynthesis
rates 1. As a chemical reaction, photosynthesis is
initiated and sped up by heat 26. As photosynthesis
production increases, so will phytoplankton
reproduction rates 13. This factors into the large,
seasonal swings of phytoplankton populations 13.
However, the extent to which temperature affects
photosynthesis in algae and cyanobacteria is
dependent on the species. For all phytoplankton,
photosynthetic production will increase with the
temperature, though each organism has a slightly
different optimum temperature range 1. When this
optimum temperature is exceeded, photosynthetic
activity will in turn be reduced. Too much heat will
denature (break down) the enzymes used during the
process, slowing down photosynthesis instead of
speeding it up 26.

Temperature affects the photosynthetic rates of different algae.
Why are Phytoplankton Important?

Microscopic phytoplankton play some of the biggest roles in climate control, oxygen supply and food production.
These single-celled organisms are responsible for more than 40% of Earth’s photosynthetic production 28. That
process uses up carbon dioxide, which helps regulate CO2 levels in the atmosphere, and produces oxygen for other
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organisms to live .
Oceanic Food Web

Phytoplankton make up the foundation of the oceanic
food web. A food web is a complex net of organisms
and food chains (who-eats-who). To survive, every
living thing needs organic carbon 29. Organic carbon
can be found in many different things including sugars
(glucose = C6H12O6), plants and animals.
Phytoplankton produce their required sugar through
photosynthesis. As they are able to produce their own
energy with the help of light, they are considered
autotrophic (self-feeding). Phytoplankton and other
autotrophs are called primary producers, and make up
the bottom of the food web 11. These organisms are
called “primary” because all other organisms rely on
them (directly or indirectly) as a food source 29.
Phytoplankton are generally consumed by zooplankton

and small marine organisms like krill. These creatures
are then consumed by larger marine organisms, such
as fish 29,30. This chain continues up to apex predators,
including sharks, polar bears and humans.

Phytoplankton create their own energy from sunlight. All other

organisms consume them, whether directly or indirectly as a
carbon source.
Oxygen Production
During the photosynthetic process, phytoplankton
produce oxygen as a byproduct. Due to their vast
and widespread populations, algae and
cyanobacteria are responsible for approximately
half of all the oxygen found in the ocean and in our
atmosphere 10. Thus oceanic lifeforms not only feed
off the phytoplankton, but also require the dissolved
oxygen they produce to live.
Before plants, algae and phytoplankton used water

for photosynthesis, bacteria used H2S and other
organic compounds to fix CO2 31. Early
cyanobacteria were the first organism to use water
to fix carbon 31. The use of H2O introduced free
oxygen (O2) into the environment as a byproduct.
The start of oxygenic photosynthesis was a turning
point for Earth’s history. This process slowly Plants, algae and cyanobacteria all engage in oxygenic photosythesis
changed the inert Precambrian atmosphere into the (top equation), which means that they require water and release
oxygen-rich environment known today 31. Though oxygen. Precambrian bacteria used hydrogen sulfide instead of water
microscopic, early cyanobacteria have made a (bottom equation) and did not release oxygen as a byproduct.
permanent impact on the Earth’s environment.

Carbon Fixation and the Climate
In addition to providing food and oxygen for nearly all life on Earth, phytoplankton help to regulate inorganic carbon
(carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere 17. During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water molecules are used to make
sugar for energy. The process of incorporating inorganic carbon into organic carbon (glucose and other biologically
useful compounds) is called carbon fixation, and is part of the biological carbon pump 11.
As carbon fixation and oxygen production are part of the same process, the extent of phytoplankton’s participation is
on the same scale. Phytoplankton consume a similar amount of carbon dioxide as all land plants combined 11. While
phytoplankton can pull carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or the ocean, it will have a similar effect. CO2 that is
taken from the water is replaced by CO2 from the atmosphere, thanks to Henry’s law (the dissolved gas content of
water is proportional to the percentage of gas in the air above it 32. This consumption helps keep carbon dioxide
levels in check, reducing its presence as a greenhouse gas 28.
When carbon dioxide is consumed, the carbon

molecules become incorporated into the
phytoplankton’s structure, allowing the organism to
function and grow 11. If the phytoplankton is not eaten
by another organism (passing on the carbon up the
food chain), then it will sink into the ocean when it dies.
As with other detritus (non-living organic material), the
phytoplankton will be decomposed by bacteria, and the
carbon is either released back into the ocean as
dissolved carbon dioxide or eventually deposited into
the seafloor sediment 33. Thanks to phytoplankton, this
biological carbon pump removes approximately 10
trillion kilograms (10 gigatonnes) of carbon from the
atmosphere every year, transferring it to the ocean
depths 11.
In climate terms, this process helps to maintain global

surface temperatures 11. Without this cycle,
atmospheric CO2 would rise approximately 200 ppm
Algae and cyanobacteria help to regulate the climate by fixing (current levels are around 400 ppm) 33,34. Even small
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This carbon is then consumed changes in phytoplankton populations could have an
or decomposed by other organisms, making its way through the effect on the atmosphere and world climate 11.
cycle until it is released as dissolved carbon dioxide in water or
deposited in sediment.
Typical Levels and Factors that Influence Productivity

Phytoplankton populations and their subsequent photosynthetic productivity will fluctuate due to a number of factors,
most of which are part of seasonal changes 30. The largest influence on phytoplankton levels is nutrient scarcity 13.
While sunlight levels affect productivity, nutrient levels affect phytoplankton growth and populations. While any one
phytoplankton only lives for a few days, a population boom can last for weeks under the right conditions 11.
As phytoplankton populations grow and shrink seasonally, typical concentrations vary not only by location but from
month to month 30. Expected levels should be based on local, seasonal data from previous years. While changes
within the same calendar year are normal, populations should stay consistent with previous seasonal fluctuations
from year to year. If phytoplankton concentrations are abnormally high or low for a season, it may indicate other
water quality concerns that should be addressed.

Sunlight Influence
Phytoplankton require sunlight for photosynthesis. If sunlight is limited, phytoplankton productivity will decrease. This
can be seen in a daily cycle as oxygen levels fluctuate with light levels throughout the day. However, if sunlight is
unavailable or minimal for an extended period of time, aquatic life will consume dissolved oxygen quicker than
phytoplankton can restore it, leading to a plummet in dissolved oxygen levels 1. Phytoplankton are responsible for
much of the dissolved oxygen found in surface waters 10. As oxygen is required for fish and other aquatic organisms,
a decrease in photosynthesis productivity is detrimental

to aquatic populations. Without phytoplankton, the
oxygen supply of the ocean would be cut in half. In both
fresh and saltwater, a lengthy decrease in
phytoplanktonic productivity can lead to a fish kill
(massive fish die-off) 1.
Although phytoplankton require sunlight for

photosynthesis and oxygen production, too much light
can be harmful to photosynthetic production. Ultraviolet
light from the sun can damage the phytoplanktons’ DNA, Dissolved oxygen concentrations will increase during the day due
to photosynthesis production and decline at night after the sun
inhibiting the photosynthetic pathway 35. On very bright
sets and the phytoplankton engage in respiration instead.
days, UV-B radiation can diminish photosynthesis by
8.2% 35. This is why photosynthesis rates peak during
the morning, and decrease at noon (when the radiation
levels are highest) 1.
Nutrient Influence
While phytoplankton rely on photosynthesis to produce
sugar for energy, they still need other nutrients to grow
and reproduce 7. These nutrients are typically
phosphorus, nitrogen and iron, though some species
also require silicon, calcium and other trace
metals 11,13. The more nutrients (particularly
phosphorus) that are present in a body of water, the
more algae and phytoplankton that will grow 7. An
increase in the nutrient concentration of a body of
water is called eutrophication 13. Eutrophication is often
an indicator of agricultural runoff, which can raise
phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations to very high
levels. If there are too many nutrients, the algae will
form a bloom, which can be very detrimental to water
quality and aquatic health 7.
The lack of iron in the open ocean limits phytoplankton

growth 10. Nitrogen and phosphorus are also scarce Eutrophication is caused by an increase in nutrient levels. This can
away from coastlines, and can be limiting factors as lead to an algal bloom and can cause low levels of dissolved
13 oxygen.
well . However, ocean circulation can cause an
upwelling, which moves deep, nutrient-rich water up
into the photic (sunlight zone), replacing the nutrient-
depleted surface water 30. Upwelling, seasonal ice melts and agricultural runoff can all increase nutrient levels,
leading to an increase in phytoplankton populations.

Typical Freshwater Levels

In temperate fresh waters, growth is limited in winter because light and temperatures are low. A large increase in the
spring normally occurs as light conditions improve and water begins to mix 1. In the summer, phytoplankton flourish
until the nutrient supply begins to run low. In tropical lakes, the phytoplankton distribution is fairly constant throughout
the year and seasonal population changes are often very small 1. In temperate and subpolar waters, the seasonal
fluctuations are normally fairly large. Fluctuations in population also occur if agricultural runoff brings additional
nutrients into a body of water.

Typical Saltwater Levels

Saltwater phytoplankton can be found all over the world, living in the photic (sunlit zone) of the ocean. Cyanobacteria
prefer to live near the bottom of this zone, closest to the nutrient-rich deep water while still receiving enough sunlight
for photosynthesis 1. However, in any marine environment, phytoplankton populations vary not only by season but by
region.
Phytoplankton can be found along coastline and areas of upwelling. Data: Average chlorophyll concentration July 2002- May 2010,
MODIS,(Photo Credit: NASA, Jesse Allen & Robert Simmon)
Algae blooms can occur near the poles in the spring, when there is plenty of sunlight and the melting sea ice leaves
behind nutrient-rich freshwater 30. This melting process also fuels the oceanic convection, or circulation 38. In coastal
and open-ocean environments, oceanic circulation is responsible for phytoplankton concentrations.
This circulation can cause upwelling (bringing nutrient-rich water to the surface) and instigates phytoplankton
transportation. Like sea ice melting, upwelling is a seasonal occurrence. The extent and location of upwells are
based on wind patterns, which cause currents across the globe 11. Surface water is carried away from coastlines by
currents, and is replaced by cold, nutrient-rich water from below 37.
In many coastal regions, southerly winds cause this coastal upwelling in late summer and autumn 36. As upwelling
brings nutrient-rich water up to the surface, phytoplankton blooms often appear at this time. Oceanic circulation and
upwelling ensures that the coastal environments have the highest rates of primary production in the ocean 13. Tides,
flooding and currents all encourage higher nutrient levels in the photic zone 13.

Consequences of Unusual Levels

Phytoplankton are an important aspect of a healthy body of water. Algae and cyanobacteria help to provide oxygen
and food for aquatic organisms 12. As a key component, an imbalance of phytoplankton levels can cause major
problems. If too many nutrients are available, it can trigger an algal bloom 12. Algal blooms and overproduction of
phytoplankton can cause toxic red tides and fish kills. On the other hand, phytoplanktonic productivity can be limited
by a lack of required reactants such as sunlight. This decrease in productivity can also lead to fish kills 3.

Algal Blooms and Red Tides

An algal bloom is a sudden increase in the concentration of phytoplankton. During a bloom, clear water can become
covered with phytoplankton within days 39. These algal blooms can grow large enough to be seen from a satellite,
covering hundreds of square kilometers 11. Algal blooms come in many colors from green to red, brown, blue, white
or purple 43.
Under the right conditions, algal blooms can last one week to an entire summer, despite the short, few-day life span
of phytoplankton 11. A single bloom will only last one to two weeks, as the phytoplankton population will die without
the proper oxygen and nutrient levels. However, if the water conditions stay favorable, successive blooms can occur
and appear to be one continuous population 39. Algal blooms are most common in late summer and early fall.
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Algal bloom in Lake Erie, July 22, 2011. (Credit: National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration)
What Causes an Algal Bloom?

There are several causes that can contribute to an algal bloom. These blooms can occur seasonally, after an
upwelling of nutrient-rich water, or due to pollution such as agricultural runoff. In both cases, the water becomes
saturated with nutrients, creating an ideal environment for phytoplankton productivity 36. Even natural causes can
trigger an algal bloom, such as a rainstorm followed by warm, sunny weather 1. Rain can contribute runoff, or
encourage the mixing of nutrient-depleted and nutrient-rich layers of water. When nutrient levels rise, phytoplankton
growth is no longer nutrient-limited and a bloom may occur 13.

Red Tides
If a phytoplankton concentration stays steady after the
initial bloom, it may become a red tide. While some
blooms are harmless, others may produce toxins that
endanger aquatic life and humans. This harmful algal
bloom is known as a red tide. While red tides
specifically refer to harmful algal blooms (HABs), they
are often simply associated with the discoloration due
to a large concentration of phytoplankton 53,43.
Although known as a red tide, the discoloration from a
harmful algal bloom is not always red. The color of the
tide depends on the pigments present in the
phytoplankton 36. In some cases, the bloom cannot be
seen by the human eye, though it is still releasing
toxins 43.
Red tides and the toxins they release can have a direct
or indirect impact on the health of humans and other
organisms. Some species of phytoplankton can Red Tide, June 22, 2009. (Credit: National Oceanic and
suffocate fish during a bloom by clogging or irritating Atmospheric Administration)
the fishes’ gills, preventing them from taking in
oxygen 53. These harmful algal blooms can also cause
shellfish poisoning in humans and other adverse effects 13. Even during non-toxic algal blooms, the aquatic
environment can be compromised. Massive levels of phytoplankton respiration and decomposition can reduce
dissolved oxygen to unsustainable levels, resulting in the deaths of other aquatic creatures 13.

Toxins
The phytoplankton that cause a red tide are usually comprised of dinoflagellates, diatoms or cyanobacteria. Certain
species of these phytoplankton can contain harmful toxins that can affect humans and other animals. At normal
levels, heterotrophic bacteria in the water break down the toxins in these organisms before they can become
dangerous 51. When an algal bloom appears, the concentration of toxins increases faster than the bacteria can break
it down.
Some of these toxins cause mild problems if consumed by

humans, such as headaches and upset stomachs, while others
can cause serious neurological and hepatic symptoms that can
lead to death 51. These effects can be caused by direct or
indirect contact with an algal bloom. Direct exposure can occur
from swimming or drinking affected water. Indirect contact can
occur from eating animals that have been exposed to the toxic
bloom, particularly shellfish.
Shellfish are susceptible to toxins because they are filter

feeders. Filter feeders ingest food by taking up the water
surrounding them and then filtering out what they do not wish to
ingest 52. This method accumulates toxins inside the shellfish
system. Organisms that eat the shellfish (including humans) are
consuming the concentrated toxins, which can reach deadly
Mussels, clams and other mollusks can accumulate
levels 52. toxins from phytoplankton.
Filamentous Algal Bloom

Filamentous algae is a collection of microscopic algae that clumps together in strings and mats at the surface of the
water 7. These accumulations can vary from a small, woolly patch near shore to a widespread, slimy green covering.
Filamentous algae are often referred to as pond scum, and appear in eutrophic (nutrient-rich) bodies of water. More
often than not, filamentous algae are more of a nuisance than a danger 7. They are somewhat more controllable in
that the algae clumps can be physically removed from the water 7,44. While large filamentous algal blooms will stop
sunlight from penetrating the water and reaching submerged plants, the biggest threat associated with them is
oxygen depletion 44.

Oxygen Depletion and Fish Kills

If an algal bloom appears, a fish kill can occur shortly thereafter due to the environmental stresses caused by the
bloom. A fish kill, also known as a fish die-off is when a large concentration of fish die. The most common cause of
this event is lack of oxygen 45.

If a phytoplankton population grows to an excessive amount, the

amount of usable oxygen in the water can be depleted 45.
Oxygen depletion has two algal-bloom-related causes:
respiration and decomposition. Algae and cyanobacteria
consume oxygen at night (respiration) when there is not light for
photosynthesis 44. If there is a bloom, the phytoplankton and
other aquatic organisms (like fish) can consume more oxygen
than is produced. Likewise, if large portions of the algal bloom
die off at once, bacteria will start to consume oxygen in order to
decompose the dead algae. This can reduce oxygen
concentrations to below sustainable levels. If oxygen levels get
too low, fish and other aquatic creatures may die 44.

How do you Measure Phytoplankton?

While phytoplankton concentrations can be measured by sampling, this can be difficult and time-consuming.
Plankton nets do not always catch the smallest of phytoplankton, and do not provide an accurate estimate of water
volume 40. Box or tube traps offer an exact volume, but require lab sedimentation or settling chambers to concentrate
the algae population for counting 41. Furthermore, phytoplankton can be found at multiple depths in the water
column, which requires multiple sampling efforts and risks missing layers of phytoplankton in between sample
depths 40. The main advantage of sampling phytoplankton is the ability to analyze and identify the species present 41.
Measuring Chlorophyll
An easier and more efficient method is to use a chlorophyll sensor. As all phytoplankton have chlorophyll A, a
chlorophyll sensor can be used to detect these organisms in-situ 41. In addition to providing immediate data, it can be
used for continuous or long-term monitoring and recording. However, as a chlorophyll sensor assumes all algae and
cyanobacteria have the same levels of chlorophyll A, it only provides a rough estimate of biomass 41. It also cannot
be used to identify specific species.
Even with its limitations, in-situ chlorophyll measurements are recommended in Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater to estimate algal populations 32. Chlorophyll sensors are also an in-situ
method for determining the trophic state (nutrient-rich, stable, or nutrient-poor) of an aquatic system 47. A high
chlorophyll measurement is an indicator of eutrophication.
Chlorophyll is measured in micrograms per liter (µg/l). Chlorophyll sensors rely on fluorescence to estimate
phytoplankton levels based on chlorophyll concentrations in a sample of water 47. Fluorescence means that when the
chlorophyll is exposed to a high-energy wavelength (approximately 470 nm), it emits a lower energy light (650-700
nm) 47. This returned light can then be measured to determine how much chlorophyll is in the water, which in turn
estimates the phytoplankton concentration. These estimates are then used to develop parameter limits for bodies of
water. As an example, the New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services provides the following chlorophyll
guidelines for river quality: a chlorophyll measurement below 7 µg/l is within a desirable range. 7-15 µg/l is less than
desirable, while over 15 µg/l is considered problematic 42.

Measuring Blue-Green Algae

Blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria, are the only phytoplankton that contain phycocyanin and phycoerythrin, making
the pigments good indicators of the amount of cyanobacteria in a body of water 15. While chlorophyll measurements
can be used to estimate entire phytoplankton populations en masse, the accessory pigments phycocyanin and
phycoerythrin can be measured to estimate cyanobacteria concentrations specifically. Marine cyanobacteria have
higher levels of phycoerythrin, while freshwater species have dominating amounts of phycocyanin.
Like chlorophyll sensors, blue-green algae sensors rely on fluorescence to detect the pigment concentration 49.
Phycoerythrin sensors use a wavelength around 540 nm, while phycocyanin sensors emit a wavelength at 600
nm 50. Due to the differences in secondary pigment concentrations between species, it is recommended to use the
phycocyanin BGA sensor in freshwater applications, and the phycoerythrin BGA sensor in saltwater 49,50.
Cite This Work

Fondriest Environmental, Inc. “Algae, Phytoplankton and Chlorophyll.” Fundamentals of Environmental
Measurements. 22 Oct. 2014. Web. < https://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-
quality/algae-phytoplankton-and-chlorophyll>.
Additional Information
Measurement Methods
Chlorophyll Sensors
Applications
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11/25/21, 3:51 PM Algae, Phytoplankton and Chlorophyll - Environmental Measurement Systems

Algae, Phytoplankton and Chlorophyll

What are Algae?

As algae can be single-celled, filamentous

To further complicate this nomenclature,

What are phytoplankton?

Cyanobacteria: Blue-Green Algae

However, chlorophyll is not actually a single

Other Color Pigments

Some algae will appear green despite the presence of

Photosynthesis uses water, carbon dioxide and sunlight to produce

What Affects Photosynthesis?

Within the visible light spectrum, chlorophyll

Turbidity, or the presence of suspended particles in

Blue and red light are used more efficiently in photosynthesis.

Temperature affects the photosynthetic rates of different algae.

Why are Phytoplankton Important?

Oceanic Food Web

Phytoplankton are generally consumed by zooplankton

Phytoplankton create their own energy from sunlight. All other

Before plants, algae and phytoplankton used water

Carbon Fixation and the Climate

When carbon dioxide is consumed, the carbon

In climate terms, this process helps to maintain global

Typical Levels and Factors that Influence Productivity

a decrease in photosynthesis productivity is detrimental

Although phytoplankton require sunlight for

The lack of iron in the open ocean limits phytoplankton

Typical Freshwater Levels

Typical Saltwater Levels

Consequences of Unusual Levels

Algal Blooms and Red Tides

What Causes an Algal Bloom?

Some of these toxins cause mild problems if consumed by

Shellfish are susceptible to toxins because they are filter

Filamentous Algal Bloom

Oxygen Depletion and Fish Kills

If a phytoplankton population grows to an excessive amount, the

How do you Measure Phytoplankton?

Measuring Blue-Green Algae

Cite This Work

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