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Algae - Information
Algae - Information
So what makes algae only plant-like, instead of plants? While algae are often called primitive plants, other terms, like
protists, can be used 4. Protist may be a more accurate term, particularly for the single-celled phytoplankton 8.
However, larger, more complex algae, including kelp and chara, are often mistaken for submerged plants.
The difference between these seaweeds and submerged plants is in their structure. Macroalgae are simpler, and
attach themselves to the seabed with a holdfast instead of true roots 4. Aquatic plants, whether floating, submerged,
or emergent (starting in the water and growing out) have specialized parts such as roots, stems and leaves 3. Most
plants also have vascular structures (xylem and phloem), which carry nutrients throughout the plant. While algae
contain chlorophyll (like plants), they do not have these specialized structures 8.
Algae are sometimes considered protists, while other times they are classified
as plants or choromists. Phytoplankton are made up of single-celled algae
and cyanobacteria.
Phytoplankton, both algae and cyanobacteria, can be found in fresh or saltwater 13. As they need light to
photosynthesize, phytoplankton in any environment will float near the top of the water, where sunlight reaches 10.
Most freshwater phytoplankton are made up of green algae and cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae 13.
Marine phytoplankton are mainly comprised of microalgae known as dinoflagellates and diatoms, though other algae
and cyanobacteria can be present. Dinoflagellates have some autonomous movement due to their “tail” (flagella), but
diatoms are at the mercy of the ocean currents 12.
Microalgae
There are thousands of species of planktonic algae, or microalgae, floating in water all over the world. Green algae,
diatoms and dinoflagellates are the most well-known, though other microalgae species include coccolithophores,
cryptomonads, golden algae, yellow-green algae and euglenoids 1. There are so many diatoms drifting in the oceans
that their photosynthetic processes produce about half of Earth’s oxygen 9. While diatoms and dinoflagellates are
forms of planktonic algae, they can be incorrectly classified as red or brown algae 9. Red and brown algae are not
considered phytoplankton as they are not free-floating. True red and brown algae are rarely single-celled, and remain
attached to rock or other structures instead of drifting at the surface 1,17. Multicellular green algae is also not
considered phytoplankton for the same reasons. To be considered a phytoplankton, the algae needs to use
chlorophyll A in photosynthesis, be single-celled or colonial (a group of single-cells), and live and die floating in the
water, not attached to any substrate 1.
Phytoplankton come in many different structures, but all except for cyanobacteria are algae. Collage adapted from drawings and
micrographs by Sally Bensusen, NASA EOS Project Science Office
Cyanobacteria are the only bacteria that contain chlorophyll A, a chemical required for oxygenic photosynthesis (the
same process used by plants and algae) 1,14. This process uses carbon dioxide, water and sunlight to produce
oxygen and glucose (sugars) for energy. Chlorophyll A is used to capture the energy from sunlight to help this
process. Other bacteria can be considered photosynthesizing organisms, but they follow a different process known
as bacterial photosynthesis, or anoxygenic photosynthesis 14. This process uses bacteriochlorophyll instead of
chlorophyll A 19. These bacteria cells use carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide (instead of water) to manufacture
sugars. Bacteria cannot use oxygen in photosynthesis, and therefore produce energy anaerobically (without
oxygen) 18. Cyanobacteria and other phytoplankton photosynthesize as plants do, and produce the same sugar and
oxygen for use in cellular respiration.
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In 2011, Lake Erie experienced the worst blue-green algae bloom in decades (Photo Credit: MERIS/NASA; processed by
NOAA/NOS/NCCOS )
In addition to chlorophyll A, blue-green algae also contain the pigments phycoerythrin and phycocyanin, which give
the bacteria their bluish tint (hence the name, blue-green algae) 15. Despite not having a nucleus, these
microorganisms do contain an internal sac called a gas vacuole that helps them to float near the surface of the
water 13.
What is chlorophyll?
Chlorophyll is a color pigment found in plants, algae and phytoplankton. This molecule is used in photosynthesis, as
a photoreceptor 20. Photoreceptors absorb light energy, and chlorophyll specifically absorbs energy from sunlight 15.
Chlorophyll makes plants and algae appear green because it reflects the green wavelengths found in sunlight, while
absorbing all other colors.
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Chlorophyll B is mainly found in land plants, aquatic The different forms of chlorophyll absorb slightly different wavelengths
plants and green algae 1. In most of these for more efficient photosynthesis.
organisms, the ratio of chlorophyll A to chlorophyll
B is 3:1 21. Due to the presence of this molecule,
some organizations will group the green algae into the Plant Kingdom. Chlorophyll C is found in red algae, brown
algae, and dinoflagellates 15. This has lead to their classification under the Kingdom Chromista 4. Chlorophyll D is a
minor pigment found in some red algae, while the rare Chlorophyll E has been found in yellow-green algae.
Chlorophyll F was recently discovered in some cyanobacteria near Australia 22. Each of these accessory pigments
will strongly absorb different wavelengths, so their presence makes photosynthesis more efficient 20.
What is Photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is the process by which organisms use sunlight to produce sugars for energy. Plants, algae and
cyanobacteria all conduct oxygenic photosynthesis 1,14. That means they require carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight
(solar energy is collected by chlorophyll A). Plants and phytoplankton use these three ingredients to produce glucose
(sugar) and oxygen. This sugar is used in the metabolic processes of the organism, and the oxygen, produced as a
byproduct, is essential to nearly all other life, underwater and on land 1,24.
Underwater Photosynthesis
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Phytoplankton drifting about below the surface of the water still carry out photosynthesis. This process can occur as
long as enough light is available for the chlorophyll and other pigments to absorb. In the ocean, light can reach as far
as 200m below the surface 25. This region where sunlight can reach is known as the euphotic zone. Phytoplankton
and other algae can be found throughout this zone.
Oxygen Production
During the photosynthetic process, phytoplankton
produce oxygen as a byproduct. Due to their vast
and widespread populations, algae and
cyanobacteria are responsible for approximately
half of all the oxygen found in the ocean and in our
atmosphere 10. Thus oceanic lifeforms not only feed
off the phytoplankton, but also require the dissolved
oxygen they produce to live.
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In addition to providing food and oxygen for nearly all life on Earth, phytoplankton help to regulate inorganic carbon
(carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere 17. During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water molecules are used to make
sugar for energy. The process of incorporating inorganic carbon into organic carbon (glucose and other biologically
useful compounds) is called carbon fixation, and is part of the biological carbon pump 11.
As carbon fixation and oxygen production are part of the same process, the extent of phytoplankton’s participation is
on the same scale. Phytoplankton consume a similar amount of carbon dioxide as all land plants combined 11. While
phytoplankton can pull carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or the ocean, it will have a similar effect. CO2 that is
taken from the water is replaced by CO2 from the atmosphere, thanks to Henry’s law (the dissolved gas content of
water is proportional to the percentage of gas in the air above it 32. This consumption helps keep carbon dioxide
levels in check, reducing its presence as a greenhouse gas 28.
As phytoplankton populations grow and shrink seasonally, typical concentrations vary not only by location but from
month to month 30. Expected levels should be based on local, seasonal data from previous years. While changes
within the same calendar year are normal, populations should stay consistent with previous seasonal fluctuations
from year to year. If phytoplankton concentrations are abnormally high or low for a season, it may indicate other
water quality concerns that should be addressed.
Sunlight Influence
Phytoplankton require sunlight for photosynthesis. If sunlight is limited, phytoplankton productivity will decrease. This
can be seen in a daily cycle as oxygen levels fluctuate with light levels throughout the day. However, if sunlight is
unavailable or minimal for an extended period of time, aquatic life will consume dissolved oxygen quicker than
phytoplankton can restore it, leading to a plummet in dissolved oxygen levels 1. Phytoplankton are responsible for
much of the dissolved oxygen found in surface waters 10. As oxygen is required for fish and other aquatic organisms,
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Nutrient Influence
While phytoplankton rely on photosynthesis to produce
sugar for energy, they still need other nutrients to grow
and reproduce 7. These nutrients are typically
phosphorus, nitrogen and iron, though some species
also require silicon, calcium and other trace
metals 11,13. The more nutrients (particularly
phosphorus) that are present in a body of water, the
more algae and phytoplankton that will grow 7. An
increase in the nutrient concentration of a body of
water is called eutrophication 13. Eutrophication is often
an indicator of agricultural runoff, which can raise
phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations to very high
levels. If there are too many nutrients, the algae will
form a bloom, which can be very detrimental to water
quality and aquatic health 7.
Phytoplankton can be found along coastline and areas of upwelling. Data: Average chlorophyll concentration July 2002- May 2010,
MODIS,(Photo Credit: NASA, Jesse Allen & Robert Simmon)
Algae blooms can occur near the poles in the spring, when there is plenty of sunlight and the melting sea ice leaves
behind nutrient-rich freshwater 30. This melting process also fuels the oceanic convection, or circulation 38. In coastal
and open-ocean environments, oceanic circulation is responsible for phytoplankton concentrations.
This circulation can cause upwelling (bringing nutrient-rich water to the surface) and instigates phytoplankton
transportation. Like sea ice melting, upwelling is a seasonal occurrence. The extent and location of upwells are
based on wind patterns, which cause currents across the globe 11. Surface water is carried away from coastlines by
currents, and is replaced by cold, nutrient-rich water from below 37.
In many coastal regions, southerly winds cause this coastal upwelling in late summer and autumn 36. As upwelling
brings nutrient-rich water up to the surface, phytoplankton blooms often appear at this time. Oceanic circulation and
upwelling ensures that the coastal environments have the highest rates of primary production in the ocean 13. Tides,
flooding and currents all encourage higher nutrient levels in the photic zone 13.
Under the right conditions, algal blooms can last one week to an entire summer, despite the short, few-day life span
of phytoplankton 11. A single bloom will only last one to two weeks, as the phytoplankton population will die without
the proper oxygen and nutrient levels. However, if the water conditions stay favorable, successive blooms can occur
and appear to be one continuous population 39. Algal blooms are most common in late summer and early fall.
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Algal bloom in Lake Erie, July 22, 2011. (Credit: National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration)
Red Tides
If a phytoplankton concentration stays steady after the
initial bloom, it may become a red tide. While some
blooms are harmless, others may produce toxins that
endanger aquatic life and humans. This harmful algal
bloom is known as a red tide. While red tides
specifically refer to harmful algal blooms (HABs), they
are often simply associated with the discoloration due
to a large concentration of phytoplankton 53,43.
Although known as a red tide, the discoloration from a
harmful algal bloom is not always red. The color of the
tide depends on the pigments present in the
phytoplankton 36. In some cases, the bloom cannot be
seen by the human eye, though it is still releasing
toxins 43.
Red tides and the toxins they release can have a direct
or indirect impact on the health of humans and other
organisms. Some species of phytoplankton can Red Tide, June 22, 2009. (Credit: National Oceanic and
suffocate fish during a bloom by clogging or irritating Atmospheric Administration)
the fishes’ gills, preventing them from taking in
oxygen 53. These harmful algal blooms can also cause
shellfish poisoning in humans and other adverse effects 13. Even during non-toxic algal blooms, the aquatic
environment can be compromised. Massive levels of phytoplankton respiration and decomposition can reduce
dissolved oxygen to unsustainable levels, resulting in the deaths of other aquatic creatures 13.
Toxins
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The phytoplankton that cause a red tide are usually comprised of dinoflagellates, diatoms or cyanobacteria. Certain
species of these phytoplankton can contain harmful toxins that can affect humans and other animals. At normal
levels, heterotrophic bacteria in the water break down the toxins in these organisms before they can become
dangerous 51. When an algal bloom appears, the concentration of toxins increases faster than the bacteria can break
it down.
While phytoplankton concentrations can be measured by sampling, this can be difficult and time-consuming.
Plankton nets do not always catch the smallest of phytoplankton, and do not provide an accurate estimate of water
volume 40. Box or tube traps offer an exact volume, but require lab sedimentation or settling chambers to concentrate
the algae population for counting 41. Furthermore, phytoplankton can be found at multiple depths in the water
column, which requires multiple sampling efforts and risks missing layers of phytoplankton in between sample
depths 40. The main advantage of sampling phytoplankton is the ability to analyze and identify the species present 41.
Measuring Chlorophyll
An easier and more efficient method is to use a chlorophyll sensor. As all phytoplankton have chlorophyll A, a
chlorophyll sensor can be used to detect these organisms in-situ 41. In addition to providing immediate data, it can be
used for continuous or long-term monitoring and recording. However, as a chlorophyll sensor assumes all algae and
cyanobacteria have the same levels of chlorophyll A, it only provides a rough estimate of biomass 41. It also cannot
be used to identify specific species.
Even with its limitations, in-situ chlorophyll measurements are recommended in Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater to estimate algal populations 32. Chlorophyll sensors are also an in-situ
method for determining the trophic state (nutrient-rich, stable, or nutrient-poor) of an aquatic system 47. A high
chlorophyll measurement is an indicator of eutrophication.
Chlorophyll is measured in micrograms per liter (µg/l). Chlorophyll sensors rely on fluorescence to estimate
phytoplankton levels based on chlorophyll concentrations in a sample of water 47. Fluorescence means that when the
chlorophyll is exposed to a high-energy wavelength (approximately 470 nm), it emits a lower energy light (650-700
nm) 47. This returned light can then be measured to determine how much chlorophyll is in the water, which in turn
estimates the phytoplankton concentration. These estimates are then used to develop parameter limits for bodies of
water. As an example, the New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services provides the following chlorophyll
guidelines for river quality: a chlorophyll measurement below 7 µg/l is within a desirable range. 7-15 µg/l is less than
desirable, while over 15 µg/l is considered problematic 42.
Like chlorophyll sensors, blue-green algae sensors rely on fluorescence to detect the pigment concentration 49.
Phycoerythrin sensors use a wavelength around 540 nm, while phycocyanin sensors emit a wavelength at 600
nm 50. Due to the differences in secondary pigment concentrations between species, it is recommended to use the
phycocyanin BGA sensor in freshwater applications, and the phycoerythrin BGA sensor in saltwater 49,50.
Additional Information
Measurement Methods
Chlorophyll Sensors
Applications
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References
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