Semester 1 Test 1

List of Topics

- Fundamental units and derived units

- Orders of Magnitude and Estimation (calculations) with orders of magnitude
- Significant figures
- Arithmetic operations with significant figures (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division)
- Prefixes and Scientific Notation
- Conversion of units

FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS (TOPIC)

- The SI system defines seven dimensionally independent fundamental units. The second
(s), meter (m), kilogram (kg), ampere (A), kelvin (K), mol (Mol), and candela (Cd) are
the units of measurement. Except for the kilogram, which needs comparison to a standard
platinum/iridium ingot, all others may be determined by properly equipped laboratories.
- To make derived units, the basic units can be mixed algebraically. Derived units can be
named and are expressed as multiplications or divisions of basic units. A newton is a unit
of force, while Hertz is a unit of frequency. Additional units can be created by combining
these. To prevent exceedingly big or tiny numbers, the SI system develops prefixes for
multiples and submultiples of SI units, as well as defining the proper use of SI notation.

FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS (CONCEPT)

- Physics is a discipline of science concerned with the study of nature and natural events,
as we all know.
- Let’s assume I drop a ball from a specific height and it lands on the ground freely. To
acquire an exact response to this, you’ll need to measure things like distance, velocity,
and time.

- For all forms of physical quantities, the system of units is the whole collection of units,
both basic and derived units. Each system is given a name depending on the fundamental
units around which it is built. The following is the standard unit system used in
mechanics:
 - The Foot-Pound System (f.p.s.): A British engineering unit system that employs the foot
as the unit of length, pound as the unit of mass, and second as the unit of time.
- The Centimeter-Gram-Second System (c.g.s.): A system that employs the centimeter,
gram, and second as the three main units for length, mass, and time, respectively.
- The Meter-Kilogram-Second System (M.K.S): The meter, kilogram, and second are the
fundamental units of length, mass, and time, respectively.

- Fundamental units are fundamental, in the sense that they may be stated irrespective of
any other physical quantity. This means that it can’t be resolved any further in terms of
other physical quantities. It is also known as a fundamental physical quantity. Each
fundamental quantity has its own set of values and units.
- Fundamental Units are self-contained units that are not dependent on one another.
Fundamental Units give rise to Derived Units. A basic unit of length is the meter, and a
fundamental unit of time is the second. The meter per second (ms-1) is, on the other
hand, a derived unit of velocity.
- Aside from the seven fundamental units, there are two more fundamental units: Radian
and Steradian. Steradian (Sr) is used to measure the solid angle, whereas Radian (Rad) is
used to measure the plane angle. Fundamental units are used to create derived units.
Velocity (meters per second) and acceleration (meters per second2) are examples of
derived units.

Kilogram:

- A kilogram is now defined by a cylindrical piece of platinum-iridium held in the

International Committee on Weights and Measures headquarters in Paris. However, since
1879, that lump has shrunk by 50 micrograms, which is why scientists are exploring
methods to define a kilogram in terms of natural constants rather than a man-made item.

Meter:
 - Previously, the meter was calibrated by measuring the distance between two “X’s” on a
platinum Iridium metal bar held at 0°C in Paris. It was later defined as the length of
light’s journey in vacuum at a period of 1/299,792,458 of a second. One meter now holds
1650763.73 wavelengths of orange-red Kr-86 light. The second was once the length of a
typical solar day multiplied by 86,400. Since 1967, a second has been defined as the
amount of time that a cesium atom vibrates 9192631770 times in one second.

Kelvin:

- The 1/273.16 fraction of the thermodynamics temperature of water’s triple point is one
Kelvin.

Candela:

- Candela is the luminous intensity of a source emitting monochromatic radiation with a

frequency of 5401012 hertz and a radiant intensity of 1683 watts per steradian in a
particular direction. In a vacuum, an electric current maintained in two straight parallel
conductors of infinite length and insignificant cross-section area put one meter apart
produces a force of 2 x 10-7 N per meter length between them.

Mole:

- One mole is the quantity of substance in a system that comprises numerous constituent
entities (such as atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, or a collection of particles, as in 0.012
kg of carbon isotope 6C12 and atoms).
- Fundamental units are the most basic units, whereas derived units are those that may be
represented in terms of fundamental units and are generated by multiplying or dividing
fundamental units. The most frequent basic units are length, mass, and time, but
fundamental units are also employed to quantify specific physical quantities in the
thermal, electrical, and lighting fields. Because these units are only employed when
certain specific classes are involved, they might be classified as auxiliary basic units.
Every derived unit is derived from a physical rule that defines the unit.
- A derived unit is identified by its dimensions, which may be described as the derived
unit’s whole algebraic formula. L, M, and T are the dimensional symbols for the
 fundamental units of length, mass, and time, respectively. As a result, the dimensional
symbol for the voltage derived unit is [V=M. L2I.T3=[M.L2.I-1.T-3]]

DERIVED UNITS

- The derived units are used for commodities in which the units are created by combining
basic units. Names are occasionally given to derived units. The SI unit of force, for
example, is kg ms-2, sometimes known as Newton (N). A watt is a unit of power equal to
kg m2 s-3 (W).

SYSTEMS OF UNITS

For all sorts of physical quantities, any system of units encompasses the whole set of both
fundamental and derived units. The following is the chosen unit system:

● CGS System (Centimeter Gram Second)

According to the rules of this system, the unit of length is the centimetre, the unit of mass is the
gram, and the unit of time is the second.

● FPS System (Foot Pound Second)

According to the rules of this system, the unit of length is the centimetre, the unit of mass is a
pound, and the unit of time is second.

● MKS System (Meter Kilogram Second)

According to the rules of this system, the unit of length is meter, the unit of mass is the kilogram,
and the unit of time is second.

● SI System

The S.I system, or System International Units, has seven basic units and two supplemental
fundamental units.

Important Units of Length

The distances might be indefinitely greater in magnitude and cannot be expressed in meters or
kilometres. For example, the distances between planets and stars. As a result, bigger units of
length, such as ‘astronomical unit, “light-year,’ parsec,’ and so on, must be used when doing
such computations, some of which are:

● Astronomical Unit – The average distance between the Earth and the sun is measured in
astronomical units.
1 AU = 1.496 x 1011 m.
● Fermi – The size of a nucleus is measured in fermi.
1 fermi = 1f = 10-15 m
● Angstrom – Size of a tiny atom
1 angstrom = 1A = 10-10 m
● Light Year – One year’s distance traveled by light in a vacuum.
9.46 x 1015 m is the length of a light-year.
● Parsec – The distance at which an arc of the length of one astronomical unit subtends an
angle of one second at a point.
1 parsec = 3.08 x 1016 m

Conclusion

Fundamental units are those that are self-contained and unaffected by other units. All derived
units are created by multiplying and/or dividing one or more basic units with or without the
addition of any additional numerical element. Fundamental units are those that are independent
of other variables, such as length, mass, time, temperature, current, luminous intensity, and
substance quantity. Derived units are those that may be stated in terms of basic units and are also
dependent on others.

ORDER OF MAGNITUDE (TOPIC)

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES (TOPIC)

- Significant figures (or significant digits) are the number of digits in a given value or a
measurement, necessary to decide the accuracy and precision of measurement. They are
important in scientific or technical measurements.

- “Significant” means important. They refer to the reliable digits in the given number, which are
sufficient to convey accurate information. They also help us round off measurement values or the
outcome of a calculation.

- Significant figures (or significant digits) are the number of digits important to determine the
accuracy and precision of measurement, such as length, mass, or volume.

- Significant digits in math convey the value of a number with accuracy. They are considered
substantial figures that contribute to the precision of a number.
 To round off significant figures, we have to omit one or more digits from the right side of the
number until we reach the number of significant digits that we want to round it off to.

First, we have to look at the digit on the right end of the number (to the right of the digit we want
to round it off to).

■ If the digit is lower than 5, the number is rounded off to the lower number.
■ If the digit is greater than or equal to 5, the number is rounded up to the higher
number.

If there is more than one digit on the left, the number will be rounded off as a whole and not digit
by digit.

When multiplying and dividing significant figures, we follow the given steps.

■ Identify significant digits of each number.

■ Find the least number of significant digits in any of the numbers.
■ Multiply or divide the numbers in the problem as you would normally.
■ Once you get the product or quotient, round off the number so it does not have
more significant digits than the number with the least significant digits.
 - The LEAST number of significant figures in the given numbers determines the number of
significant figures in the answer.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

■ For each number, check the number of significant figures to the right of the
decimal point (in the decimal part).
■ Identify the LEAST number of significant digits.
■ Add or subtract the numbers in the usual manner.
■ When you get the final sum or difference, round off the number so that it does not
have more significant digits on the right of the decimal point than the least number
you found earlier.

Example: Add 3.240 inches and 8.12 inches.

Here, 3.240: 3 significant figures in the decimal part

8.12: 2 significant figures in the decimal part

Adding two decimals, we get

3.240+8.12=11.360

, which has 3 significant digits in the decimal part.

So, we round it off to two significant figures to get 11.36.

Fun Facts!

Here are some fun facts about significant figures:

■ Significant digits are also called “sig figs.”

■ In earlier times, significant digits were used to refer to the non-zero digits on the
left of the zeros on the right end of a number. For example, 4500 would have two
significant digits.
■ In modern times, significant digits are used for measurements and accuracy.
Rounding errors would often affect the accuracy of mathematical and scientific
calculations. For this reason, there was a need to develop rules for rounding off
numbers and measurements.

Conclusion

Once you’ve learned the rules, you can easily count the significant figures in a number. The rules
for zeros, decimal points, and rounding off are the most important. Keep practicing, and you’ll be
able to add, subtract, divide and multiply without a sweat!

Solved Examples

1. How many significant digits are there in the number 0.002?

Solution: There is one significant figure in 0.002. Leading zeros are not significant.

2. How many significant digits are there in the number 67.30?

Solution: There are four significant figures in 67.30. Final or trailing zeros are significant.

3. Add these numbers by applying the significant figures rules: 42, 7.8, 6.50, 12.

Solution:

42+7.8+6.50+12=68.3

For the given numbers, the least number of significant digits on the right of the decimal point is
1. So, the sum 68.3 will stay as 68.3 since it has one significant number after the decimal point.
4. Round off the number 43.8 to two significant digits.

Solution: Looking at the last digit, 8, we can see it is more than 5.

Given that the number has to be rounded off to two significant digits, it will be rounded off to 44.

5. Multiply the numbers 11.6, 8.30, and 22.001.

Solution: Out of the given numbers, the least number of significant numbers is 3. Multiplying the
numbers:

11.6×8.30×22.001=2118.25268

To round it off to 3 significant numbers, we have to look at the number right of 3 significant
numbers, which is 8.

Since it is greater than 5, the number will be rounded off to 212.

HOW TO DO ARITHMETIC WITH SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

- When doing math in chemistry, you need to follow some rules to make sure that your sums,
differences, products, and quotients honestly reflect the amount of precision present in the
original measurements. That’s where significant figures come in.

- Adding or subtracting: Round the sum or difference to the same number of decimal places as
the measurement with the fewest decimal places. Rounding like this is honest, because you’re
acknowledging that your answer can’t be any more precise than the least-precise measurement
that went into it.

- Multiplying or dividing: Round the product or quotient so that it has the same number of
significant figures as the least-precise measurement—the measurement with the fewest
significant figures.

- Notice the difference between the two rules. When you add or subtract, you assign significant
figures in the answer based on the number of decimal places in each original measurement.
When you multiply or divide, you assign significant figures in the answer based on the smallest
number of significant figures from your original set of measurements.

- Here’s an example. Express the following sum with the proper number of significant figures:

35.7 miles + 634.38 miles + 0.97 miles = ?

- The answer is 671.1 miles. Adding the three values yields a raw sum of 671.05 miles. However,
the 35.7 miles measurement extends only to the tenths place. Therefore, you round the answer to
the tenths place, from 671.05 to 671.1 miles.

- Now let’s try an example with multiplication. Express the following product with the proper
number of significant figures:

27 feet * 13.45 feet = ?

- Of the two measurements, one has two significant figures (27 feet) and the other has four
significant figures (13.45 feet). The answer is therefore limited to two significant figures. You
need to round the raw product, 363.15 feet². You could write 360 feet², but doing so may imply
that the final 0 is significant and not just a placeholder. For clarity, express the product in
scientific notation, as 3.6 * 10² feet².

PREFIXES AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

- Physics problems frequently ask you to convert between different units of measurement. For
example, you may measure the number of feet your toy car goes in three minutes and thus be
able to calculate the speed of the car in feet per minute, but that’s not a standard unit of measure,
so you need to convert feet per minute to miles per hour, or meters per second.

- For another example, suppose you have 180 seconds — how much is that in minutes? You
know that there are 60 seconds in a minute, so 180 seconds equals three minutes. Here are some
common conversions between units:

​ 1 m = 100 cm = 1,000 mm (millimeters)

​ 1 km (kilometer) = 1,000 m
​ 1 kg (kilogram) = 1,000 g (grams)
​ 1 N (newton) = 105 dynes
​ 1 J (joule) = 107 ergs
​ 1 P (pascal) = 10 Ba
​ 1 A (amp) = 0.1 Bi
​ 1 T (tesla) = 104 G (gauss)
​ 1 C (coulomb) = 2.9979 x 109 Fr

The conversion between CGS and MKS almost always involves factors of 10 only, so converting
between the two is simple. But what about converting to and from the FPI and other systems of
measurement? Here are some handy conversions that you can come back to as needed:

​ Length:

​ 1 m = 100 cm

​ 1 km = 1,000 m

​ 1 in (inch) = 2.54 cm

​ 1 m = 39.37 in

​ 1 mile = 5,280 ft = 1.609 km

​ 1 angstrom = 10–10 m
​ Mass:

​ 1 kg = 1,000 g
 ​ 1 slug = 14.59 kg

​ 1 u (atomic mass unit) = 1.6605 x 10–27 kg

​ Force:

​ 1 lb (pound) = 4.448 N

​ 1 N = 105 dynes

​ 1 N = 0.2248 lb
​ Energy:

​ 1 J = 107 ergs

​ 1 J = 0.7376 ft-lb

​ 1 BTU (British thermal unit) = 1,055 J

​ 1 kWh (kilowatt hour) = 3.600 x 106 J

​ 1 eV (electron volt) = 1.602 x 10–19 J

​ Power:

​ 1 hp (horsepower) = 550 ft-lb/s

​ 1 W (watt) = 0.7376 ft-lb/s

Because conversions are such an important part of physics problems, and because you have to
keep track of them so carefully, there’s a systematic way of handling conversions: You multiply
by a conversion constant that equals 1, such that the units you don’t want cancel out.