ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Our body cells have dynamic adventures on o Blood glucose regulator. The endocrine system
microscopic levels all the time. For instance, when controls blood glucose levels and other nutrient
insulin molecules, carried passively along in the levels in the blood.
blood leave the blood and bind tightly to protein o Direct gene activation. Being lipid-soluble
receptors of nearby cells, the response it dramatic: molecules, the steroid hormones can diffuse
blood borne glucose molecules begin to disappear through plasma membranes of their target cells;
into the cells, and cellular activity accelerates. once inside, the steroid hormone enters the
nucleus and binds to a specific receptor protein
Functions of the Endocrine System there; then, the hormone-receptor complex
Despite the huge variety of hormones, there binds to specific sites on the cell’s DNA,
are really only two mechanisms by which hormones activating certain genes to transcribe messenger
trigger changes in cells. RNA; the mRNA then is translated in the
o Water equilibrium. The endocrine system cytoplasm, resulting in the synthesis of new
controls water equilibrium by regulating the proteins.
solute concentration of the blood. o Second messenger system. Water-soluble,
o Growth, metabolism, and tissue maturation. The nonsteroidal hormones-protein, and peptide
endocrine system controls the growth of many hormones- are unable to enter the target cells,
tissues, like the bone and muscle, and the degree so instead, they bind to receptors situated on the
of metabolism of various tissues, which aids in target cell’s plasma membrane and utilize a
the maintenance of the normal body second messenger system.
temperature and normal mental functions.
Maturation of tissues, which appears in the Anatomy of the Endocrine System
development of adult features and adult Compared to other organs of the body, the
behavior, are also determined by the endocrine organs of the endocrine system are small and
system. unimpressive, however, functionally the endocrine
o Heart rate and blood pressure management. The organs are very impressive, and when their role in
endocrine system assists in managing the heart maintaining body homeostasis is considered, they
rate and blood pressure and aids in preparing the are true giants.
body for physical motion.
o Immune system control. The endocrine system
helps regulate the production and functions of
immune cells.
o Reproductive function controls. The endocrine
system regulates the development and the
functions of the reproductive systems in males
and females.
o Uterine contractions and milk release. The
endocrine system controls uterine contractions
throughout the delivery of the newborn and
stimulates milk release from the breasts in
lactating females.
o Ion management. The endocrine system
regulates Na+, K+, and Ca2+ concentrations in
the blood.
Hypothalamus o Prolactin (PRL). Prolactin is a protein hormone
The major endocrine organs of the body structurally similar to growth hormone; its only
include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, known target in humans is the breast because,
pineal and thymus glands, the pancreas, and the after childbirth, it stimulates and maintains milk
gonads. production by the mother’s breast.
o Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus, which is part o Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH
of the nervous system, is also considered as a regulates the endocrine activity of the cortex
major endocrine organ because it produces portion of the adrenal gland.
several hormones. It is an important autonomic o Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH, also
nervous system and endocrine control center of called thyrotropin hormone influences the
the brain located inferior to the thalamus. growth and activity of the thyroid gland.
o Mixed functions. Although the function of some o Gonadotropic hormones. The gonadotropic
hormone-producing glands is purely endocrine, hormones regulate the hormonal activity of
the function of others (pancreas and gonads) is gonads (ovaries and testes).
mixed- both endocrine and exocrine. o Follicles-stimulating hormone (FSH). FSH
stimulates follicle development in the ovaries; as
Pituitary Gland the follicles mature, they produce estrogen and
The pituitary gland is approximately the size eggs that are readied for ovulation; in men, FSH
of a pea. stimulates sperm development by the testes.
o Location. The pituitary gland hangs by a stalk o Luteinizing hormone (LH). LH triggers ovulation
from the inferior surface of the hypothalamus of of an egg from the ovary and causes the
the brain, where it is snugly surrounded by the ruptured follicle to produce progesterone and
“Turk’s saddle” of the sphenoid bone. some estrogen; in men, LH stimulates
o Lobes. It has two functional lobes- the anterior testosterone production by the interstitial cells
pituitary (glandular tissue) and the posterior of the testes.
pituitary (nervous tissue).
Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary
The posterior pituitary is not an endocrine
gland in the strict sense because it does not make
the peptide hormones it releases, but it simply acts
as a storage area for hormones made by
hypothalamic neurons.
o Oxytocin. Oxytocin is released in significant
amount only during childbirth and in nursing
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
women; it stimulates powerful contractions of
There are several hormones of the anterior
the uterine muscle during labor, during sexual
pituitary hormones that affect many body organs.
relations, and during breastfeeding and also
o Growth hormone (GH). Growth hormone is a
causes milk ejection (let-down reflex) in a nursing
general metabolic hormone, however, its major
woman.
effects are directed to the growth of skeletal
o Antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH causes the
muscles and long bones of the body; it is a
kidneys to reabsorb more water from the
protein-sparing and anabolic hormone that
forming of urine; as a result, urine volume
causes amino acids to be built into proteins and
decreases and blood volume increases; in larger
stimulates most target cells to grow in size and
amounts, ADH also increases blood pressure by
divide.
 causing constriction of the arterioles, so it is also important for normal tissue growth and
sometimes referred to as vasopressin. development.
o Calcitonin. Calcitonin decreases blood calcium
Thyroid Gland levels by causing calcium to be deposited in the
The thyroid gland is a hormone-producing bones; calcitonin is made by the so-called
gland that is familiar to most people primarily parafollicular cells found in the connective
because many obese individuals blame their tissues between the follicles.
overweight condition on their “glands” (thyroid).
Parathyroid Glands
The parathyroid glands are mostly tiny
masses of glandular tissue.
o Location. The parathyroid glands are located on
the posterior surface of the thyroid gland.
o Parathormone. The parathyroids secrete
parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone,
which is the most important regulator of calcium
ion homeostasis of the blood; PTH is a
hypercalcemic hormone (that is, it acts to
increase blood levels of calcium), whereas
calcitonin is a hypocalcemic hormone.; PTH also
stimulates the kidneys and intestines to absorb
more calcium.
o Location. The thyroid gland is located at the base
of the throat, just inferior to the Adam’s apple, Adrenal Glands
where it is easily palpated during a physical Although the adrenal gland looks like a
examination. single organ, it is structurally and functionally two
o Lobes. It is a fairly large gland consisting of two endocrine organs in one.
lobes joined by a central mass, or isthmus.
o Composition. Internally, the thyroid gland is
composed of hollow structures called follicles,
which store a sticky colloidal material.
o Types of thyroid hormones. Thyroid hormone
often referred to as the body’s major metabolic
hormone, is actually two active, iodine-
containing hormones, thyroxine or T4, and
triiodothyronine or T3.
o Thyroxine. Thyroxine is the major hormone
secreted by the thyroid follicles.
o Triiodothyronine. Most triiodothyronine is
formed at the target tissues by conversion of the
thyroxine to triiodothyronine.
o Function. Thyroid hormone controls the rate at
which glucose is “burned” oxidized, and
converted to body heat and chemical energy; it is
 o Sex hormones. Both male and female sex
hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex
throughout life in relatively small amounts;
although the bulk of sex hormones produced by
the innermost cortex layer are androgens (male
sex hormones), some estrogens (female sex
hormones), are also formed.

Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla

The adrenal medulla, like the posterior
pituitary, develops from a knot of nervous tissue.
o Catecholamines. When the medulla is stimulated
by sympathetic nervous system neurons, its cells
release two similar hormones, epinephrine, also
called adrenaline, and norepinephrine
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex (noradrenaline), into the bloodstream;
The adrenal cortex produces three major collectively, these hormones are referred to as
groups of steroid hormones, which are collectively catecholamines.
called corticosteroids– mineralocorticoids, o Function. Basically, the Catecholamines increase
glucocorticoids, and sex hormones. heart rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose
o Mineralocorticoids. The mineralocorticoids,
levels and dilate the small passageways of the
primarily aldosterone, are produced by the lungs; the catecholamines of the adrenal medulla
outermost adrenal cortex cell layer; prepare the body to cope with a brief or short-
mineralocorticoids are important in regulating term stressful situation and cause the so-called
the mineral (or salt) content of the blood,
alarm stage of the stress response.
particularly the concentrations of sodium and
potassium ions and they also help in regulating
Pancreatic Islets
the water and electrolyte balance in the body.
The pancreas, located close to the stomach
o Renin. Renin, am enzyme produced by the
in the abdominal cavity, is a mixed gland.
kidneys when the blood pressure drops, also
cause the release of aldosterone by triggering a
series of reactions that form angiotensin II, a
potent stimulator of aldosterone release.
o Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). ANP prevents
aldosterone release, its goal being to reduce
blood volume and blood pressure.
o Glucocorticoids. The middle cortical layer mainly
produces glucocorticoids, which include
cortisone and cortisol; glucocorticoids promote
normal cell metabolism and help the body to
resist long-term stressors, primarily by increasing
blood glucose levels, thus it is said to be a
hyperglycemic hormone; it also reduce pain and
inflammation by inhibiting some pain-causing
molecules called prostaglandins.
 the pineal gland; the levels of melatonin rise and
fall during the course of the day and night; peak
levels occur at night and make us drowsy as
melatonin is believed to be the “sleep trigger”
that plays an important role in establishing the
body’s day-night cycle.

Thymus Gland
o Islets of Langerhans. The islets of Langerhans The thymus gland is large in infants and
also called pancreatic islets, are little masses of children and decreases in size throughout
hormone-producing tissue that are scattered adulthood.
among the enzyme-producing acinar tissue of o Location. The thymus gland is located in the
the pancreas. upper thorax, posterior to the sternum.
o Hormones. Two important hormones produced o Thymosin. The thymus produces a hormone
by the islet cells are insulin and glucagon. called thymosin and others that appear to be
o Islet cells. Islet cells act as fuel sensors, secreting essential for normal development of a special
insulin and glucagon appropriately during fed group of white blood cells (T-lymphocytes, or T
and fasting states. cells) and the immune response.
o Beta cells. High levels of glucose in the blood
stimulate the release of insulin from the beta Gonads
cells of the islets. The female and male gonads produce sex
o Alpha cells. Glucagon’s release by the alpha cells hormones that are identical to those produced by
of the islets is stimulated by low blood glucose adrenal cortex cells; the major difference are the
levels. source and relative amount produced.
o Insulin. Insulin acts on just about all the body
cells and increases their ability to transport Hormones of the Ovaries
glucose across their plasma membranes; because The female gonads or ovaries are a pair of
almond-sized organs.
insulin sweeps glucose out of the blood, its effect
is said to be hypoglycemic. o Location. The female gonads are located in the
o Glucagon. Glucagon acts as an antagonist of pelvic cavity.
o Steroid hormones. Besides producing female sex
insulin; that is, it helps to regulate blood glucose
levels but in a way opposite that of insulin; its cells, ovaries produce two groups of steroid
action is basically hyperglycemic and its primary hormones, estrogen, and progesterone.
target organ is the liver, which it stimulates to o Estrogen. Alone, the estrogens are responsible
break down stored glycogen into glucose and for the development of sex characteristics in
release the glucose into the blood. women at puberty; acting with progesterone,
estrogens promote breast development and
Pineal Gland cyclic changes in the uterine lining (menstrual
The pineal gland, also called the pineal cycle).
body, is a small cone-shaped gland. o Progesterone. Progesterone acts with estrogen
o Location. The pineal gland hangs from the roof of to bring about the menstrual cycle; during
the third ventricle of the brain. pregnancy, it quiets the muscles of the uterus so
o Melatonin. Melatonin is the only hormone that that an implanted embryo will not be aborted
appears to be secreted in substantial amounts by and helps prepare breast tissue for lactation.
Hormones of the Testes o Human placental lactogen (hPL). hPL works
The testes of the male are paired oval cooperatively with estrogen and progesterone in
organs in a sac. preparing the breasts for lactation.
o Location. The testes are suspended in a sac, the o Relaxin. Relaxin, another placental hormone,
scrotum, outside the pelvic cavity. causes the mother’s pelvic ligaments and the
o Male sex hormones. In addition to male sex cells, pubic symphysis to relax and become more
or sperm, the testes also produce male sex flexible, which eases birth passage.
hormones, or androgens, of which testosterone
is the most important. Physiology of the Endocrine System
o Testosterone. At puberty, testosterone Although hormones have widespread effects, the
promotes the growth and maturation of the major processes they control are reproduction,
reproductive system organs to prepare the growth, and development; mobilizing the body’s
young man for reproduction; it also causes the defenses against stressors; maintaining electrolyte,
male’s secondary sex characteristics to appear water, and nutrient balance of the blood; and
and stimulates male sex drive; Testosterone is regulating cellular metabolism and energy balance.
also necessary for the continuous production of
sperm. The Chemistry of Hormones
The key to the incredible power of the
Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and Organs endocrine glands is the hormones they produce and
Besides the major endocrine organs, secrete.
pockets of hormone-producing cells are found in o Hormones. Hormones may be defined as
fatty tissue and in the walls of the small intestine, chemical substances that are secreted by
stomach, kidneys, and heart- organs whose chief endocrine cells into the extracellular fluids and
functions have little to do with hormone regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in
production. the body.
o Classification. Although many different
Placenta hormones are produced, nearly all of them can
The placenta is a remarkable organ formed be classified chemically as either amino acid-
temporarily in the uterus of pregnant women. based molecules (including proteins, peptides,
o Function. In addition to its roles as the and amines) or steroids.
respiratory, excretory, and nutrition delivery o Steroid hormones. Steroid hormones (made
systems for the fetus, it also produces several from cholesterol) include the sex hormones
proteins and steroid hormones that help to made by the gonads and hormones produced by
maintain the pregnancy and pave the way for the adrenal cortex.
delivery of the baby. o Amino acid-based hormones. All the others are
o Human chorionic gonadotropin. During very nonsteroidal amino acid derivatives.
early pregnancy, a hormone called human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is produced by the Mechanisms of Hormone Action
developing embryo and then by the fetal part of Although the blood-borne hormones
the placenta; hCG stimulates the ovaries to circulate to all the organs of the body, a given
continue producing estrogen and progesterone hormone affects only certain tissue cells or organs.
so that the lining of the uterus is not sloughed off o Target cells. For a target cell to respond to the
in the menses. hormone, specific protein receptors must be
present on its plasma membrane or in its interior
to which that hormone can attach; only when
 this binding occurs can the hormone influence are said to respond to neural stimuli; a classic
the workings of cells. example is sympathetic nervous system
o Function of hormones. The hormones bring stimulation of the adrenal medulla to release
about their effects on, the body cells primarily by norepinephrine and epinephrine during periods
altering cellular activity- that is, by increasing or of stress.
decreasing the rate of a normal, or usual,
metabolic process rather than stimulating a new
one.
o Changes in hormone binding. The precise
changes that follow hormone binding depend on
the specific hormone and the target cell type, but
typically one or more of the following occurs:
1. Changes in plasma membrane permeability
or electrical state.
2. Synthesis of protein or certain regulatory
molecules (such as enzymes) in the cell.’
3. Activation or inactivation of enzymes.
4. Stimulation of mitosis.
5. Promotion of secretory activity.

Control of Hormone Release

What prompts the endocrine glands to
release or not release their hormones?
o Negative feedback mechanisms. Negative
feedback mechanisms are the chief means of
regulating blood levels of nearly all hormones.
o Endocrine gland stimuli. The stimuli that activate
the endocrine organs fall into three major
categories- hormonal, humoral, and neural.
o Hormonal stimuli. The most common stimulus is
a hormonal stimulus, in which the endocrine
organs are prodded into action by other
hormones; for example, hypothalamic hormones
stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete
its hormones, and many anterior pituitary
hormones stimulate other endocrine organs to
release their hormones into the blood.
o Humoral stimuli. Changing blood levels of certain
ions and nutrients may also stimulate hormone
release, and this is referred to as humoral
stimuli; for example, the release of parathyroid
hormone (PTH) by cells of the parathyroid glands
is prompted by decreasing blood calcium levels.
o Neural stimuli. In isolated cases, nerve fibers
stimulate hormone release, and the target cells