LEARNING OUTCOMES

Topic 1: English teaching resources

Learning outcomes

It focuses more on how students will employ the material not only in context but also in real life.

Curriculum development and syllabus design in teaching a language

It is Concerned with evaluating learners' needs in a language program, determining goals, arranging a
syllabus, deciding on teaching appropriate approaches using suitable materials, and deciding on the right
assessment procedures and criteria.
A syllabus displays a view of language; language learning and the nature of language.

Didactic Resources

Books, workbooks, worksheets, readers, cassettes, audios, videos, or computer-based materials, are
considered syllabus designs.
teachers apply other materials not considered for instructional use such as magazines, newspapers, and TV
materials.
materials sometimes carry out to complement the instruction.
For pupils, materials provided are the primary source of contact with the language apart from the teacher.

Materials: Definition

The meaning of material in language teaching and learning is intended for everything applied to teach
language learners.
English teachers are recommended to develop learning materials by themselves in order for their learners'
needs.

Materials should be

Innovative ; Variable ; Eye-catching : Thought-provoking.

The Importance of Learning Materials in Teaching

It is to give support to the learner.

Student Learning Support

They enlarge in a big way the student accomplishment by supporting student learning.

The structure of a lesson

Teaching and learning materials also bring organization to the lesson planning.

They can be classified as visual, audio-and audio-visual aids.

Visual Aids
These aids comprise visualization and hearing, such as television, film projector, and film strips.
Bentley There are other aids such as realia, flashcards.
flashcards Cards small enough to hold up one after another, with simple drawings or single words or phrases
ott them.
puppets .

«The teacher can use. hand gestures, facial expressions, and mime to elicit vocabulary items, clarify meaning
and create context; tip a set of signals, such as linger correction, which learners recognize as prompts to correct
their own mistakes».

Textbooks: Advantages and disadvantages

The use of a textbook assures that students in different classes receive similar content, and they also can be
tested in the same way.
Provide a variety of learning resources.
They save teachers' time.

o They can present fake language since texts, dialogues, and other aspects are not always representative of
real language use.
o They may distort content: They are not always with real content.
o They may not reflect on students' needs: Not all the time, the creators of textbooks reflect on students'
interests and needs and may require adaptation.

Curriculum: A Definition

This terminology has a wide range of definitions. It often relates to the term syllabus as a description of the
content and the sequence of what is to be taught; in general, it talks about planning, implementing, and
evaluating. In an academic program, this is the why, how, and how well the teaching-learning process goes.
From the applied linguistics field: An educational program which states: educational purposes, the
content, teaching, and assessing.

Materials as components of the curriculum

▪ «Good materials not only can be taught straightforwardly but also can facilitate learning process».
▪ suitable and authentic materials taking into account that they have to be applied according to their
preferences and necessities.
Factors to Consider When Designing Materials.
learner's need.

Any consideration of the syllabus or materials design must begin with a need's analysis.
Equally important is knowledge about students' experiences , their first language and literacy levels in it, their
aspirations, their interests, and their purposes for learning English.

Curriculum Policy

▪ policymaker's: is who determines the broad principles and purposes of the curriculum and expresses them in
a curriculum design document.
▪ A performer, keeping upward the 'balls' representing the needs of the learners, the needs of the
institution, society, or at least specific interest groups within society and the teachers' and administrators'
needs, the implementers of the curriculum.

Needs Analysis

This part of the curriculum aims to elicit information on the students' motivation, expressed
needs, likes, dislikes, and learning styles to design a tailored course to meet their specific needs.
▪ From this perspective of curriculum design, critical areas can be identified and include intrinsic
motivation, materials, and activities to support learning and develop autonomy and student learning styles.
▪ The needs analysis results are necessary to develop the course and consider when choosing the most
suitable teaching methodology.
▪ In the integrated approach, needs analysis is considered not only in the pre-stage of the course but also
throughout the course, promoting teacher-learner learning objectives.

Syllabus Design

▪ Course syllabi: available product or process-oriented.

▪ three syllabus design dimensions: cyclic ; The course content and methodology .
The syllabus's emphasis involves all levels all the time, but changes at different stages of learning.

Methodology

▪ Although the syllabus gives the background, learning differs on the interaction between the teacher and the
learners in the classroom and also, on the principles, supplies, accomplishments and procedures applied by
the teacher.
▪ Teachers should reflect on their ideas.
▪ Teachers objectives are not just to be guiders or delivers but, they must contemplate their goals and renew
their curriculums.

Evaluation

▪ The main purpose of assessment is to determine if the curriculum goals were reached or not.

The resources and facilities

Teachers should be authentic about what they can achieve in terms of materials design and production within
the limitations of available resources and facilities.
▪ Resources influence material design.

These factors will define an individual teacher's enthusiasm to undertake on materials

These factors will be influenced by the teacher's teaching experience level and the teacher's principles'
creativity and understanding.
teachers embark on materials, modify, adapt, or supplement a coursebook.
▪ Sum up activities to the ones already suggested.
▪ Take out activities that are not considered part of learners' needs.

▪ Change activities or organizational structure, for example, pairs, small groups, or the whole class.

Materials that include excerpts from published works has implications when creating.
Time

▪ A disadvantage for teachers who wish to design their own materials.

▪ ways in which teachers can lighten the load, including sharing materials with other teachers, working in a team
to take turns to design and produce materials, and organizing central storage so materials are available to
everyone.

Guidelines for Designing Effective English Teaching Materials

These guidelines may be a useful framework for teachers as they can see different factors and variables to
develop materials for their own teaching situations. The guidelines are presented just to guide not as a rule.

The need to Have something to communicate.

Someone to communicate with3. Some interest in the outcome of the communication.

West Germanic language teaching materials should encourage learners to develop learning skills and methods

Teachers cannot show their learners all the language they have to grasp within the short time that they are
within the classroom.
It is essential that teaching materials also teach their target learners the way to learn, which they assist them to
require advantage of acquisition opportunities outside the classroom.

English language teaching materials should allow for a focus on form as well as function

«Well-designed materials can help alert students to the underlying forms and provide opportunities for
regulated practice as well as independent and creative expression».
Guideline 5: English language teaching materials should offer opportunities for integrated language use
materials produced should give learners opportunities to integrate all the language skills in an authentic
manner and to become competent at integrating extra-linguistic factors also.

English language teaching materials should be authentic

Learners should have the possibility to listen, watch and read in the same way local people interact.
«Performance tasks and projects are meant to engage students in inquiry and authentic application as a way to
develop and deepen understanding».
Guideline 7: English language teaching materials should link to each other to develop a progression of
skills, understandings and language items.
Clearly stated objectives at the outset of the design process will help ensure that the resultant materials have
coherence, and that they clearly progress specific learning goals while also giving opportunities for repetition
and reinforcement of earlier learning.
Guideline 8: English language teaching materials should be attractive.
Physical appearance:i nitial impressions can be as crucial in the language classroom as in many other aspects of
life.
Should be suitable for considering the text's density on the page, the type size, and the layout cohesiveness
and consistency.
Use friendly materials as it should also be attractive in terms of usability.

English language teaching materials should have appropriate instructions

It must be written in an appropriate language with useful instructions.

English language teaching materials should be flexible

Teachers have to consider all the advantages and budget when planning out their teaching
materials, considering the importance. It depends on time and effort.

Comprenhension questions

Name the materials that are considered the basis for the content of lessons.
Books, workbooks, worksheets, readers, cassettes, audios, videos, or computer-based materials.
However, web sites or materials on the Internet plays an important part, too. Also, other materials not
considered for instructional use, such as magazines, newspapers, and TV materials.

What is the definition of curriculum?

it talks about planning, implementing, and evaluating.

What do Learning materials provide?

Student Learning Support and the structure of a lesson.

What are the types of teaching Aids?

They can be classified as visual, audio- and audio-visual aids.

Name 3 factors that some teachers consider important.
Time, size and proficiency of the class.

What are some of the advantages and limitations of using a commercial textbook as the basis for a language
program?

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ImzQHGCF8-oPrRHE8Adhy5R-Ett9Mlad/view?usp=sharing
They provide structure and a syllabus for a program, nevertheless, they are not always representative of real
language use.
Are the Guidelines, rules for Designing a course? Name three you consider the most important.
The guidelines are presented just to guide not as a rule.
Topic 2: Needs analysis and its use to select teaching resources.

Curriculum development

Include processes used to determine the needs of learners and to develop aims for a program.
Needs Analysis and its role in the selection of teaching.
Curriculum designers, in general, formulate teaching goals based on results of need analysis.
The results of need analysis allow curriculum designer to predict what a teacher wants his language learners to
do after the teaching-learning process.
Goals that can be drawn based on the results of a needs analysis or needs assessment.
The need analysis is usually based on the experiences faced by the learners in relation to the teaching and
learning process and the learning strategies.

Objective Needs and Subjective Needs

Teachers diagnose objective needs supported by personal data study of learners like gender, age, legal
status, nationality, and background about the learner's education, prelanguage courses, current language
proficiency, language patterns, difficulties in the foreign acquisition, current or future profesión.
This information should be embedded within the process of assessing objective needs.
Personal needs are the acquisition of cognition and emotional needs of learners. It refers to the requirements
inferred from the «affective and cognitive factors» of the learners.
These factors include the learners' personality, self-confidence, personal cognitive styles, expectations: and
self-esteem during the educational process.
Discovering Needs «need, desires, and deficiencies include some comparison or relation to lists of things which
will act because of the course's learning goals».

Needs analysis focus on the appropriate content and valuable things to learn.
Encompasses asking the right questions and finding the answers in the most effective way.
The analysis of target needs can look at: lacks, wants, necessites.

Necessities

Needs are not always exact, so needs must be looked at various points of view.

To find out needs is to make a significant division between present knowledge and required knowledge and
objective needs and personal needs.

DISEÑO Y GESTION DE AMBIENTES DE APRENDIZAJE DE ELF

Introducción

A learning environment must contain activities, tools, actors, a socio-cultural environment and some
pedagogical components. It is based on the needs and psychological processes that give the best
conditions for the student's learning. It is not limited to the design of the school context; it involves a series
of conceptual and practical application elements that enhance the educational process and promote
selfmanagement of knowledge by students. In other words, the learning environment is considered as the sum
of elements, in this sense, the student, the teacher, the classroom, the knowledge, the methodology and other
factors that take part.
In consideration to the essential elements of a foreign language learning environment we can say that they
are the following: teacher-student and student-student interaction, course design and organization, the
language teaching materials and the teaching techniques and methods. The process of EFL teaching has
been benefited with the integration of Internet technologies and updated pedagogical principles and methods.
Nowadays we count with modern e-learning environments that allow us to innovate the way in which we instruct our
students to learn a foreign language.
The history of language teaching evidences the proliferation of methods and approaches that intended to
determine the best way of teaching a language and tried to ensure students’ learning.

Method, Communicative Language Teaching, Natural Approach, Direct Method, and others were seen as
the solution to help learners become proficient at using the language. But the learning problem has
persisted in spite of the adoption of many principles and procedures . The question we can ask ourselves
as teachers is: Is there a single effective method to language teaching?
EFL and ESL teachers of today have realized that not all of the approaches and methods for teaching and
learning a language work in the contexts they are teaching. As a result, what can be considered the most
effective decision for a language class is that the teacher decides what is the best method to use and adapts it to
his/her own context. It is a common practice for teachers to match methods to the particular needs of students and
to the context they are teaching in. This practice of reflecting on one own's way of teaching and adjusting it
according to different contexts is known as the "Post-Method
Pedagogy" . Kumaravadivelu explains that this type of pedagogy allows teachers to rely on their own practice and
device their own methods and materials. Therefore, the best type of pedagogy for foreign language teaching should
be post-methodological.

THE POST-METHOD PEDAGOGY AND ITS STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK

Kumaravadivelu has developed a strategic framework with three parameters that indicate the type of
atmosphere that leads to learning in the classroom. These parameters are particularity, practicality and
possibility.
Particularity means that the techniques used by the teacher depend on where and to whom they are teaching. The
teaching situation and the applied methodology go hand in hand. He suggests that "any language pedagogy to be
relevant must be sensitive to a particular group of teachers teaching a particular group of learners pursuing a
particular set of goals within a particular institutional context embedded in particular sociocultural milieu" .
By practicality, Kumaravadivelu means that a method should be applicable in real life to take into consideration both
the practice and the theory. Without practicality, teachers could not make theories from their practices or practice
what they have theorized.
The last parameter is possibility and this means that a method should be appropriate for the society, the culture and
its political situation. The personalities of students and their everyday lives should be considered. They cannot be
separated from their thoughts and beliefs.
Figure 1. Parameters of a post-method pedagogy.
Considering the perspective of the post-method pedagogy, we can agree on the integration of more than one
approach such as the Content-Based Instruction and the Project-Based instruction may be necessary for EFL
learning environments. The goals in an English course can be achieved thanks to the characteristics of these
approaches.
Piaget stated that the learner’s previous experiences construct learning.
Therefore, it is understood that when learners are able to solve problems and participate in their learning
process, they turn into active participants. This is what can be recognized as learning by doing. It is a
constructivist view of learning.
However, we must take into consideration that the learning environment must be well structured and
should be accompanied by appropriate scaffolding. The role of the teacher in an EFL learning environment is
that of a coach or supporter of students’ knowledge construction. The learning experiences they provide to students
must be open, enjoyable, interactive and imaginative in a way that awakens their interest in learning.
A constructivist approach matches the needs of language teaching since it allows the implementation of critical
thinking and the development of other life-long competences into EFL programs.
Content-Based Instruction: It is an approach that integrates content and language in language
teaching. The term appeared in 1980’s.
Project-Based Instruction: A versatile approach that integrates language and content learning into natural
contexts. It allows learners to apply their knowledge of culture, their abilities and learning styles.
The following table summarizes the most important advantages of applying ContentBased Instruction and
Project-Based Instruction in EFL environments.

The pedagogy to teach in EFL environments should be more responsive to students’

needs, their interests and their context. An integrated content-based and project-based approach gives students
reasons for learning and developing language skills and competences in practical ways.
VIDEO: English Language Teaching in the Post-Method Era – Introduction to the concept https://youtu.
VIDEO: Post Methodological Teaching – The explanation https://youtu.

PROJECT-BASED INSTRUCTION

Fosters the development of independent learning skills Kasper, Develops the ability to communicate with others and
articulates needs in the language .
Helps students to develop valuable study skills such as note taking, summarizing and extracting key information from
texts Peachey, Develops very valuable thinking skills that can then be transferred to other subjects .
Helps students to develop their collaborative skills, which can have great social value .
Prepares learners for the workplace.
Increases motivation .
Connects learning with reality.
Provides collaborative opportunities to construct knowledge Bryson, 1994; Reyes, Increases problem-
solving skills.

What should we do as English teachers to ensure that we are using the correct methods?

The amount of information available about the materials, the strategies and techniques to apply at an EFL
classroom is limitless. However, if we want to count with some guidelines and principles to conduct effective EFL
lessons, we should bear in mind important facts and theories about language acquisition from the experts.

IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Recognition precedes production: This fact means that as teachers of a foreign language we should know
how important it is to expose students to the words of the language, knowing that as the time goes on the
learners will increase their vocabulary and recognize the meanings, so that eventually they will be able to
speak the language.
"Baby -talk" should be avoided while the learner in going through this stage.
"… people learning a language must have months, maybe years, of listening before they can produce words
themselves. babies who had been spoken to since birth as if they were adults, began speaking phrases at
7 months of age! By 18 months of age, the child speaks sentences and could carry on a conversation with
adults" .
No language skill is taught or learned in isolation: It is almost impossible to separate one language skills
from another. For example, we cannot speak if we have not listened to someone speaking the language first. It is for
this reason that specialists assure that language skills depend on frequent input and on choosing the right methods.

"ANYONE can learn a second or third language. The methods by which teachers teach is the determining factor as to
whether or not a person learns the language" . As an example of this fact, we can imagine a person who has visited a
foreign country and who has learned the language to a survival level just within a few weeks. In the course
Figure 2. Avoid baby-talk.
of the next weeks, he or she will start noticing what sounds right and what sounds wrong in the language of that
country. This type of experience can prove that placing emphasis on grammar and memorization are not the most
effective methods for learning a language. At this point it is evident that the teaching methods play an important role
in language learning.

THE NATURAL APPROACH

The specialists in language learning suggest that the Natural Approach can be successful for the teaching of a
foreign language. It consists on teaching a second or third language in the same way the mother tongue was
learned. The figure 3 shows some of the
"ingredients" of The Natural Approach" according to SEDU .
In the case of listening and speaking skills, the main principle to follow is allowing students to work on tasks where
they feel free to use the language without the pressure of committing mistakes which may break up the fluidity of
their ideas.
Riddell has written a manual for teachers that contains ideas related to the way teachers can shape their EFL learning
environments.
"What makes a good teacher?" presents a list of the elements an EFL teacher should take into account.

Extensive listening experiences.

Reduce the

"filter" that people tend to erect as a barrier to second language acquisition.

Errors are a natural part of learning a

Fluency is valued and expected rather than grammatical skills.

NO translations provided

100% of the class is conducted in the target language, English for our purposes.

Acquisition get better results than just using

"learning".
Figure 3. The six ingredients of the natural approach.

Knowing your students is one of the aspects that many teachers might not consider. But according to Riddell it
does not matter how much you understand about the subject or how well you can teach it. If you do not feel
interest in your students, your success as a teacher is limited.
"So, find out about the students – the people – that you are teaching: what they like and are interested in;
and what they don’t like and are not interested in. Find out about their previous learning experiences. Find
out what their expectations are of the course you are going to be teaching. Find out what their aims
are. Ask them about themselves: their country, their culture, their interests. Speak to them outside
class. Speak to them inside class. Listen to them. Show an interest in what they are saying. Show an interest
in them as human beings. Be approachable. Help and support them. Be friendly. Respond to their
needs. Be tolerant. Be patient" .

USING COURSEBOOKS, TECHNOLOGY AND AUTHENTIC MATERIALS IN EFL SCENARIOS

The variety of resources that language instructors can use is quite extensive. With the evolution of educational
technology students and teachers have gained access to the ultimate tools for teaching. Despite all the technological
advances, the teacher’s job still remains important since he or she is in charge of using, rejecting, adapting and
supplementing the material according to the needs of students in a particular group. A job of this kind cannot be
performed by computers, only by humans. "If you simply go through the book from start to finish, setting work
from it, you are not demonstrating any teaching skills, you are not responding to your students’ individual needs and
backgrounds and you are not doing your job properly. Even if it’s a great book, it still needs exploiting" .
Teach your students how to get the most out of the book in their free time. For example, books normally have
separate grammar summaries, vocabulary summaries, pronunciation guides, and maybe audio scripts.
Check answers to exercises, and make sure you can justify them if necessary.
Reject the unsuitable and use the ideal. Otherwise, adapt and supplement the material.
Critically evaluate the material in the book in relation to who you are teaching.
Table 2. Tips on how to work wth course textbooks.
Regarding the use of technology, Riddell mentions that we as teachers must be convinced of the value of any piece
of technology we plan to use with our students, so that we can convince them to use it too. Technology should not
substitute the teacher.
It is just a complement to lessons.
B" in case it fails and lets our students down.
For students to become true users of a foreign language, the teachers have the arduous task of selecting
the best strategies, approaches and techniques that allow students to acquire the language in the most
natural way.

Teacher’s sense of efficacy in teaching

A teacher’s sense of efficacy are the beliefs that a teacher has about his or her own teaching. The term can also
be referred to as "Self- belief", but it should not be taken as a synonym of self-esteem or self-concept. The
difference is that those terms deal with the general feelings about topics, and self-efficacy is about an attitude
towards specific tasks in a particular context. Therefore, the more teachers believe their teaching is
effective, the more they promote activities and incorporate them to their daily teaching practice.
Tschannen-Moran, Anita Woolfolk Hoy, and Wayne K. Hoy. , make a distinction between someone’s self-
perception of competence and their actual level of competence. They mention that it is common for people to
overestimate or underestimate their actual abilities, and these self-perceptions may have consequences for the
course of action or the effort they decide to exert in a particular goal. Therefore, the use of the skills someone
possesses is influenced by the capacity that he or she has to recognize they exist . Bandura , put it in these
words, "a capability is only as good as its execution. The self-assurance with which people approach and
manage difficult tasks determines whether they make good or poor use of their capabilities. Insidious self-
doubts can easily overrule the best of skills" .
The following are quotes that define the concept of self-efficacy in general.
Teacher efficacy is a ‘teachers' belief or conviction that they can influence how well students learn, even those
who may be difficult or unmotivated’.
‘A teacher’s efficacy belief is a judgment of his or her capabilities to bring about desired outcomes of student
engagement and learning’ .
‘A cognitive process in which people construct beliefs about their capacity to perform at a given level of
attainment. These beliefs influence how much effort people put forth, how long they will persist in the face of
obstacles, how resilient they are in dealing with failures, and how much stress or depression they experience in
coping with demanding situations’ .
In the case of EFL environments, a teacher with high self-efficacy would promote EFLawareness activities to
help learners of English as a foreign language feel more confident and prepared for communication exchanges
with native or non-native speakers in the future. The teacher’s willingness to implement ELF-awareness
activities in the classroom context is affected by this important factor. A teacher’s sense of efficacy plays a role
in making EFL teachers feel good about themselves.

The teacher’s self-perceived language proficiency impacts general efficacy beliefs

Sinfakis & Santila , explain that the teacher’s level of proficiency in English is interconnected with their own
beliefs of efficacy in an EFL learning environment.
Unfortunately, it seems like efficacy beliefs are viewed separately from target language proficiency.
Choi and Lee , ‘both sufficient levels of perceived linguistic and pedagogical competences are critical for
optimal English teaching’. A study with Venezuelan teachers of English by Chacón , showed that teachers who
think their language proficiency level is high in the four skills exhibit more self-efficacy. Based on this
information, we can conclude that a teacher’s perception of their own language proficiency should not be
underestimated in the context of EFL environments.
Tschannen-Moran et al., have referred to a broad number of studies that have been conducted on the topic and
which have revealed the relationship that teacher’s perceptions have with learner participation, learning
outcomes, teacher engagement and the practices adopted by them. Let us examine part of the research on
teacher efficacy and its implications for teacher preparation in addition to the strategies for improving in service
teacher’s efficacy. Most of the information summarized in this section is based on the work of Bandura , and
other relevant authors.

How is a teacher’s efficacy best measured?

This is a really hard question to answer and proof of this is the wide range of theories and studies developed
with this question in mind. In 1976, the RAND company published a study that revealed important findings on
the conceptualization of teacher’s efficacy.
The study consisted on a number of statements teachers had to agree or disagree with in order to determine
their level of self-efficacy based on their beliefs.
Teachers who agreed with the first item displayed a low level of trust in their individual capabilities and their
general teaching efficacy because they consider that factors such as conflict, violence, gender or any other
type of socioeconomic realities affect the power and influence they can exert in their class and also in the
schools . The teachers who agreed with the second item displayed a high level of confidence on their efficacy
for overcoming obstacles in part because they have past experience and training at dealing with these
scenarios and helping students achieve their goals. This way of self-efficacy is more individual and specific. For
this reason, it is considered as personal teaching efficacy. In addition, there is the possibility that a teacher
doubts or believes in his or her capabilities of motivating others not only in an educational context, but in
different aspects of life. This type of beliefs are identified as personal efficacy.
Figure 2. Teacher’s sense of efficacy.
In an attempt to clear up the confusion at trying to measure teacher efficacy, Bandura state that even from one
class period to another, the levels of efficacy may change in teachers. In view of this, it is important to accept
that considering the teaching context and the tasks is required to make a judgment.
Bandura attempted to measure these various teacher’s responsibilities with a 30-item scale that included
subscales referring to the main teaching duties. The scale measures each item with a score of 1-9 points and
contains the following descriptors: nothing, very little, some influence, quite a bit, a great deal. The abilities
measured by the scale are the following:
Tschannen-Moran et al.

The benefits of a teacher’s sense of efficacy in education

It affects the effort teachers put into teaching, the goal setting and aspirations level.
It makes teachers are more open minded and willing to experiment with new ideas and methods. that meet the
needs the needs of the students.
It makes teachers display greater levels of planning and organization.
It strengthens the teacher’s persistence and resilience when things don’t go as expected.
It makes teachers less critical of students when they commit errors.
It makes teachers less likely to refer a difficult student to special education.
It makes teachers exhibit greater enthusiasm and commitment to teaching.
It makes teachers more likely to stay on teaching.
It improves the health and atmosphere of the school.
It strengthens a teacher’s decision-making skills and collaboration.

Disciplinary parental community create a positive climate

Figure 3. Items in The Teacher Self- Efficacy Scale.

Additionally, a teacher’s sense of high efficacy has a close relationship with the management of stress produced
by the profession.
Teachers , has reported reduced stress among teachers whose beliefs of selfefficacy are higher. They seem to
manage the psychological and emotional symptoms of stress much better than teachers who become
disenchanted by the profession during the first to fifth year of teaching .
Bandura has formulated four sources to increase self-efficacy.

He considers that each of them contributes strongly to the formation of self-perceptions of the teaching
competence. They can also be interpreted in different ways.
Mastery experiences.
Mastery experiences are the most powerful source of efficacy information. The idea behind this is that a teacher
can increase his self-efficacy through practicing. When a teacher feels that his performance at some tasks was
successful, the efficacy beliefs are raised. And when something very difficult is achieved without too much
assistance, they gain confidence and experience.
Vicarious experiences.
They are those situations in which a skill we would like to possess is modeled by another teacher in similar
circumstances. Bandura claims that watching people with whom we identify closely performs well, the impact
of efficacy is stronger. But on the other hand, if the model observed performs poorly, the efficacy expectations
decrease.

More confidence

Physiological and emotional arousal.

This principle means that a person can judge his or her own efficacy on a task by paying attention to their level
of anxiety while performing the task. According to Bandura, a moderated level of emotional and physiological
arousal such as "butterflies", increased heart rate or sweaty hands can be seen as positive if it contributes to
focus attention and energy on the tasks. But it is seen as negative when it interferes with the use of the
teacher’s abilities.

Social or verbal persuasion

This principle states that words of encouragement from people we respect or admire can increase self-
assurance and anticipate future success. Examples of verbal persuasion could be performance feedback from
a supervisor, from other teachers, or even from the students. It is assumed that a persuasive talk in self-efficacy
may encourage a person to initiate a task, attempt new strategies, or try hard enough to succeed .
Apart from the four sources of self-efficacy described above, Tschannen-Moran et al.
"Although all four sources of information play roles in the creation of efficacy beliefs, it is the interpretation of
this information that is critical. Cognitive processing determines how the sources of information will be weighed
and how they will influence the analysis of the teaching task and the assessment of personal teaching
competence. The interaction of task analysis and competence, in turn, shapes teacher efficacy" .

The Teachers' sense of efficacy is crucial for the improvement not only of the students’

performance, but also for the teachers’ recognition of capabilities that help them grow and contribute to this
noble profession.
Closure

Comments on doubts about the class.

Subtopic 2: Assessment in EFL contexts

How can language teachers conduct tests in the EFL classroom? The word test does not always mean a formal
quiz or exam. Exams may be limited in their ability to prove what students have learned and how much they
understand . Tests are opportunities the educators create to find out how much the students know and
remember about a topic. These tests should be done in a pleasant atmosphere and the test activities should be
diverse. Interaction between students should be even allowed if the teacher considers it valid for the purpose
of the test. Riddell has provided five examples of testing activities in the EFL classroom .
Figure 3. Types of testing activities for EFL courses.
But beyond the activities named above which are mostly embedded in the classroom practice.
Riddell makes a distinction between objective and subjective assessment. He explains that objective tests have
right and wrong answers. Therefore, marking this type of tests is consistent and accurate. On the other
hand, subjective tests will require teachers to assign a mark according to some sort of reference such as a
rubric. For example, composition or essay writing tasks would fit into this type of test. For this type of tests, it is
crucial that educators let students know about the marking criteria.

pronunciation.

However, a test isn’t fully objective or subjective. Tests are normally a combination of both and they should
be. He also points out at the importance of reflecting on the criteria for marking and the conditions for
testing. Some of them are: test reliability, time allocation for tests, fairness and exam format .

A new trend: The learning-oriented assessment

The learning-oriented assessment is a new way of looking at learners’ assessment in EFL.

This type of assessment aims to link learner assessment to their developing needs. It allows teachers to apply
on-going judgement and evaluation of learners. So, the kind of information that the teachers compile from
lessons and classes is valued and can play a part in the way that teachers report on learners. And it can also
report on the way that we as teachers help learners develop their language competences. When we are
working with our students in the classroom, we are currently collecting and interpreting information .
Formal and informal tests in the classrooms plus the teacher’s interpretation of these tests fits into learning-
oriented assessment. Therefore, LOA emphasizes the teacher’s interpretation of the language learner and his
behavior. This means that the assessment is oriented towards learning. As a result, assessment is seen as part
of the learning process. This type of assessment is actually what currently happens on a daily basis in the
classrooms.

The benefits of Learning-Oriented Assessment

This type of assessment is constantly getting and giving feedback on students’ language competence. Also, it
is probably less frightening than a formal test and it has the potential to get learners working at a level of
challenge that is appropriate for them.

Evaluation and analysis of students’

Individual learners' learning styles and needs must be taken into account when determining the
pace, level, and type of instruction to be given. Therefore, this section will examine the importance and benefits
of adapting instruction and teaching practices to meet the needs of Ecuador's many different students.

These students have different cognitive abilities, which means that teachers must adapt their classrooms and
teaching methods to meet those abilities and needs. In the classroom, struggling learners can demonstrate
their knowledge and skills when teachers use a variety of instructional materials and assessment tools.

These students are motivated to learn because they must make real decisions based on what they are
learning. These students also learn to work cooperatively and respect the knowledge and skills of their
classmates when they participate in problem-solving activities .

Because of this, they prefer concrete and sequential instruction. Right-brain dominant people, on the other
hand, have a more holistic way of thinking and prefer to learn through visual tools and hands-on activities as a
result . Because all students have various learning styles, teachers must customize classes to meet the needs
of each student in order to keep students engaged and motivated to study. There is a greater likelihood that
students will be able to retain the information provided in class.

The way students learn is clearly influenced by all of these factors. Teachers must ensure that every
student, regardless of cultural background, succeeds in school. So teachers who have a culture of respect for
their students' differences acknowledge and take this into account in the classroom . All students benefit when
teachers are sensitive to the cultural diversity of their students in the classroom.

The students' identity and cultural values are reinforced when teachers use books that address diversity issues
in class, for example. As a final point, students will be better prepared for success in a globalized world where
coexistence, work, and study with diverse people are essential .

Gender is another source of classroom diversity . Students' learning styles may be influenced by gender
according to brain research. Action and exploration are preferred by male students instead of passive
learning. The opposite is true for female students, who benefit more from verbal and linguistic activities.

They also want to be able to ask questions and discuss ideas and concepts with other students and
teachers. To meet the needs and preferences of diverse students, educators must employ a variety of teaching
strategies.

Physical Resources

An EFL class can become monotonous and ineffective if the teacher does not have access to a variety of
resources, such as technology or teaching aids. Gulnaz, Ahmad, and Mandouh point out that when
infrastructure does not allow for smaller classes to be taught, teachers are forced to teach overcrowded
classes, which can impede L2 learning and teaching as well. Negi , on the other hand, points out that the
resources available, the number of pupils in a classroom, and the technology available are all factors over
which a teacher does not typically have control. These are the circumstances dictated by the educational
system of the country, and teachers and schools must find alternative methods of improving L2 teaching and
learning when the infrastructure and resources available are not optimal for this purpose.
There are many complaints from teachers during round table discussions about having small classrooms for a
large number of students, which they say prevents them from conducting group and pair work activities to put
CLT into practice, as well as a lack of technology such as projectors, screens and internet access in addition to
whiteboards. «I want to use the internet because we don't have internet access in our schools, and I only have
my flash memory with me at the moment. » .

Multimedia Resources

Our learners need access to different kinds of resources as they study. These should be economic resources
that will help them to easily understand the lessons and help them successfully perform the tasks assigned by
educators. Technology, and specifically, multimedia resources, will help educators to ease the learning
job. Educators should be able to choose appropriate multimedia resources for giving information, giving
instructions, making explanations, and narrating events in personal or factual recounts.

There are different types of multimedia resources

Text is still a primary way to transmit information, it is the simplest and oldest resource. Text takes us back to
how the internet started as a means of sending written messages back and forth between communicators. This
resource can be used in writing instructions, making announcements, giving information, narrating events and
an extensive number of other tasks. The presentations are comprised of slides which may contain text, images
and other media such as audio clips and video.

This resource is best to use in giving information, instructions, giving explanations and narrating events. This
type of resource serves to be presented as we orally give information, instructions, explanations, or for
narrations. It is possible that we use text as caption for the image. Videos can include text as well that usually
appear as captioning for spoken words or as text in an image.

With our camera or phone, we can record a video as we orally give information, instructions, explanations or
narrations. We can make our videos by using a digital camera, or a video tape recorder, the smart phone or
even a web cam. The following table shows the most common file types of multimedia resources.

The usability of multimedia resources

The following table can serve as a guide to understand the applicable use of these resources.

Subtopic 1: Enhancing critical thinking into EFL classes

Being a better critical thinker allows you to learn for the rest of your life. As pointed out by Hopkins , critical
thinking can only be developed by teachers themselves if they have the right attributes, such as self-
confidence. How to develop critical thinking in students. Teachers can use their love of reading to improve their
reading skills, improve their teaching abilities, and expand their vocabulary.

Value divergent thinking rather than convergent thinking

Most teachers appear to encourage students to reach conclusions when in reality, what educators need to
encourage in students is knowledge exploration.

Critical Thinking and the Power of Oral Language

When they acquire specific and precise oral language, they are building their cognitive structure. Vygotsky and
Feuerstein state that mediation is based on an "assisted learning space" for students to learn. It is the Zone of
Proximal Development where teachers can assist kids in verbalizing ideas, refining thinking, and developing
distinct thought patterns. If we wish to educate critical thinkers, we must include Socrates' principles into our
teaching approaches.

In our class , we are going to learn that our oral language is a very important tool to help direct our thinking
processes. I might say something like, ‘‘Could you use another word for whatchamacallit in that sentence?’’
Or, ‘‘Could you give me some more information?’’ We will work together on making sure our speech is
clear, brief, and to the point. Students must be taught to think critically, advocate for their views, and think
outside the box. If students count on a guide to discuss questions, read them aloud and challenge their
thinking, it will produce sharper minds.

The difficulties that instructors face

One of the most dangerous consequences of today's digital environment, according to Wolf and Hopkins, is
that human brains are being wired and our culture is becoming alliterate. The rise of critical thinking in schools
and colleges has become particularly prominent with the progression of time, as more and more complicated
information has to be absorbed by learners.

3 Ways to Be a Better Critical Thinker

We can take some cues from Daniel J. Steps Toward Better Critical Thinking.

Don't Believe It Just Because Others Do

This trap is quite simple to fall into, and people will do so if they do not keep in mind that the majority is not
always aware of what is best for everyone. However, a greater critical thinker views other people's
viewpoints, gathers evidence, and formulates their own conclusion. This why mode is the key to every critical
thought. Do not simply present information.

Equations

When we are intrigued by an attractive presentation of information, we give in to temptation. In order to achieve
this, we must exercise more critical judgement with regard to the information we come across online.

Examples of Learning Provocations

A lot of teachers believe in using a variety of methods to produce inspiring experiences, and these methods
produce excellent results. Think about what your learners already know in order to better understand the
relevance of your content.

Consider how learners may encounter lesson academic standards outside of school while you are provoking
them.

Keep it Simple

Give them just enough information to inspire them to seek out additional information on their own.

Be a Guide

With a proper provocation, students will ask questions again and over again. While students lead, act as a
trustworthy learning guide.

Ability to question

The ability of the student to formulate questions and frame relevant inquiries around a specific problem or
challenge is critical.

Maintaining an open mind

Open-minded thinkers are audaciously aware of alternative scenarios that may arise.

Drawing conclusions is important

When we draw conclusions, we can see the true intent of a quest we have been pursuing.

Communication and collaboration

Life skills are just as important.

Consciousness of one's identity

In our ability to think critically, one of the most important aspects is our level of self-awareness. The expectation
is that it contributes for students to improve not only as citizens but also as human beings.

Analyzing causes of motivational problems

Teachers' internal motivations to teach, on the other hand, are influenced by elements that shape the settings
for teaching and learning. Teachers' self-perceptions of their linguistic ego, their identity as foreign language
teachers, and their attitudes toward the language they teach all influence what happens in the
classroom. When conducting interviews in Medellin , the researchers discovered that the majority of the
teachers in the study had a low sense of their linguistic identity and a poor impression of themselves as English
teachers. The majority of the teachers interviewed did not believe they had had appropriate linguistic or
pedagogical training to perform as English teachers.

English skills were still poor, therefore they could not do the job. When teachers felt that one or more of their
language skills were weak, they frequently avoided teaching it. For example, if teachers believed their
pronunciation was deficient, they avoided teaching it directly or reduced the amount of time they spent
teaching it. To be exact, one’s attitudes toward an innovation are the result of the perceptions that one has
about it.

attitudes are reflected in their behaviors.

Teaching bilingual students with special needs

English as a Second Language , bilingual education, and normal classroom teachers are all poorly prepared to
cope with English Language Learners with special needs in general. It covers all aspects of special education
for children with disabilities, including legal, psychological, and parental participation difficulties, as well as the
engagement of general education classroom teachers. Because of the complexity of these students'
demands, their training must be multidimensional and incorporate a number of tactics and strategies in order to
be effective. To effectively teach ELL and special needs students, Hoover, Klinger, Baca, and Patton advocate
for a number of instructional methodologies and practices, such as differentiated learning, three-tiered
instruction, response to intervention , and standards-based learning and evaluation.

, a special education teacher already has knowledge and competence in adjusting curricula to fit the
requirements of specific students. "Teachers must become familiar with several interrelated elements of
education, including linguistically diverse education, second language acquisition, special education needs and
characteristics, and the role of culture in teaching and learning" .

What is mediation and conflict resolution?

Social mediation is a technique for resolving disagreements early on. Mediation is a term that has been widely
used and is connected with a variety of disciplines. The necessity to implement a broad dimension of
processes, which are strongly related to diverse sectors of social life, such as
legal, family, social, diplomatic, economic, and educational, among others, arises as a result of the separation
that may emerge as a result of conflicts.

The Importance of mediation and conflict resolution in Education

Mediation in education seeks to enhance interactions in the search for conflict resolution through formal
structures that build negotiation processes while also preparing participants through learning competences
and social mastery. As a result of a more concentrated emphasis in education in values, justice, and peace
movement, in which a larger perspective of conflict is embraced, seeking a solution in a more accurate
way, alternative methods to school mediation are available .

Improving the atmosphere of the class

During the week, teachers spend a significant amount of time with their students. Use these tactics to develop
learner connections and lasting relationships with your learners.

You can develop a connection with students in the first five minutes to make their learning experiences more
fun and productive for the rest of the day.

The teacher's responsibility in the modern classroom is to introduce and facilitate learning pathways. It is
ultimately the students who must walk those pathways and experience what lies ahead.

Inquiry-based learning has so many advantages over other pedagogies, particularly for EFL students.

In the article "10 Ways to Promote Student Involvement" by Maryellen Weimer

, she states that it is critical to keep up with the changing requirements of our students in order to maintain a
proper level of engagement. "An institution should never be happy with how it promotes student engagement,"
she says. ""Institutional policies should be updated as students evolve and new research evidence
emerges. We were witnessing the beginning of what would become an unimaginable pervasiveness of
technology across all aspects of life, including education, only a few decades ago.

"Why do we need to study this?" is one of the most perplexing questions any learner could possibly ask. In this
scenario, we have a fantastic opportunity to connect with our students' interests by combining material with
their understanding of the world outside of school. Think about how what we teach will help our students.
 METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHING ENGLISHTO YOUNGSTERSAND ADULTS

Talking about learner’s characteristics, it is important to consider the words from

Santrock " we grow very rapidly in infancy, more slowly in childhood, and once again more rapidly during
puberty, and then experience another slowdown". In adolescence there is a brain-neuroendocrine occurring in
the early adolescence called puberty, that provides physical changes, these changes are characterized by the
appearance of straight public hair, minor voice changes and other changes in their sexual organs. In the next
paragraphs we will examine key points such the changes in the brain, and health behaviour. Adolescent’s brain
has experimented significant structural changes, these changes occur in the corpus callosum, where there are
some fibres that connect the both hemispheres, which improves the ability of process information .

Figure 1: Brain changes in adolescents

From A topical approach to life span development, 8th ed. by Santrock . adolescents . A healthy life definitely
reflects in our body and in our life.

One of the most common problems in adolescents are the nutrition and being overweight. by
Santrock, 2016. Exercising in all ages is really important, however children and adolescents do not exercise
regularly on their own, they prefer to do any activity in group or team. Researchers mention that higher levels of
exercise in teens is associated with a healthy life, also reduce triglyceride levels, lower blood pressure and
lower incidence of diabetes.

In solving problems, they use logical reasoning, "they begin to think more as a scientist thinks, devising plans to
solve problems and systematically testing solutions" . Piaget claims that adolescents become capable of
engaging in hypothetical-deductive reasoning. It is important to consider that this stage, adolescents do not
think in hypothetical-deductive ways but rather are consolidating their concrete operational
thinking. Also, adolescents develop a special kind of self-centredness that involves an unreal audience and a
personal story about being unique and invulnerable Santrock, Information processing and attention.

"As human being we process the information depending the situation, for example, "processing speed can be
assessed using a reaction-time task in which individuals are asked to push a button as soon as they see a
stimulus such as a light. In adolescence the speed of process information continues to improve. Through the
adolescence, learners identify different kind of information, it is perceived looking at the surroundings via
listening and watching, to this we call "attention". Children develop some skills such as paying attention during
the preschool years, studies indicate greater vigilance in adolescence .

In the adolescence, the process of irrelevant information decreases but they are good to involving into divided
attention between two or more activities, for examples, they can use technology while are doing their
homework and listening to music. But scientists state juggling tasks suddenly "can make our brain lose
connections to important information" . Thinking is a cognitive activity that manipulate and transform
information in memory in solve problems, order to reason, reflects, evaluates ideas, and make
decisions. ""further argues that the most important cognitive change in adolescence is improvement in
executive function... A very important aspect of executive function in adolescence is cognitive control.

" Indeed, for most purposes, executive function and cognitive control can be thought of as
synonyms". Adolescents have a greater ability to monitor and manage cognitive resources to effectively meet
the demands of a learning task. Better cognitive functioning and learning are the results of increased
metacognitive ability. One aspect to be considered about cognitive functioning and learning is establishing how
much attention will be assigned to an available resource.

During adolescence, language development can also be shown because adolescents use a wide range of
words in all contexts, they can use words in complex writing increasing abstract thinking, they are also able to
understand and use satire. Everyday speech varies during adolescence "and part of being a successful
teenager is being able to talk like one" Berko-Gleason, 2005, p.

Adolescents often speak with their peers a dialect characterized by jargon and slang…

Early adolescence is totally difficult, they experience so many changes and different types of feelings, bad
mood is a normal aspect of early adolescence. Pubertal change is associated with increased negative
emotions, hormonal influences are often small, and environmental experiences can contribute more to
adolescents' emotions than hormonal changes . Securely attached adolescents show more competent
behaviour than their insecurely attached counterparts , and the most consistent results include positive peer
relationships and emotion regulation. Early dating is associated with developmental problems.

Another point about adolescents is that they seek to be independent, parents have an important role, they are a
positive influence on development when they have experienced a secure attachment in childhood. "
Adolescents are usually members of a crowd based on reputation, and they may or may not spend much time
together" . Adolescents increase their social interest and their attempt to find intimacy intensifies during early
adolescence, motivating adolescents to seek close friends. It is important to note that if adolescents fail to
create such close friendships, they often experience loneliness and a reduced sense of self-worth .

Characteristic of adult learners

It refers to all forms of education and learning that adults participate in, including literacy, community
development, college credit programs, onthe-job training, and continuing professional education. Early
adulthood can seem uneventful in the body's history after the dramatic physical changes of puberty . Most
adults reach our peak levels of physical performance before the age of 30, often between the ages of 19 and
26. With the changes of early adulthood, the physical changes of midlife usually appear gradually.

Although everyone experiences some physical change due to aging in middle adulthood, rates of aging vary
considerably from person to person, and late adulthood carries an increased risk of physical disability. Changes
in physical appearance that take place in middle adulthood become more pronounced in late adulthood. Most
research on the human brain mentions that changes in the brain continue into adulthood. Brain lateralization
usually decreases in older adults.

Changes in the brain can influence cognitive functioning, and changes in cognitive functioning can influence
the brain. Santrock, Figure 4. Brian lateralization in older adults. We mention previously that adolescents get
inadequate sleep, so adults are not totally different .

"Medicine and Sleep Research Society emphasized that chronic sleep deprivation may contribute to
cardiovascular disease and a shortened life span, and also result in cognitive and motor impairment that
increase the risk of motor vehicle crashes and work-related accidents" . They recommend "adults should sleep
seven or more hours per night on a regular basis to promote optimal health" . Early adulthood is a period
associated with poor diet and rapid weight gain. There are many problems that could be avoided if adults
maintain good nutrition and eating behaviour.
Exercise

Exercise is linked with many aspects of being physical and mental health and its benefits continue in
adulthood. In which human cognitive processes are posited to develop within up to seven periods during the
lifespan .

When talking about cognitive changes in adulthood, it is necessary to consider how emotional maturity might
affect cognitive development.

Approach Method Technique

Approach «is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about the language and its learning are specified» .

From this date, several prominent applied linguists developed the foundation for a principles-based approach
to methodology in language teaching. The goals of the Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching are
to teach a practical mastery of the four basic language skills, but the skills are focused on the
structure. Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is considered essential, and mistakes should be
avoided at all costs. Automatic control of basic sentence structures and patterns is central for reading and
writing skills, and this is accomplished through speech work.

- The target language is the language of the classroom. - New language points are introduced and practiced
situationally. - Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught before
complex ones.

Subtheme 3: Audiolingual method

The audiolingual method emerged as a response to the necessity of an oral-based approach to foreign
language teaching. This led to the creation of a special language teaching program which was called the Army
Specialized Training Program in 1942. The aim of this program was to foster oral proficiency in several foreign
languages. It consisted mainly in hours of drilling activities with a native speaker until the speaker could
gradually acquire the language through repetition and a basic understanding of its grammar.

The United States acknowledged that a changed in language teaching methodology was necessary to ensure
that more Americans get involved in scientific advances from other countries.

Theory of learning

The learning approach underlying audiolingual was the behavioural approach. In language teaching, the
stimulus refers to what is taught in the foreign language, the response is the learner’s reaction to the
stimulus, and the reinforcement is the praise of the teacher or the learner’s self-satisfaction as a sign of
acceptance and approval.

The Syllabus

The audiolingual syllabus is basically linguistic, focusing on phonology, morphology, and syntax. Listening is
mostly used as a source for discrimination of sounds, and speaking is employed from the beginning, the
language is entirely presented orally at first. This is a teacher-centred method. The teacher controls the
class, models the pattern, controls the pace of learning, makes corrections and monitors the learner’s
performance.

The learner’s role is basically seen as an organism that can be trained with skilled techniques, and who will
respond to different types of external stimuli, since behaviourism views learning as a result of external stimuli
rather than intrinsic motivations.

CBI & CLIL

So, students study language and subject at the same time . While content-based instruction is often employed
in North America, content and language integrated learning is used in Europe . Like CBI, CLIL involves a content
instructor teaching content in a second or foreign language, but it can also contain content from other
subjects. That is, the CLIL curriculum may start in the language class, whereas CBI usually starts with the
content class.

CBI and CLIL are based on the following key principles

Learning a second language is more effective when used to understand content rather than as a goal in
itself. This idea distinguishes CBI and CLIL from traditional language courses where a linguistic curriculum is
used to organize and material is chosen to support it. Content-Based Instruction better meets the demands of
second language learners.

Language theory

When it comes to merging language and content, Lexis is an essential tool. The development of subject-
specific vocabulary is an important part of CBI and CLIL courses since different subjects or content areas use
unique language registers to convey their meaning . Learned languages need to be tied to the learning
context, as well as learning through that language and reconstructing the content. This language must be clear
and understandable to the general public.

The link between languages and cultures is complicated when learning takes place in a foreign language
learning situation. CLIL classes place a heavy emphasis on language use in the creation of texts since academic
learning demands familiarity with a core set of text forms common across disciplines. CBI and CLIL both
emphasize the need of understanding how language is utilized in various disciplinary genres. Topic- or theme-
based courses are a solid foundation for an integrated skills approach because the themes chosen give
coherence and continuity across skill areas and emphasize language use in connected conversation rather than
isolated fragments.

They aim to blend information, language, and problem-solving abilities.

Learning Theory

A number of assumptions about second language learning are made by CBI and CLIL. Teachers must simplify
content to make it understandable to students, just as native speakers do when speaking with second language
learners. This is when teachers and students work together to grasp subject. O Dialogic conversation facilitates
both content and language learning.

Effective dialogue in CBI and CLIL courses is said to be dialogic. They may need to use
expository, informational, narrative, or recount writing kinds that are native to their language. O CBI and CLIL
rely on scaffolded learning. Learners play an active role in this in numerous ways.

Learners are required to be active interpreters of input and willing to endure uncertainty as they progress
through the learning process, as well as to experiment with different learning methodologies and seek diverse
interpretations of spoken and written texts. Learners may be content creators as well as co-participants in the
selection of themes and activities. Learners must be committed to this new approach to language
acquisition, and CBI proponents caution that some students may not like this new set of learner roles, making
them less than ready and willing participants in CBI classes. Learner roles are viewed as critical to success in
CLIL programs as well.

CLIL places a premium on the responsibilities of teachers and students, as the nature of the subject requires
more student-centered approaches. CLIL courses are notoriously challenging for students, especially in the
beginning. Furthermore, it is undeniable that connecting with and learning a cognitively challenging subject in a
foreign language demands a level of processing that cannot be achieved when the teacher is merely
transmitting information. CBI and CLIL involve active participation from the student with the goal of achieving
learner autonomy.

Both CBI and CLIL demand more of teachers than traditional language and content teaching. They typically
cooperate with other teachers to build courses and resources. With CBI, teachers must learn challenging new
information and frequently create their own courses or adapt materials that serve as a foundation for CBI.

To summarize, CLIL teachers appreciate students' comprehension of the topic being taught. This is also a goal
for CBI teachers, but they may be more focused on their own content mastery and presentation.

These early task descriptions, as well as the questions surrounding their successful classroom implementation
and the training required to assist such implementation, continue to be discussed in relation to TBLT today. The
goal of TBLT classroom activities is to provide chances for students to learn language through task
work. Adaptation may be necessary for students who are used to working in groups and/or alone.

The Silent Way

The Silent Way is Gattegno’s first venture into foreign language education. Silent Way session in language
education continues through several stages, beginning with practising pronunciation and then simple sentence
patterns, structure, and vocabulary.

Gattegno's work could be expressed as follows

Learning is facilitated when the student discovers or makes something rather than remembering and repeating
what is to be learnt.

In terms of psychology, these visual aids act as associative mediators for student learning and
memory. Memory studies have shown that "creatively looking out, discovering, and depicting" benefits the
student's memory. "The teachers' strict avoidance of repetition fosters attentiveness and concentration on the
part of the students" in the Silent Way . Similarly, the difficulty of generating an appropriate and meaningful
speech in a foreign language led to the student's realization of the language "through his own perceptual and
analytical powers" .

The Silent Way learning tasks and activities encourage and shape student spoken responses without direct oral
teaching or unneeded modelling by the teacher. Simple language tasks are at the heart of the approach, in
which the teacher models a word, phrase, or sentence and then elicits student responses, first by having
students silently carry out their directions containing these words, phrases, or sentences. Students then
combine old and new information to generate their utterances. To encourage student replies, charts, rods, and
other aids may be utilized, and much of the activity may be teacher-directed.

However, instructor modelling is negligible beyond the initial exposition of language. Based on the
observations of the Peace Corps Silent Way programs to teach a variety of languages at a basic level of
proficiency, it is clear that language elements are introduced based on their grammatical complexity, their
relationship to what has been previously taught and the ease with which elements can be presented
visually. As previously stated, these terms are referred to as a language's "functional vocabulary" due to their
great utility. "The student first has a "random or practically random feeling of the area of activity in issue until
one or more cornerstones to build on are discovered.

Students should strive for independence, autonomy, and accountability. "take their knowledge of the first few
words in the new language and figure out additional words by using that knowledge" . In a given set of
conditions and scenarios, the autonomous student selects appropriate expressions. Because the teacher does
not correct or model the students, they must create "inner criteria" and correct themselves.

In the absence of explanations, students must develop generalizations, draw their inferences, and create
whatever rules they deem necessary. Students have a significant influence on the learning of others and, to a
lesser extent, on the linguistic content taught. Students must fulfil a variety of roles to be productive members
of the learning community.

Teacher Roles

Teacher silence is possibly the most challenging part of the Silent Way for many normally educated language
teachers. Teachers are encouraged to reject their longheld commitment to model, reconstruct, aid, and
steered answers preferred by students, and Silent Way teachers have remarked on the arduousness of
selfrestraining that the Silent Way experience has exposed them to. Observers have noted that Silent Way
teachers often seem distant, if not downright rude, to their students. Students are taught to regard the teacher
as an impartial judge who is encouraging but emotionally detached.

The instructional materials

The resources consist primarily of a set of colour bars, colour-coded pronunciation and vocabulary wall
charts, a pointer, and reading/writing tasks aimed at demonstrating the links between sound and meaning in
the target language. The tools are intended to be manipulated by both students and teachers, both
independently and simultaneously, to promote language learning by direct association. Pronunciation
tables, known as "Fidels," have been created for a variety of languages and include symbols in the target
language for all vowel and consonant sounds . Depending on the language, there could be one to eight of
these charts.

Symbols on one chart are compared to their counterparts on the Fidel in a different language. A clear, audible
model will be given by the teacher in the absence of nativelanguage charts or when introducing a sound that is
not present in the local language. Coloured Cuisenaire rods are used to immediately link words and structures
with their meanings in the target language, avoiding translation into the original language. Once the sounds of
the language have been practised, the patterns of sentences, structures, and vocabulary have been practised
as well.

Community Language Learning

Curran came up with the name "Community Language Learning" . When it comes to teaching
languages, "language alternation" is the term introduced by Mackey to describe the procedures used in several
bilingual education programs. Messages, lessons, and classes are delivered in two languages, the first in the
student's original tongue and the second in the student's second language. By comparing their understanding
of LI to their understanding of L2, students can decipher what is being said in L2.

Interactional views of language are also discussed by La Forge in Community Language

When it comes to the study of languages, "language is not just a set of words, but rather an entire community of
people" . The content of interactions between students is a mystery, although the exchange of feelings is a
common theme. As the class becomes a community of students, the level of closeness between students
deepens. Successful interaction between a student and an instructor, and a student and a student, is necessary
for learning a new language.

Because "real" human learning entails both cognitive and emotive components, CLL takes a multifaceted
approach to language learning.

Adult students indicate that, "valued teachers who were caring, creative, enthusiastic, patient, well-planned
and respectful" . Good teachers also convey a passion for what they are teaching, and for their students’
learning achievements. Language learning doesn’t involve the teacher doing lots of teaching, language
teaching involves organizing to learn planning the learner’s learning and organizing the learners learning .

Match the teaching to the methods

"Teaching cannot be defined apart from learning. Teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling a
person to learn, and setting the conditions for learning. Your understanding of how people learn will determine
your philosophy of education, your teaching style, approach, lesson design, and classroom techniques" . At this
point, we have reviewed different methods and approaches that reflect the assumption about how learners
learn. "Approaches and methods also prescribe how teachers should teach" . As a teacher, it is necessary to
consider that exist many different methods using the teaching language process. Hunter and Smith state that
new methodologies are going to be applied as part of the progress evidence.
Teachers’ practices are constantly changing, but before changing it is necessary that teachers acquire new
beliefs and training.

- Citing evidence of saucerful learning outcome.

- Appeals to authorities.
read or learn more in class.
Teachers’ beliefs are hard to change, however, by acquiring a new set of beliefs, teachers who are considering
adopting a new method also need to acquire a new set of practical skills. It focuses on training
sections, microteaching, demonstrations or workshops that show teachers how to teach a lesson focus on each
method or approach such as CLT, TBL, Cooperative Language teaching, TPR or Text-Based instructions .

- Production.
How we can avoid the deficit view of teaching? "Follow the method" is a strategy that suggests that teachers
who are unknown their teaching method, must follow methods that were designed by experts instead to
develop theories on their own.
How teachers can adapt their method to their teaching context? Easy, the method is viewed as providing a core
set of principles and procedures that can be adapted and modified to the teacher’s teaching
context. Therefore, the more flexible the approaches and methods are considered, the more opportunities
there will adapt to teachers’ needs. In the same way, teachers are engaged in the process of developing their
teaching methods and approaches, this is considered as "post-method", here there are some characteristics:

- Theorization of practice.

The importance to design a language curriculum is essential in a language classroom, however it is necessary
to consider that there are different approaches used to design a curriculum. Nation and Macalister stated that
"curriculum or course design is largely a how-to-do-it activity" that involves many factors and processes to
elaborate it.
Professor Jack Richards mentions that "the term of curriculum is used to refer to the overall plan or design for a
course and how the content for a course is transformed into a blueprint for teaching and learning which enables
to desired learning outcomes to be achieved" .
Considering the last author, one of the easiest approaches mention input, process and output as part of
them. Now here we start learning about it.
Input: It means the information that teachers use to engage students with the class. In language
teaching, teachers need to decide what linguistic content they will teach.
Process: it means the methodology to apply in class. It is how to teach. Choose the activities, procedures and
techniques.
Output: It is the result obtained, the learning outcomes.
Figure 1. Digest input, process and output.
Source: Curriculum Approaches in Language Teaching: Forward, Central, and Backward Design by Jack
C. Richards .
Jack Richards , stated the development and implementation of language teaching programs can be
approached in several different ways, each of which has different implications for curriculum design. They are
Forward, central and Backward design.
Ex.

Forward design: means developing a curriculum through moving from input, to process, and to output. In other
words, before decisions about methodology and output are determined, issues related to the content of
instruction need to be resolved. CLT and CBI or CLIL are clear examples of forward design. The design starts
with content followed by syllabus, methodology, outcomes and assessment .
Central design: Working with central design approach means starting with the process and deriving input and
output from classroom methodology. Teachers must select the teaching activities, techniques and
methods. Central design can thus be understood as a ‘learnerfocused and learning-oriented
perspective’ . Kathleen Graves alludes to this approach when she refers to ‘curriculum enactment’ as the
essence of a curriculum.

Approach and Task-based Language Teaching TBLT are examples of central design.
Backward design: It starts from output and then deals with issues relating to process and input, whereby it is
necessary to identify desired results, determine acceptable evidence of learning and plan learning experiences
and instruction . The stages involved in this design are in the following order: outcomes, syllabus, materials and
tests, teaching and assessment.

Using coursebook and designing own material

Choosing a coursebook is an essential part of the language curriculum design. The decisions on what to teach
are influenced by the coursebook they are using. "When the book has been chosen by the institution they work
for, teachers often have little alternative but to follow its syllabuses and procedures" . Using a coursebook there
are many advantages, it takes away a lot of the burden of planning from the teacher and allows teachers to be
focused on the lesson . A coursebook gives to teachers and students a clear vision of progress as they move
through the course.
However, one of the disadvantages of using a coursebook is that they are not well planned nor follow any good
principles of teaching and learning. It does not mean to get rid of all of them. Teachers should analyse and see
carefully how they can improve the language course and ignore which are not necessary.
Nation in his book what should every EFL teacher know? mentions five important improvements that teachers
can make to a language course. These are ranked in order of importance.
Add an extensive reading programme.
Add a fluency development stand across the four skills.
Add meaning-focused problem-solving activities for listening and speaking.
Add extensive listening activities.
Encourage and train the learners to do deliberate vocabulary learning from bilingual word cards.
These will be an effective part of upgrading an existing language course. The following chart shows different
statements about going in favour or against a coursebook.
Figure 2. Arguments against and in favour of a coursebook.
Source: The practice of English Language Teaching, 5th ed.
How to use the coursebook? Most teachers use a coursebook in the way that its writers have suggested and
have planned. The contents of the book are the result of careful thought and, hopefully, of training, reporting
and piloting . However, bring their own personalities, choices and abilities to bear on the material they are
using. In the case of the coursebook, there are many ways of doing this: omit things that don’t fit, replace things
with our own choices and adapt and add things.
For stakeholders, administrators and coordinators it is not easy to choose a coursebook.
In addition to this, preparing a lesson also include the materials.

Definitely, in the teaching process, novice teachers become experts through years and practising, testing and
creating different learning contexts. Here there is a list of different tools, techniques and activities they can use
to teach English as EFL to youngsters and adults, also they can be adapted to other ages .
Flashcards are very useful for handing out as part of various activities.
Picture stories are used as starting point for writing exercises, and they are useful for focusing on specific
language points.
Storytelling is a short activity that engages and motivates students.
Songs and music can be used in many ways, to develop pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, etc.

Fillers are perfectly designed to help teachers when the materials have run out.
Lexical games are the centre of well-known word games in the classroom.
Dictation is a traditional activity.
Poetry stimulates and wakes us up to see things in new ways. However, teachers must practice carrying on a
lesson and students should be encouraged to work with it.
Drama is part of an everyday class. There are six types of drama activities: role plays, simulation, drama
games, guided improvisation, acting play scripts, prepared improving drama.
Projects are one useful way of providing an ongoing thread to classroom work.

Theme 1: Receptive skills

Learning a new language is a gradual process that can be viewed as a series of challenges to overcome. There
are certain skills that must be learned as a part of this process. These can be categorized as either productive
or receptive based on a widely accepted framework.
Reading and listening are two examples of receptive skills. Using them, students can better understand the
material in their textbooks, assignments, and other written materials.
Speaking and writing are important because they allow students to participate in communicative activities such
as oral presentations, written studies and reports, and more.
Because of this, it is imperative that these skills are developed and learned properly.

Procedure for teaching receptive skills

‘Receptive Skills' are often contrasted with ‘productive skills'. Language learners tend to develop receptive skills
first, then productive skills. It's a complicated relationship because they all help develop other skills.
Reading, for example, can help develop writing skills, while listening can help improve speaking
fluency. Developing receptive skills is difficult when communicating with a native speaker. Starting a
conversation is simple, but keeping it going is more difficult. Learners may not recognize features of connected
speech or idiomatic language, resulting in a failed interaction.
As with reading, if the language or grammar is too complicated, it makes the text hard to understand. Listening
and reading are very different. When people listen to information, they get less help than when they work with
the written word on the page. As soon as the message is over, there's no easy way to go back and check for
meaning, like there is when you read.

Rhalmi mentions three aspects to keep in mind when teaching receptive skills

When teaching students receptive language, the goal is for them to be able to comprehend and interpret
spoken or written material effectively. This means that instead of measuring students' comprehension of
texts, the teacher must instead teach them reading and listening methods that they may use to handle any type
of literature.
Every time someone reads or listens, it's for a specific reason. This might be done to glean specific details about
the text or just to obtain a sense of its overall tone. When we read poetry or listen to a podcast, we do so for
pleasure.
The receptive talents are not merely a passive ability. During listening or reading, people employ crucial
cognitive processes. Top-down and bottom-up processing are two of the most critical mental processes
involved in reading.

The receptive skills lesson plan

The receptive skills' comprehension tasks should generally follow a series of activities, starting with a general
overview of the text and progressing to a closer examination of the text's more specialized and smaller
components .
The receptive skills lesson plan begins with warm-up and lead-in activities to get the pupils ready. As a
result, the teacher focuses on teaching students how to read or listen to a piece of writing or a speech in order
to better comprehend what they're hearing or reading.
Completion assignments are designed to help students gain an understanding of the text's content, beginning
with general comprehension and progressing to more specific knowledge. Follow-up activities help students
summarize the content, connect it to their daily lives or make them respond in some way to what they have just
read.

METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHING ENGLISH TO CHILDREN

Physical development

These measures are indicative since they depend on the genetics and constitution of the child. During the
school stage, boys and girls mature physically in a continuous and dynamic way, being able to coordinate and
synchronize movements much better than in previous stages, increasing their strength and muscular
endurance, as well as their flexibility, but, if this is not worked, it is lost little by little after 9 or 10 years. When we
talk about physical development, we are not only referring to motor capacity. Changes in organs as important
as the brain are key to their intellectual and cognitive development.

These changes will allow the child to improve her learning capacity, be more creative and understand
increasingly complex concepts.

Cognitive development

Curiosity is their engine of learning and motivation, so they learn increasingly complex and abstract concepts
very quickly. The logical capacity and the recognition of symbols to solve problems increases throughout the
school stage. This capacity for logical reasoning enables them to get out of the magical reality of previous
stages and to make judgments of causality. It is very common at this time that the child begins to develop the
first hobbies, collections or hobbies depending on their tastes and interests.

At the level of complex concepts, they begin to understand the intentionality of actions and death.

Subtheme 2: Developmental theories

Freud establishes five stages in the development of the personality. He considered the first three to be the
most important and believed that children were exposed to the risks of fixation, a developmental arrest, if they
received too little or too much gratification at any of these stages. A child may become emotionally fixed and
may need help to get out of that stage. Erikson divides human life into eight periods.

Each crisis is a crucial moment to solve important aspects that will not remain during life, to some degree.

Cognitive development occurs through a two-step process in which new information about the world is taken
and some ideas are changed to include the new knowledge. Development progresses from simple
organizational structures to more complex ones. When its cognitive structures cannot handle new
experiences, it organizes new patterns to restore mental balance. Figure 1 Piaget's stages retrieved from
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

Humanistic perspective. - The humanistic perspective follows the foundations of cognitive theory, which trusts
that people can guide their lives and shape their own development. Maslow proposed a pyramid of needs that
explains what drives human behaviors. This pyramid is divided into 5 levels that range from the most basic
aspects such as survival to more complex motivations such as personal growth.

" Additional considerations include cognitive needs and, for some people, aesthetic needs " .

Table 1 Maslow's levels

Maslow levels Description. Security needs They are all those related to the security and stability of a
person, that is, physical and healthy security, employment, income, resources, moral and family security, and
private property.

LOS CONTEXTOS DE LOS SUJETOS EDUCATIVOS Y EL APRENDIZAJE HUMANO. EL TRATAMIENTO DEL INGLÉS
EN LOS DIFERENTES CONTEXTOS EDUCATIVOS: EDUCACIÓN GENERAL BÁSICA Y BACHILLERATO

Family is the base of a good society and education which begins since the moment of conception, but sadly it
has not been given much importance.

Base context: Family

It is necessary to examine how family background affects children’s academic achievement at an early stage as
they are the primary and most significant environments that the children are exposed to. Parental behavior and
educational support for their children could cultivate children’s learning habits and affect academic
performance. In the preschool period, the education and interest of the child from the family is of high
importance. The positive attitudes of the family in the 0-6-year-old preschool period and the conscious raising
of their children turn into sustainable success in the school period. On the contrary, it is known that children
with problems have failed in school life such as children with personality and behavior disorders can have
adaptation problems when they start school
This corroborates the importance of the family in the educational process, which must start from the
gestation, offering love first, so that it can feel safe, with self-confidence, listened and motivated to want to
learn and have good interpersonal relationships within any educational context.
In the same way, another significant aspect is the psychosocial development theory from Erickson which is
divided into eight phases from infancy to adulthood.
Erickson states that «the adolescent mind is essentially a mind of moratorium, a psychosocial stage between
childhood and adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by
the adult» .

stage having disruptive behavior due to the lack of love and communication with their parents.
This corroborates that parental education participation has significant positive effects on children’s learning
behavior, creating a positive educational atmosphere at home, enhancing children’s interest in learning through
good study habits.

Conditional context: School and work

Talking about school means talking about rapport where the teacher plays a role as a mediator of the teaching-
learning process. In these times where everything evolves, the school cannot continue to be alienated from
reality, it must reinvent itself and teachers must be the first to assume that challenge and stop being class
givers and take a motivating place, so that students can build new knowledge with critical and creative thinking.

Teachers are seen as key actors of change within programmes and projects on global learning. This paper aims
to address the role of teachers within the theories and practices around global learning and in particular their
role as agents for change. This pedagogical approach encourages critical reflection, an understanding of power
and inequality in the world, and promotion of a global outlook. It encourages learners to identify and seek out
active engagement in society .
This author makes a strong criticism about education in terms of how it should be the role of the teacher in
times of change when the school cannot stay away from reality, for this reason, he considers that the teacher
must establish a rapport among his students through their critical and creative thinking, generating ideas to
reflect on the events that occur in his environment and around the world as well.
Likewise, as a complement to the above, another author's thought is presented.
Emotion and action are part of the learning process alongside cognitive processes. These factors are important
to note when considering the roles of teachers as agents of change, for not only do they need to have
increased knowledge and understanding of global issues and the skills to impart that knowledge .
This means that the role of the teacher is to act as an agent of changing within the classroom. It also means that
the teacher needs to have the skills to engage learners in this complex process through
reflection, dialogue, and engagement, using their own experiences, which moves beyond of a transmission of
knowledge taking into account that there are different ways of learning.

Although it is true, relationships with other people are those that allow us to have powerful
thoughts, opinions, ideas and feelings on any subject learned either at home or at school. It is there where
people can unlearn by doing, by living and exchanging experiences collectively to put them into practice and
learn in a meaningful way because nothing is isolated.

It is very interesting to emphasize here about the exposed topic of the relations the thought of Lave who says
Learning is re-conceptualized as experience: participation in everyday life may be thought of as a process of
changing understanding in practice, that is, as learning. Rather than a separate activity located in the minds of
individuals, it thus becomes a social phenomenon, ubiquitous in all activity.
This perspective proposes that development and learning occur through our changing levels of participation in
the social spaces which make up our world .
This means that the degree of success that the person achieves depends on the participation that they can
have in any social space as a result of interactions with other people in their environment through
dialogue, understanding and team practice based on the four pillars of communication. This last and the fact of
living together are needed to complement and develop experiences to improve their understanding and a
better fluid participation.
It is said that that the interpersonal relationships guided in an affective and effective way help to improve
behavior inside and outside the classrooms. It also has a significant impact on academic skills through teacher
mediation, based on cooperative work as well as family support and guidance. In this way, confidence and self-
confidence are generated, which will avoid problems in the classroom, improving coexistence in a
dialogue, open to the needs and interests required by the students.
In summary, effective communication must be applied between the entities that conform school life:
family, school and community as well as the affection that students should feel at the moment of being heard
and guided by parents and teachers respecting their diversity.

In this digital age, all of us without exception face the challenge of this 21st century and that is the management
of technology which transform learning in a creative way for its better understanding in collective work. Change
is inevitable, and education cannot remain behind the surrounding reality where learning spaces are evolving
rapidly.
This subtopic is of considerable importance because technology has really arrived to improve teaching and
learning process.
Some instructors see online education as a forum for the dissemination of knowledge, precluding the
classroom in favor of the computer. She advises that thanks to the web, students are able to become involved
in projects in ways that were not so easy to before. Additionally, she points out that «more and more, professors
are having to accept that their role is to guide students to meaningful learning activities, rather than to provide
knowledge» .
This author means that the teacher must stop becoming the center of the class and he or she should use
different strategies with the help of technology so that they can create and build new learning that was
previously complex to carry out. As a mediator and motivator, the teacher should guide change for an
interactive and supporting communication in social environment through learning groups applying debates in
order to get feedback.

In the blended class, they found that students’ interactions with other students online promoted an enhanced
engagement with course concepts, and a deeper understanding of course materials. Other affordances came
in the shape of improved discussions as students had time to reflect before participating. There was also an
increase in the number of participants than what was seen in the physical class sessions. The blended learning
course, attributed to flexible times in which they could engage in extra learning opportunities .
In a summary, the challenge is now, because it is necessary for the student to become a person who
relates, asks, investigates, gets answers and share them through collaborative work assignments and
collaborating on projects into a discussion space.

Gender and sexual diversity

Talking about gender and sexuality is complicated which generate controversy in any school
community. Teachers and parents avoid talking about it. The rejection and mistreatment of these minority
groups who are questioning their sexual and gender identities is strong, school and family do almost nothing to
eradicate this type of behavior.

According to says

This absence of adult support leaves many young people without guidance and accurate information about
relationships, physical development, sexual health, and important aspects of their identities.
It also creates a hostile school environment for students who do not conform to its heterosexual social
hierarchies. One of the most important things to remember when talking about sexuality is that everybody has
one. Heterosexual, bisexual, gay, lesbian, queer, and asexual are some of the descriptors used for talking about
sexuality and sexual diversity.
It is degrading to see how even in these times of evolution the stamp of discrimination and mistreatment
against this group of people are marked, without thinking that these people have feelings and they suffer for
not having support and orientation for a psychological well-being of sexual orientation and gender due to the
intolerance and hate against these minority groups. Some of them in the worst case end up committing suicide.
Sexual health of individuals who are already highly vulnerable, they constitute discourses that convey
regressive messages about sex, gender and sexuality impacting young people’s access and the development
of their subjective experiences with longer term implications on social cohesion.

In the same order of ideas, other authors argue

Therefore, it is necessary in School, educators start sharing experiences, stories and data across these spaces
to help with information, inclusive approaches to sex gender and sexuality education stablishing reflective
spaces for some of the voices who still continue being rejected.

Cultural and ethnic diversity

Ecuador, is a multi-ethnic and multicultural country of different religions, where differences must be respected
and valued, so that students are able to identify with multiple cultural identities and ancestors. For that
reason, culture can affect our perspectives as well as behavior, how we interact in the world and our personal
identities.
According to Linton believes that «a person who knows nothing about other cultures cannot truly understand
his or her own culture. Therefore, it is equally and vitally important for each nation to understand both its own
culture and other cultures». as cited in Zhang, 2019, In this globalized era where technology occupies a
privileged place, there are no excuses to meet other cultures and learn from them. It is interesting to be able to
exchange experiences, instead of recreating xenophobic actions that are detrimental to the condition of the
human being.

Likewise, Zhang states

The development of the internet has enabled distance education, making virtual schools an important
educational tool. The diversity of educational methods meets the different educational needs of contemporary
society. These educational models, such as online education, which are based on new technological
advances, are increasingly becoming a powerful support platform for the inheritance of ethnic culture.
In other words, the challenges in education are producing profound changes. Today's schools in this era of
globalization are said to welcome students and teachers from different ethnic, cultural, social and religious
backgrounds. Therefore, the school must be able to build relationships with people who look different and can
help us to have better attitudes towards other races and cultures through an inclusive society where teachers
can help students to participate in a way criticism in intercultural understanding activities, by sharing
experiences under an atmosphere heuristic of feedback and respect.
Another important point is what International Organization for Migration consider

In the last twenty-five years across Europe, Britain, the United States, Canada, Australia and many other parts of
the world, the ethnic and cultural make-up of communities has undergone rapid and radical
change. Unprecedented movements of people across national borders due to sustained periods of political
upheaval and war in many regions. Such changing demographics are producing new challenges for many
schooling systems.
It is clear, the importance of multiculturalism, and the need to include it as well as accept it as a reality to face
current and future challenges. For that reason, teachers must know their students and to understand their
cultural backgrounds and the values, also their practices that may guide their expectations and actions for an
effective and affective schooling in order to contribute to equity in the learning experiences of different ethnic
and cultural groups for a better understanding of the world.

Subtopic 3 Intellectual and motor physical diversity

The role that the teacher plays in these times of change is important, where nothing remains isolated. Although
it is true in virtual or face-to-face classrooms we will find disabilities in some students and the teacher must be
prepared to mediate this type of situation with the support of a multidisciplinary team.

According to Rayner points out

The challenge presented by management of diversity in education will always bring this aspect of the
educational mission into sharp focus.

EDUCACIÓN ALTERNATIVA: CALL- E-LEARNING – BLENDED LEARNING

Introduction

Alternative education proposes a series of learning methods whose operation is different from traditional
teaching. It is also known as free, self-managed or popular education.
The common goal shared by all alternative teaching methods is that they seek to enhance the autonomy and
individual development of each student. In addition, they encourage the participation of all students without the
need for projects or tasks typical of traditional education.

Computer-assisted language learning is an example of alternative education in

English online classes and it refersto a bunch of instructions that must be loaded in the computer to be able to
work in the language classroom. Also, E-learning and blended learning are part of this new language teaching
method. The education changes constantly and educators should be aware of these new challenging manners
to teach especially at the moment of using technology in the teaching-learning process.

Subtopics 1: The principle of coherence and redundancy

Before covering the principles of coherence and redundancy is necessary to know some concepts related to
alternative online education, in this case for second-language teachers.

E-learning

We can understand E-learning as the teaching-learning processes that are carried out through the
Internet, characterized by a physical separation between teachers and students, but with the predominance of
both synchronous and asynchronous communication, through which a continuous didactic interaction is carried
out by students . In addition, the student becomes the center of the teachinglearning process, having to self-
manage their learning, with the help of teachers and classmates.
From: https://www.itconsultors.com/curso-de-e-learning-exitoso

E-learning characteristics

This distance education modality through the Internet has contributed to the training reaching a greater number
of people .

Some of the e-Learning characteristics are

Space-time barriers disappear, students can take a course at home or at work, with the content accessible any
day at any time being able in this way to maximize the time dedicated to studying .
Flexible education, the diversity of methods and resources used make it easier for them to adapt to the
characteristics and needs of the students .
The student is the center of the teaching-learning processes and actively participates in the construction of
their knowledge, having the ability to decide the study itinerary that best suits their interests .
The teacher goes from being a mere transmitter of content to a tutor who guides, guides, helps and facilitates
the training processes .
Updated content, news and resources related to the subject of study can be quickly introduced into the
contents, so that the teachings are fully updated.

Is a learning approach that combines face-to-face education delivered by teachers, and online learning
activities . Unlike fully online learning, the online part of education does not replace face-to-face classes with a
teacher and, teachers incorporate technology to enhance the learning experience .

Application of guidelines

These are some of the first guidelines that English teachers can use for their online classes. Also, educators
should consider that inside the teaching-learning process students need regular study and motivation.
Encourage your students to choose a website or download an intuitive app that will guide them according to
your level.

Guidelines for teachers to be applied in online sessions to learn English from a technological device

Motivate your students and they will gain trust with the chosen website or app, learnthe basics of English and
they will be able to evaluate if the tool meets their needs.
Decide the objectives of the learning process for your students and mark the mistakes you make so as not to
repeat them, in this way, you won't lose motivation either your students.
Make the students to use the website or the app as if it were their toolbox.
Moreover, teachersshould not use them as a sole learning method, always find and apply useful alternatives to
them, consider that every student learns differently.

The principle of coherence and redundancy

The coherence principle helps teachers do deliver the actual curriculum and link some learning areas in this
case English in general and technology, also provides smooth transitions at the university and
beyond, establishes clear learning objectives, and constantly reviews of the students' progression within the
learning process.

Redundancy principle

The Redundancy Principle in education is one in which teachers want to avoid overloading the learner’s working
memory . Remember that students can only process certain information, and any additional information beyond
the learner’s capacity may be lost .
In the redundancy principle, we are looking at situations where additional information is not needed for the
student to learn .
The first way is when identical information is presented in two different forms at the same time .
The second way is when trying to enhance learning, the student is presented with additional information .

Subtopic 2: The personalization principle

Considering technological innovations and programming, higher education institutions should maintain a
learning system that promotes continuous and interactive learning.
AI promotes practical and innovative education by introducing digital cooperative learning, for example, flipped
classrooms, gamification, reality, augmented reality, and/or virtual or mixed reality as new instructional
approaches for learners to study and educators to teach .
Digital technologies in education enable the establishment of learning techniques on the basis of individualized
training, personalized information, and achieved abilities in order to attain creativity and entrepreneurship .
As a result, digital education uses digital technologies in order to acquire learning skills and capabilities in a
continuous learning process, providing an opportunity for institutions to expand their educational aims and
outcomes . Some of the most essential ways that technological tools can alter and shape the learning
experience these days, and in the future .

Example of Personalization principle in multimedia

we can define that people learn better from multimedia lessons when words are in conversational style rather
than formal style according to the personalization principle .
Some higher education institutions, especially those with online programs, use technological systems to
monitor student progress and alert teachers when there is a problem with student performance .
In conclusion, these systems, platforms, apps, etc, allow students to get the help they need and allow
instructors to identify areas where they can improve teaching for students struggling with the subject .

Computer-Based training

CBT helps students learn from training programs on their desk or phone, anytime, before the Internet, this
system worked well, but after the introduction of the Internet, CBT needed to expand .
Benefits of Computer-Based Training

Eliminate reliance on paper and traditional classrooms .

Allows the student to take courses at their convenience .
Students can give their opinion and respond to the subject material Hefter, Custom CBT systems can be
designed based on the requirements of a specific industry .

Web-Based training

WBT or Web-Based Training, the WBT is part of CBT, in this system, all study materials are available online .
WBT can include audio, video, text, animation, and graphics, which require a strong internet connection to
transfer data, the Web-based instruction and online courses are known as WBT . Benefits of Web-Based
Training

Allows group and individual training programs .

Virtual Platforms

A virtual educational platform is a program that encompasses different types of tools for educational
purposes . Its main function is to facilitate the creation of virtual environments to provide all kinds of training
over the Internet without the need for programming knowledge .
In educational reality, they are programs that allow tasks such as organizing content, activities within an online
course, managing student enrollment, monitoring work during the course, resolving doubts, creating spaces for
interactive communication, and evaluating the progress of students .
They can be used to comprehensively manage distance learning or as a complement to face-to-face
teaching, although increasingly they are also used to create discussion and work spaces for research groups, or
to implement virtual communities and learning networks around topics of common interest .

In order to carry out its mission, an educational platform must be created with different tools.
LMS : It is the place where all platform users meet and contact: students, teachers, and administrative
staff . This is where the courses are presented to the users and where the progress of the student is monitored
during the duration of the training .
LCMS : It is the tool that allows the management and publication of the contents used in the course.
Communication tools: They encourage student participation by creating spaces dedicated to working together
and exchanging information. Normally it is done through chats, forums, emails, file exchanges, etc, .
Administration tools: Allows the management of registrations, different access permissions within the platform
for different users, etc, .
Examples of virtual platforms’ elements from https://indiabioscience.

Most used communication tools within educational platforms

Instant messaging systems: they allow you to contact the tutor to answer questions.
Sending files: This allows you to send files to the tutor for correction.
Notices: Messages sent by the tutor to all students throughout the course.
Forum: They allow the sharing and exchange of ideas.
Chat: Allows real-time communication between students and/or the tutor.
Online tutorials: The tutor can call tutorials for students to resolve their doubts.

There are different types of educational platforms depending on the type of activity for which they are
intended .
Commercial educational platforms: they have been created by companies or educational institutions for
profit, and they tend to have very good reliability and effective technical assistance .
They require the payment of a fee, generally annual, which gives access to successive updates, the most
important ones have a number of different specialized modules that allow you to fully adapt the platform to
your needs .

Moodle

From: https://bit4learn.com/es/lms/claroline/ Own development platforms: they are not designed to be

distributed massively because they have been developed to measure for a specific project Cortiz & Silva, The
advantage is that they are fully customized to the needs of the project and respond better to its educational
and pedagogical needs, the main disadvantage is that they are not easily generalizable to other fields and their
high cost .
The use of educational platforms is revolutionizing the way we learn, opening new and interesting possibilities
that go beyond the limits of time and space so that training no longer has borders .

What can we do to achieve efficient collaborative learning in virtual environments?

The key to success in online education is a good organization, for this, the role of the virtual teacher is
important, although he is not the protagonist of learning, and responsible for planning and supervising the
development of the entire process.

Recommendations to achieve effective collaborative online working

Choose the topic to work under collaborative learning, for this, it is recommended to base yourself on a scheme
where it is required, the solution of a problem, conceptual learning, and the divergence of thought .
Properly select the size of the team, take into account the project to be developed, the execution time, the
available resources, and the difficulty of performing the tasks, among others .
Establish team members, heterogeneous teams are usually very effective since the need for
discussion, justification and explanation generates power for cooperation to take place .
Assign roles to each team member: responsibilities can include supervision, motivation, time keeping, and
secretary .

LEARNING EXPERIENCES: CONTEXTUALIZED AND INCLUSIVE: CURRICULAR, PEDAGOGICAL, AND DIDACTIC

MODELS

Elements of the Curriculum

The purpose of a curriculum. - It is based on the social aspirations of society, outlines the goals and
objectives. Giving flexible teaching methods that facilitate learning. Evaluation.

Analyzing the effectiveness of methods and learning experiences used.

After that, the students might practice their own writings. In other words, the experience should be consistent
with the objective. In this point, the teacher needs to demonstrate the logical order of students' experiences.

Why are the objectives required in the study plan?

Because, when there is no way out of the objectives embodied in the curriculum, the opportunity to improve
the student learning process is limited, since instruction, materials, content, and methods are not linked in
learning outcomes.

Humanistic Approach

The principal objective of a humanistic approach is centered in

emotional, morality, confidence, achievements, and respect of the students. Teachers need to respect
students, give confidence to the students, belief in their abilities .

Maslow’s Hierarchy Needs

- Security of body, of employment, of resources, of morality, of the family, of health, of property.

Curricular Design. Curriculum design is a lineament which identifies the elements of a curriculum and the
relationships among them. Curricular Implementation. Curricular Execution.

- It refers about lesson delivery using various models of teaching, with the aids of didactic and technological
resources. Curricular Evaluation.

The Education Ministry in Ecuador identifies the importance of developing students’

Communicative language skills since the primary function of language is to allow interaction and
communication. In addition, it is believed that EFL classrooms should engage learners in authentic and
meaningful activities that support the functional use of language.

""Meanwhile the arrival of CLT, teachers and materials authors have tried to find ways to develop classroom
activities that reveal the principles of a communicative methodology. " Principles on which the first generation
of CLT materials are still appropriate to language teaching today, so in this chapter we will briefly review the
main sorts of activities that were one of the outcomes of CLT" .

DISEÑO, GESTIÓN Y EVALUACIÓN DE MODELOS CURRICULARES CONTEXTUALIZADOS, FLEXIBLES Y

ADAPTADOS A LA ENSEÑANZA APRENDIZAJE DEL INGLES

Subtopic 1: History

The history of curriculum development for languages starts in the 1960s, when educators noticed issues in the
design of their courses’ syllabuses. A syllabus presents the content of a course and specifies the order in which
it will appear in the course. It also describes aspects of the language acquisition that will be taught in the
language program. On the other hand, the development of curriculum demands more challenges to be
developed because it is a process that helps to determine learners’ needs, the program objectives, evaluation
instruments, teaching methods and materials.
Educators understood the need to change their teaching methods by that time. This eventually led them to
embark on a quest for better teaching methods, which resulted in the creation of the following approaches to
language teaching in a period of approximately 100 years. The years in parenthesis show when the methods
were more predominant.

The problem of selection refers to the need of deciding what should be selected from a language corpus to
include in the textbooks and materials. This issue was identified after the application of different methods and
understanding that it was not possible to teach the whole of a language . As a result, the field of selection in
language teaching started to work on choosing appropriate content and materials for textbooks units. Grammar
and vocabulary received more attention since they were considered to be the most useful for the learner by
that time. These practices from the first decades of the twentieth century were an initial framework for
language syllabus design.

The creation of a Lexical Syllabus

There were two publications that were created by experts in the field of Language development in the course
of two decades. Michael West conducted studies to establish a list of words that could be considered as a basis
for learning English as a Foreign Language. A major study on vocabulary selection came out with a list of about
2000 words that conformed what was later called A General Service List of
English Words. This list contained information on the different meanings and the frequency the words were
used. Research on word frequency started in the 1920s and all this work on vocabulary selection led to the
compilation and the creation of what they later considered as a lexical syllabus.
Thorndike. This report aimed at simplifying English teaching. It compiled almost a decade of prior findings
made by prominent linguists up to the 1930s. Both the General Service list of English Words and the
Interim Report on Vocabulary selection were used as the standard reference for choosing the words to use in
textbooks, readers and other types of materials.

The need for grammatical selection

Applied linguists from the 1920s were also concerned about the idea of grammar selection. The choice of
grammar structures to be taught in a language program had been traditionally made in relation to the teaching
method. Palmer, who was a pioneer in the field of grammar and vocabulary selection, introduced the principle
of gradation. He understood that essential grammar structures should be taught first, and the details could be
taught later. As a consequence of that principle, it was possible to group and sequence the teaching items in a
syllabus. Other principles and some approaches were developed with the pass of the years. See figures 3 and
4.
Figure 3. - Principles for grammar selection Figure 4. - Approaches to grammar sequencing

The U.S linguist Fries designed the outline of a grammar syllabus for teaching ESL students, and his ideas were
established as the dominant methodology in the United States for more than two decades. While in
Britain it was Hornby who designed the structure of English-language syllabuses for courses of different
levels. Other specialists in language teaching came after them who refined and added more grammatical
syllabus specifications. The following quotes have been added to highlight the ideas that were influential for
the creation of current language curricula by Thornbury :

Roberts, P. 1918. English for Coming Americans: Teachers Manual. p. 19

«Learn by Speaking. – Do not merely think the words … say them as if they were real; act them; language is not a
set of words; it is a form of behaviour».
West, M. 1948. Improve Your English. p. 11.
«They should feel that each lesson is their lesson, not the teacher’s…. In an English class which is well run, the
teacher is only a guide».
French, F. 1949. The Teaching of English Abroad: Part II The Junior Course. p. 31.
«We teach grammar through conversation and not, as some school teachers attempt, conversation through
grammar».
Halbrich, J.O. 1953. Toil and Chat: English for Beginners, p. 93.
«A command of structure is more easily acquired by reading, speaking and writing the language than by
hearing and studying explanations».

Influences in grammatical syllabus design

U.S.A - Fries Britain - Hornby

Table 1.

«Every teacher of languages should devise ways and methods of getting the new language used as it in real
life, that is, language that performs some useful purpose».
«Language is not a sterile subject to be confined to the classroom. One of two things must be done: either life
must be brought to the classroom or the class must be taken to life».
Strevens, P. Spoken Language. 1956, p. 69.
«The teacher must really be himself and give himself, talking to real people about real things and then training
his pupils to talk to one another about real things».
«The language must not be allowed to stay imprisoned between the pages of a book».
The history of Language curriculum starts with the notion of syllabus design.
Syllabus design is one important aspect of language curriculum development.
Revise online versions of relevant books

Before describing the different conceptions of curriculum that have been developed through the years, it is
important to try to define the term curriculum in some way. According to Rogers : «Syllabi, which prescribe the
content to be covered by a given course, form only a small part of the total school program.
Curriculum is a far broader concept. Curriculum is all of those activities in which children engage under the
auspices of the school» . Rogers’ affirmation allows us to understand that curriculum studies involve a broad
field of inquiry because it refers to the entire cycle of instruction including the what, when, how, who and why of
the teaching-learning process.
When we talk about conceptions of curriculum, we may refer to the different views of curriculum and the
criticism those views have received with the pass of the years.

The different conceptions of curriculum

Tyler’s model : This model was generated in the 1950s and it was criticized as being too technical and rationalist
because it placed evaluation at the final stage of instruction design instead of building it during every
stage. See figure 5. Despite the criticism Tyler’s model accessed educational practice and training and it was
used in many curriculum manuals before the 1980s.
Figure 5.
The cyclical model / systems- design model : This model was proposed in opposition to the linear notion of the
Tyler’s model. It viewed the process of curricular development as a cycle or four stages: objectives examination
– development of methods – assessment of objectives – feedback. The notion of system suggested that
changing or altering some parts of the system had effects on other parts of it. See figure 6.
This model was also criticized by experts in the field of curricular studies as a mechanistic set of procedures and
rules. Rodgers observed: «The curricular systems-design model has been prescriptive and rule-driven. It
describes a linear sequence of events comprising formulation of objectives, selection of content, and evaluative
measures for determining the achievement or non-achievement of these outcomes ». In spite of presenting a
narrow vision of the design process of curriculum, the system-design model was widely accepted in the 1980s.
Figure 6.

Since the 1980s the conception of curriculum development for language teaching has adopted the perspective
of curriculum renewal. Clark emphasized that curriculum planners are involved in a process of curriculum
renewal instead of curriculum development since there is usually some model of curriculum already in use. He
identified this ongoing process of review and evaluation as the process of curriculum renewal and determined
some of its components. See figure 7.
Figure 7.
Nowadays the process of renewing a curriculum is the accepted practice and the planning and implementation
process focuses on needs analysis, situation analysis, planning learning outcomes, course
organization, selecting and preparing teaching materials and providing for effective teaching and evaluation.
The Ralph Tyler Curricular Model https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J_JJnDgU7lU
Ornstein and Huskins in their book mentioned that psychology is concerned with the question of how people
learn, and curriculum specialists ask how psychology can contribute to the design and delivery of curriculum.

No curriculum scholar or practitioner would deny the importance of this psychological foundation. All agree
that teaching the curriculum and learning it are interrelated, and psychology cements the relationship. This
disciplined field of inquiry furnishes theories and principles of learning that influence teacher–student behavior
within the context of the curriculum. Of course, we are not the first to realize the importance of this foundation.
John Dewey knew that psychology was the basis for understanding how the individual learner interacts with
objects and persons. The process continues throughout life, and the quality of interaction determines the
amount and type of learning. Ralph Tyler considered psychology a «screen» for helping determine what our
objectives are and how our learning takes place.
More recently, Jerome Bruner linked psychology with modes of thinking that underlie the methods used in
specific disciplines. These methods can be used to formulate concepts, principles, and generalizations that
form the structure of the disciplines. In short, psychology is the unifying element of the learning process; it
forms the basis for the methods, materials, and activities of learning, and it provides the impetus for many
curriculum decisions.

cognitive information-processing theories, which view the learner in relation to the total environment and
consider the way the learner applies information; and phenomenological and humanistic theories, which
consider the whole child, including their social, psychological, and cognitive development.
When behaviorist theories are discussed separately, learning tends to focus on conditioning, modifying, or
shaping behavior through reinforcement and rewards. When cognitive information-processing theories are
stressed, the learning process focuses on the student’s developmental stages and multiple forms of
intelligence as well as problem solving, critical thinking, and creativity. The phenomenological aspects of
learning deal with the learner’s needs, attitudes, and feelings and entail more alternatives in learning .
Figure 8.
Psychology provides a basis for understanding the teaching and learning process. Both processes are essential
to curricularists because the curriculum has worth only when students learn and gain knowledge.
Quizizz game – Psychological Influences in Curriculum Design https://quizizz.

Curriculum relates to

Psychology.
Teaching the curriculum and learning it are interrelated.
Dewey, Tyler and Bruner linked psychology with the interactions of the learning process.
Phychology forms the basis for the methods, materials, activities of learning, and the impetus for many
curriculum decisions.

Language is taught in a variety of ways and conditions, that is the reason why Nation and

Macalister tried to develop a sensible basis that could be used as a guide for teachers to help them to design
their courses. Nation and Macalister describe twenty principles based on a pedagogical perspective, focusing
on curriculum design and teacher training.
.