IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 1

Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology

Shreya Mozumdar

IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL

Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology

2.1. Species and Populations

• An ecosystem is an ecological unit comprising biotic and abiotic factors that interact,
and is self-regulating.
• Ecology is the study of organisms and their interactions in the environment.
• A species is a group of organisms that share common characteristics that interbreed and
produce fertile offspring.
• A population is a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the
same time which are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.
• Abiotic factors are the non-living, physical factors that influence organisms and the
ecosystem. These include temperature, pH, salinity, sunlight, etc.
• Biotic factors are the living components of an ecosystem – organisms, their
interactions and their waste – that directly or indirectly affect other organisms.
• Habitat is the environment in which a species normally lives.
• A niche describes the particular set of abiotic and biotic conditions and resources to
which a particular population responds.
o Fundamental niche describes the full range of conditions and resources in
which a species can survive and reproduce.
o Realised niche describes the actual conditions and resources in which a species
exists due to biotic interactions.
o Two species cannot inhabit the same ecological niche in the same place at the
same time. If many species live together, they must have slightly different needs,
so are not in the same niche.
• POPULATION INTERACTIONS
o Competition is the demand by two or more organisms for the same resources
which are in short supply.
§ Intra-specific competition is competition between members of the
same species.
§ It is the harsher type of competition because all individuals are from the
same niche. As population grows, so does competition for the resources
– stronger individuals outcompete weaker ones for the resources.
§ Inter-specific competition is competition between members of
different species.
§ It may result in a balance, in which both species share the resource. It
may also result in competitive exclusion, where one species out
competes the other.
o Predation is when one animal, the predator, kills and eats another animal, the
prey.
o Herbivory is defined as an animal (a herbivore) eating a green plant.
o Parasitism is a relationship between two species in which one species (the
parasite) lives in or on another (the host), gaining food and shelter from it.
Parasites usually do not kill the host, but simply affect it negatively.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 2
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

o Symbiosis is a relationship between two organisms (known as symbionts) that

live together to benefit from one another.
o Mutualism is a relationship between two or more organisms in which all benefit
and none suffer. However, they do not have to live together to benefit.
o Commensalism is a relationship between two organisms wherein one is
benefitted and the other is not affected.
• Carrying capacity is the maximum number of species, or ‘load’, that can be
sustainably supported by a given area.
• Limiting factors are factors which slow down the growth of a population as it reaches
its carrying capacity. (e.g. limited supply of phosphates in aquatic systems, low
temperatures in tundra freeze soil and limit water availability for plants)
o For animals – food, water, space, mates, shelter, temperature
o For plants – water, nutrients, sunlight, carbon dioxide, space, natural calamities,
temperature
• S-CURVE (SIGMOID CURVE)
o Start with exponential population growth. No limiting factors affect growth at
first.
o However, above a certain population size (close to carrying capacity), growth
gradually slows down resulting in a constant population size.
• J-CURVE
o Boom and bust pattern
o Grows exponentially at first and then collapses. Collapses are called diebacks.
o Population can exceed carrying capacity in a long-term basis before the collapse
occurs. It can also happen on a short-term basis, known as overshooting.

2.2. Communities and Ecosystems

• A community is a large group of populations that live and interact in a particular habitat.
• An ecosystem is an ecological unit comprising of biotic and abiotic factors that interact,
and is self-regulating.
• PHOTOSYNTHESIS
o Photosynthesis is the process by which plants make their own food from water
and carbon dioxide, using energy from sunlight.
o The leaves of plants contain chloroplasts with the green pigment chlorophyll.
o In chloroplasts the energy of sunlight is used to split water and combine it with
carbon dioxide to make food in the form of glucose.
Light energy
o Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
Chlorophyll
o Green plants respire in the dark, and photosynthesise and respire in the day time.
Water reaches leaves from roots by transpiration.
• RESPIRATION
o Respiration is a process where stored chemical energy (glucose) is changed
into water, carbon dioxide, kinetic energy and heat. It occurs in the living cells
of both plants and animals.
o Glucose + oxygen energy + water + carbon dioxide
• FOOD CHAINS AND TROPHIC LEVELS
o A food chain is the flow of energy from one organism to the next. It shows
feeding relationships between species in an ecosystem.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 3
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

o Arrows connect the species pointing in the direction of the energy flow – i.e.
towards the species that consumes the other one.

• PRODUCERS
o Autotrophs – green plants which make food by photosynthesis and need
sunlight
o Chemosynthetic organisms – make their own food from simple compounds
like ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and methane. They do not need sunlight and
are often bacteria found in deep oceans.
o IMPORTANCE
§ Help fix energy into the ecosystem
§ Habitats for other organisms
§ Supply nutrients (humus) to the soil
§ Bind the soil to prevent soil erosion
• CONSUMERS – heterotrophs, which feed on autotrophs or other heterotrophs to obtain
energy.
o Herbivores – feed on plants
o Carnivores – feed on animals
o Omnivores – feed on both plants and animals
o IMPORTANCE
§ Help check the populations of other species through negative feedback
§ Help in nutrient cycling – when they die and through their urine and
faeces
§ Help with seed dispersal and pollination
§ Scavengers clear the environment of dead animals.
• DECOMPOSERS – feed on dead and decaying matter
o Saprotrophs – these organisms break down organic matter through
extracellular digestion then absorb the digested material through diffusion. (e.g.
black bread mold i.e. Rhizopus)
o Detritivores – they ingest dead organic matter and digest it in their gut. (e.g.
earthworm, woodlouse, nematodes)
o IMPORTANCE
§ Waste managers of the ecosystem
§ When they bread down tissue, they release nutrients ready for absorption
§ Improve the nutrient retention capacity of the soil
• PROBLEMS OF FOOD CHAINS
o Only illustrate a direct feeding relationship between one organism and another
o Most consumers have a varied diet not limited to a single food species and thus
a single species can appear in many food chains
o Some species are at more than one trophic level (are both carnivores and
herbivores) – this needs many food chains to be represented properly
o Because of these problems, an interconnection of food chains with complex
feeding relationships called a food web is drawn.
• ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
o Ecological pyramids are graphical models of quantitative differences between
the amounts of living material stored at each trophic level of a food chain.
o PURPOSE
§ Allow easy examination of energy transfers and losses
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 4
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

§ Give an idea of what organisms exist at different trophic levels and what
they feed on
§ Help to demonstrate if ecosystems are systems in balance

o TYPES
Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Productivity
Shows the number of Biomass is the total dry mass Shows the rate of flow of
organisms at each level in the
of organic matter in energy or biomass through
food chain organisms, populations, each trophic level
trophic levels or ecosystems.
Length of each bar shows the Pyramids of biomass contain Shows the energy/biomass
measure of the relative the biomass (mass of each being generated/available as
numbers individual x no. of food to the next trophic level.
individuals) at each trophic
level
Producers are at the bottom, The units are usually
usually in large numbers grams/m2 or joules/m2

o EVALUATION OF THE PYRAMIDS

Pyramid Advantages Disadvantages
Numbers • Easy method of giving an • Size of organisms not
overview considered (e.g. one big tree is
• Good for comparing shown as only one organism
changes in population even though it supports many
number over time/in organisms, showing an
different seasons inverted pyramid when the
system is actually in balance)
• Immature and juvenile
individuals excluded
• Numbers may be too large to
represent properly
Biomass • Biomass is not related to • It is measured using a sample
size and thus this problem is from the population and is thus
not there inaccurate
• Biomass does not account • Organisms are killed to
for age of the organism and measure dry mass
thus all are counted • Time of year impacts results
• Two organisms with the same
mass may not have the same
energy content
Productivity • Most accurate because it • Difficult to collect data
shows energy transferred because rate of biomass
and not size or mass production over time is
• Allows comparison of required
ecosystems based on • Problems of assigning an
relative energy flows omnivorous species to a
• No inverted pyramids trophic level
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 5
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

• Energy from solar radiation

is added

• Bioaccumulation is the build-up of persistent/non-biodegradable pollutants within an

organism or trophic level because they cannot be broken down.
• Biomagnification is the increase in concentration of persistent/non-biodegradable
pollutants along a food chain.
• Toxins like DDT accumulate along food chains due to the decrease of biomass and
energy.

2.3. Flows of energy and matter

• Almost all energy that drives processes on Earth comes from the Sun in the form of
solar radiation.
• Solar radiation is made of visible wavelengths of light and invisible wavelengths of
ultraviolet and infrared right.
• Most solar radiation entering the atmosphere is absorbed by gases and dust, and
ultraviolet light is absorbed by ozone. The infrared light or heat is absorbed by carbon
dioxide, clouds, and water vapour.
• The ultraviolet and visible light energy (short-wave radiation) are changed to heat
energy (long-wave radiation).
• Most energy reaching the ground is reflected back to space by ice, snow, water and
land.
• Some of the energy is absorbed by land, heating up the land.
• Of all incoming energy, thus only 1-4% is available for plants to use. Plants convert it
into chemical energy which is transferred along the trophic levels.
• Productivity is the conversion of energy into biomass over a given period of time. It is
the rate of growth or biomass increase in plants and animals (per unit area per unit time)
• Gross productivity is the total gain in energy or biomass. It is the biomass gained by
an organism before any deductions.
• Net productivity is the gain in energy or biomass that remains after deductions due to
respiration.
• Gross primary productivity (GPP) is the total gain in energy or biomass by green
plants. It is the energy fixed by green plants in photosynthesis.
• Net primary productivity (NPP) is the total gain in energy or biomass by green plants
after allowing for losses due to respiration. It is the increase in biomass of the plant and
is the biomass potentially available to consumers that eat the plant.
• NPP = GPP – R (respiration)
• NPP represents the difference between the plants’ photosynthesis rate and respiration
rate.
• Gross secondary productivity (GSP) is the total energy/biomass taken up by
consumers.
• GSP = food eaten – fecal loss
• Net secondary productivity (NSP) is the total gain in energy or biomass by consumers
after allowing for losses to respiration.
• NSP = GSP – R
• Energy flows through ecosystems in one direction, starting as solar radiation and
leaving as heat.
 IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 6
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

• Chemical nutrients in the biosphere cycle – they are absorbed by organisms from soil
and atmosphere and circulate through trophic levels and are released back into the
atmosphere.

• THE CARBON CYCLE

Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide

Combustion Photosynthesis

Producers
Fossil fuels and wood Respiration
Feeding
Decomposition
Consumers
Death

Fossils and sediment Death, urine, faeces

Decomposition Detritus/organic matter

• STORAGES
o Organic – with complex carbon molecules
§ Organisms (biomass) in the biosphere – plants and animals
§ Fossilised life forms (fossil fuels)
o Inorganic – simple carbon molecules
§ Rocks and fossils – take millions of years to become a fossil fuel and
have complex molecules
§ Oceans/water bodies – dissolved carbon or in shells of organisms
§ Soil
§ Atmosphere
• FLOWS
o Transfers
§ Feeding on plants by herbivores
§ Feeding on herbivores by carnivores
§ Feeding on dead organisms by decomposers
§ Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolving in rainwater
§ Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolving in oceans
o Transformations
§ Photosynthesis (carbon dioxide into glucose)
§ Respiration (organic matter into carbon dioxide)
§ Combustion (organic matter into carbon dioxide)
§ Incomplete decomposition and fossilisation (formation of oil and coal)
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 7
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

• THE NITROGEN CYCLE

Atmospheric Nitrogen
Nitrogen fixing Lightning Denitrifying bacteria
bacteria

Decomposers Ammonia in soil Nitrates and nitrites

Nitrifying
bacteria in soil
Death, urine Death
Absorption
Absorption
Consumers
Feeding Producers
• Nitrogen fixation is when atmospheric nitrogen is made usable for plants by fixation.
o Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil or in root nodules of leguminous plants can
do this.
o Cyanobacteria or algae that live in soil or water can do it.
o Lightning also fixes nitrogen.
• Nitrification – some bacteria in the soil are called nitrifying bacteria. They convert
ammonium into nitrites and some others convert the nitrites into nitrates which are
absorbed by plants.
• Denitrification – Denitrifying bacteria in waterlogged or low-oxygen conditions
convert ammonium, nitrates and nitrites into nitrogen gas that is released into the
atmosphere.
• HUMAN IMPACTS ON CARBON AND NITROGEN CYCLES
o Combustion of fossil fuels and burning of wood increases concentrations of
oxides of carbon and nitrogen in the atmosphere.
o Deforestation and agriculture lead to decomposition that releases carbon
dioxide and nitrous oxides.
§ These increase impacts of global warming and climate change –
however, nitrous oxides do so to a lesser extent.
§ These result in the acidification (increase in pH) of water which affects
aquatic creatures. Only nitrous oxides cause acid deposition (increase in
acid content of water bodies)
o Deforestation removes organic storages of nitrogen and carbon stored in plant
biomass, reducing carbon absorption through photosynthesis. However, it does
not affect nitrogen.
o Deforestation causes soil erosion which reduces storages of nitrogen in the soil.
o Pesticides or herbicides in agriculture can kill organisms, reducing organic
storages of carbon and nitrogen (plant, animal and other biomass). It can reduce
nitrification and denitrification by affecting bacteria.
o Extraction of coal, oil and gas reduces underground carbon storages but does
not affect nitrogen much.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 8
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

2.4. Biomes, Zonation and Succession

• A biome is a collection of ecosystems that share similar climatic conditions and
community types. They cut across continents and national boundaries.
• The biosphere is a part of the Earth where organisms live. It extends from the upper
part of the atmosphere to the deepest parts of the oceans which support life.
• TYPES OF BIOMES
o Aquatic
§ Freshwater
• Swamp
• Lake/Pond
• Stream/River
• Bogs
§ Marine
• Rocky shore
• Mudflats
• Coral reefs
• Mangroves
• Continental shelf
• Deep ocean
o Deserts
§ Hot desert
§ Cold desert
o Forests
§ Tropical
§ Temperate
§ Boreal (Taiga)
o Grasslands
§ Tropical (Savanna)
§ Temperate
o Tundra
§ Arctic
§ Alpine
• REASONS FOR LOCATION OF BIOME
o Latitude: warmer biomes are closer to equator, while colder ones are farther
away
o Altitude: higher altitudes have lower temperatures
o Ocean currents: warm currents cause more precipitation and keep places
warmer in winter than otherwise would be. Cold currents make places dryer and
make them cooler in winter than they otherwise would be.
 IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 9
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

FACTOR/ TROPICAL DESERTS TEMPERATE TEMPERATE ARCTIC

BIOME RAINFOREST GRASSLANDS FORESTS TUNDRA

LOCATION Between 5oN and At about 30N Between 40N and Located between South of the
S of the equators and 30S of 60N of the equator 40 – 60N and 40- Arctic ice cap at
equator 60S of the 90N, some
equator amount in the
southern
hemisphere
WEATHER High rainfall Limited water High temperature Mild Cold winds
between 200- with limited range. temperature, Low
500cm/year, daily precipitation, Moderate cold winters. precipitation
afternoon rain. less than temperatures with 500-1500mm Low
Temperature 250mm per low rainfall. rainfall annually. temperatures
between 26 and year. Temp between -
28oC. Very hot in the 30 and 30C
day and very
cold at night.
BIODIVERS Five layers – Cacti and Wide variety of Tall trees – oaks, Low
ITY shrub, understory, succulents grasses. elm, beech, ash, Low-growing
under-canopy, have thick In winter, grasses chestnut. plants like
canopy, stems to store die back but roots Usually one grasses, mosses,
emergents. water survive to form a dominant tree small shrubs.
Emergents – Waxy leaves mat with high species No trees
tallest trees and thorns nutrient content Shrub layer – Leathery leaves
Epiphytes – plants prevent water Burrowing holly, hazel, and underground
that live on other losses to animals like brambles, fern, storage organs of
plants transpiration rabbits and grass. Some plants to reduce
Fan palms – large Plants have gophers flowering plants. water loss
leaves to absorb short life span Carnivores like Thick leaf litter Animals have
most sunlight as of 4-6 weeks to wolves and and quick thick fur and
they are covered avail short rain coyotes nutrient cycling. small ears to
by other trees in showers. No trees Animals – reduce heat loss
the canopy. Many reptiles rabbits, deer, Small mammals
Buttress roots like snakes and mice, foxes, – lemming, hare,
supporting huge lizards. bears, wolves vole
tall trees. Animals are Predators –
Shallow roots nocturnal to arctic fox, polar
access nutrients at avoid harsh bear
soil surface. daytime temp. Permafrost –
Drip tips – leaves Camels have frozen ground
have pointed tips fat to which prevents
that allow water to metabolise plant growth
drip off water and except for when
preventing fungus hooves so feet it defrosts in
growth. don’t sink in summers.
sand.
 IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 10
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

Animals live high Widespread

in the canopy, roots close to
closer to food. the surface to
Very high avail rain
biodiversity showers.
Short plants to
be resistant
against harsh
winds.
Animals have
less fur and few
sweat glands to
reduce water
loss.

PRODUCTI Very high due to Primary and Low at Very high – Very low – low
VITY evergreen trees, secondary 600g/m2/year lower than temperatures
fast rates of productivity rainforests due and insolation
photosynthesis, are both low to cold winters lead to slow
respiration and because of that hinder plant photosynthesis,
decomposition. scarcity of growth respiration and
water leading decomposition.
to inability to
build biomass
in plants.
HUMAN Farming – Excess Cultivation of Urbanisation Mining and oil
ACTIVITY pastoral, slash- agriculture cereal crops and agriculture development
and-burn, leads to Keeping livestock wiping out disturb the
plantation. salinization of Overgrazing/over species. fragile
Mining for iron soils, cultivation could Poaching landscape.
ore, gold, copper preventing lead to Logging Impacts of
Building roads plant growth. desertification Mining global warming
and railways Overgrazing, and climate
Building dams overcultivation change.
Logging and drought on
Tourism desert margins
Poaching can lead to
All of the above desertification,
lead to where the
deforestation. desert spreads
to other
regions.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 11
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

• SUCCESSION
o Succession is a process by which a community undergoes orderly changes from
the simple pioneer community to the complex, final climax community.
o TYPES
§ Primary succession is a type of succession that starts with a bare,
inorganic surface where soil has not yet formed.
§ Secondary succession is a type of succession where soil has already
formed but the community has been destroyed and the community has
to regenerate.

o PROCESS OF PRIMARY SUCCESSION

Stage Description
Bare, inorganic An abiotic environment is available for plants and animals to colonise.
surface Soil is usually poor with only some mineral particles, few nutrients
and unstable water supply.
1: Colonisation The first species to colonise and inhabit the area are called pioneer
species.
They are well adapted to extreme conditions. They may be lichens
(formed from algae and fungi). They grow on rocks and can break it
down to add nutrients to the soil.
Pioneer species are small and have short life cycles, rapid growth and
produce many offspring. These are the characteristics of a type of
species called r-selected species.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 12
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

Simple soil can form from dust blown in by wind and some mineral
particles. Seeds can be brought by wind, birds and spores.
2: Establishment Species diversity increases. Invertebrates and bacteria enter the area
and add humus (nutrients) content to the soil, and increase its water
retention capacity.
Weathering of the rock enriches the soil with nutrients.
Herbs and annual plants grow at this stage.
3: Competition New species begin to colonise the area and taller plants begin to grow,
providing cover and shelter to species called K-selected species.
Temperatures, sun and wind become less extreme.
Pioneer species are often wiped out by the new species – they are
unable to compete with the new species.
4: Stabilisation There are fewer new species as the late colonisers become established
and earlier ones die out. Complex food webs begin to develop.
K-selected species have more specific niches. They are larger and less
productive, with longer life cycles and reproduction periods.
Climax The climax community is the maximum possible development
Community reachable by a community under the best conditions of temperature,
sunlight and rainfall. It is stable and exists in a dynamic steady-state
equilibrium.
It depends on the climatic conditions that prevail in an area – it is NOT
NECESSARY that there are many tall trees at this stage. Different
climax communities exist for different biomes.

o PROCESS OF SECONDARY SUCCESSION

§ Secondary succession could occur after a natural disaster like a forest
fire, which damages soil and plant life.
§ Organisms colonies any habitable areas. They use the remaining
nutrients in the soil to grow.
§ Seeds may be brought in by wind and birds.
§ This leads to the growth of short plants and shrubs, followed by short
trees and then taller ones that eventually form a climax community.
§ The growth of the plants brings in animal communities, forming
complex feeding relationships.
§ It is basically the same process as primary succession, but beginning at
around Stage 2 instead of with a bare organic surface.

o DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SUCCESSION

Factor Primary Succession Secondary Succession
Type of Inorganic, lifeless environment An area recently deprived of
environment devoid of any form of life vegetation that was previously
inhabited
Time period Very long – decades or centuries Shorter – a few years
Soil Absence of soil that can sustain life, Soil is damaged, but is still present.
or no soil at all
Humus content None since there is no soil Some humus remains in the soil
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 13
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

Pioneer External colonisers brought by wind, Develops from the previous

communities birds, etc. inhabitants of the area and migrant
species.
Favourableness Hostile to life and unfavourable Always favourable to life.
of the
environment

o CHANGES DURING SUCCESSION

§ Size of organisms increases from lichens to small shrubs and eventually
trees, creating a more hospitable environment
§ Energy flows become more complex
§ Increase in soil’s
• Depth
• Humus content
• Water retention capacity
• Mineral content
• Nutrient cycling rate
§ Biodiversity increases as more niches appear and trees get taller, and
falls as climax community is reached.
§ Net primary productivity and gross primary productivity first rise with
increasing amounts of plants, then fall as respiration decreases.
§ Productivity is low at first because there are very few plants, rises are
more plants grow and levels out when the climax community is reached.
• ZONATION
o Zonation is a change in community along an environmental gradient due to
factors like changes in altitude, latitude, tidal level or distance from
shore/coverage by water.
o ZONATION is caused by
an abiotic gradient like
altitude, while
SUCCESSION is caused by
progressive changes over
time.
o ZONATION occurs in one
place at one time, while
SUCCESSION takes place
over a long time.

o BOUNDARY LIMITS ALONG MOUNTAINS

§ Temperature – decreases with altitude and latitude, determines what
species can live there
§ Precipitation – largely at middle altitudes on mountains, and at higher
altitude air is too cold and dry for rainfall and trees
§ Solar insolation – intense at higher altitudes and plants adapt
accordingly
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 14
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

§ Soil type – in warmer zones, decomposition is faster making soils deeper

and more fertile. At high altitudes, it is colder with slow decomposition
and soils can be acidic and infertile.
• CHARACTERISTICS OF K- AND r-STRATEGISTS
r-strategists K-strategists
Short life cycles Long life
Rapid growth Slow growth
Early maturity Late maturity
Many small offspring Fewer but larger offspring
Little parental care and protection Parental care and protection
Adapted to extreme environments Adapted to stable environments
Pioneers, colonisers Found in the later stages of succession
No specific niche – niche generalists Specific niches
Lower trophic levels Higher trophic levels
e.g. invertebrates, fish, annual plants e.g. trees, humans, mammals

2.5. Investigating Ecosystems: Practical Work

(Note: A short range of important methods are mentioned here which were taught at my
school and are tested more often. However, there are others in the syllabus and in
textbooks, so do go through these to get a complete perspective on this chapter and on
methods to use for your internal assessment.)

• QUADRATS
o A quadrat is a frame of a specific size which may be divided into subsections. They
may be of 1m2, 10m2, etc.
o The size of the quadrat is chosen depending on the size of the organisms being
sampled.
o How to place quadrats:
§ Random quadrats can be placed by throwing them on the ground – however,
this can be dangerous and may not actually be random.
§ Conventionally, the area of study is mapped and a grid is drawn over it.
Each square of the grid in numbered, and a random number table is used to
identify which squares (i.e. regions of the area of study) will be sampled.
o After this is done, reach the area of study and go to the squares marked in your map.
Count the number of species (if possible) or estimate how many squares of the
quadrat are filled up by the species.
o Record this number and repeat the process at the other chosen locations in the area
of study.
o Tabulate the data and take an average of it.
o IF AREA IS USED: estimate the area of one square of the quadrat and multiply it
by the number of squares covered by the species. For half covered squares, multiply
the number by 2, for one-fourth covered, multiply by 4.
o Repeat this at other sites and find the average area covered.

• TRANSECTS
o A transect is a sample path/line/strip along which one records the occurrence
and/or distribution of plants and animals in a particular study area.
o Continuous and systematic sampling is conducted along transects.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 15
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

o Can be used to observe zonation or changes in species as one moves farther away
from a source of pollution, and so on.
o 3 to 5 transects must be combined to obtain sufficient data.
o TYPES OF TRANSECTS
§ Line transect – a string or measuring tape laid out in the direction of the
environmental gradient. Species touching the string/tape are counted
§ Belt transect – a strip of chosen width. It may be made by laying two line
transects at a certain distance apart, and counting individuals within the area
§ Continuous transect – where the whole transect line is sampled
§ Interrupted transect – samples are taken at points along the transect. These
are usually at regular intervals (e.g. every 5m) – a form of systematic
sampling. Quadrats may also be used along a belt transect.

• LINCOLN INDEX (CAPTURE-MARK-RELEASE-RECAPTURE)

o This is used to estimate the total population of a species – usually for slow-moving
animals. It is more difficult to use the Lincoln Index for more mobile animals.
o Method:
§ Establish the area of study.
§ Capture a sample of the population. (The methods vary depending on the
size of the animals.)
§ Mark the captured animals and count how many have been marked.
• This must be done in a harmless way that does not expose the
individuals to more predation by making them more visible than
non-marked individuals.
• Non-toxic paint of a subtle colour must be used.
§ Release the captured individuals into the environment and allow time for
them to mix with the rest of the population.
§ Take a second sample in the same way as the first: count the number of
organisms captured. Count how many among those captured are marked.
§ Use the formula:
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑑 × 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
Where:
First marked – the number of individuals you marked the first time you
captured the individuals
Second capture – the total number of individuals you caught the second
time you captured the individuals
First marked recaptured – the number of individuals out of the second
capture that were marked
o Assumptions (limitations) of this method
§ Mixing is complete – marked individuals are evenly spread throughout the
population.
§ Marks do not disappear.
§ Marks are not harmful and do not increase predation by making the
individual more easily seen.
§ It is equally easy to catch all individuals.
§ No emigration, immigration, births or deaths have taken place in the
population between sampling times.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 16
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

§ Trapping the organisms does not affect their chances of being trapped again.

• SIMPSON’S DIVERSITY INDEX

o Species diversity is the number of different species and the relative number of
individuals of each species.
o Diversity is expressed as a number – the higher it is, the greater the species diversity.
This makes it possible to compare ecosystems and observe the change over time.
o In this index, 1 is the lowest value, meaning there is just 1 species.
o FORMULA
𝑁(𝑁 − 1)
𝐷 =
∑ 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)

Where D = diversity index

N = Total number of organisms of ALL species found
n = number of individuals from ONE species.
∑ 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) means the number of individuals of species A x no. of individuals in species A
-1 + the same for species B + the same for species C and for as many species are there.
EXAMPLE.
Species No. of organisms
A 25
B 24
C 21
N = 25 + 24 + 21 = 70

70 × 69
𝐷 = = 3.07
(25 × 24) + (24 × 23) + (21 × 20)

o A high value of D indicates a very diverse and stable ecosystem.

o Low values of D are found in disturbed ecosystems. Pollution also causes low
values of D.

• DICHOTOMOUS KEY
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 17
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

o This involves constructing a key using observable features of organisms to identify

them, using sets of two characteristics each.

• DISSOLVED OXYGEN
o Temperatures – higher temperatures mean lower concentrations of dissolved
oxygen. Marine organisms rely on dissolved oxygen, thus, changes in
temperature impact the marine ecosystem.
o Water pollution – pollution can cause lower oxygen concentrations and
problems for marine organisms.
o Methods
§ Oxygen-selective electrode – it is attached to an electronic meter and
put in the water to measure oxygen content. It gives quick results, but
must be well-maintained for accuracy.
§ Winkler titration – Chemicals are added to the water sample and the
oxygen in the water reacts with iodine to form a golden-brown
precipitate. Acid is added to release the iodide which is measured and is
proportional to the amount of oxygen. This takes more time.
IB Environmental Systems and Societies SL 18
Topic 2: Ecosystems and Ecology
Shreya Mozumdar

• TEMPERATURE, SALINITY, pH
o Temperature is measured with a thermometer.
o Salinity is measured by measuring the electrical conductivity or density of water.
o pH is measured with a pH metere.

• TURBIDITY
o Turbidity is the cloudiness of a body of water.
o Secchi disc is a black and white disc attached to a graduated rope.
§ Lower the disc until it disappears from view.
§ Read the depth from the graduated rope.
§ Raise the disc until it is just visible.
§ Read the depth from the graduated rope.
§ Calculate the average depth, called the Secchi depth.
o Other concerns
§ Stand or sit in the boat always.
§ Wear glasses always, or work without then.
§ Work on the shady side of the boat.
§ Repeat the process 3-5 times and take an average of all the Secchi depths
you get.

• FLOW VELOCITY
o This is the speed at which water is flowing.
o METHODS
§ Flow meter – this is an electric meter that measures the speed of the
water. They are expensive and may be unreliable due to problems of
mixing electricity with water.
§ Impellers – mechanical devices
• Mount the impeller on a graduated stick and put the base on the
bed of the river/stream. Its height can be adjusted to measure
velocity at different depths.
• Hold the impeller at the end of the side arm and lower it into the
water facing upstream.
• The time taken for the impeller to travel the distance of the side
arm is measured.
• Repeat 3-5 times for accuracy.
• It can only be used in clear and shallow water as the impeller
must be seen.