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U.P. NATSCI 1 Module
U.P. NATSCI 1 Module
Science I
Zenaida B. Domingo
(Physics)
Apart from any fair use for the purpose of research or private study,
criticism or review, this publication may be reproduced, stored
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ONLY WITH THE WRITTEN PERMISSION
of the author and the University of the Philippines Open University.
The development and preparation of this module was made possible by a grant
from Metrobank Foundation, Inc.
1
Ancient Views
About the Universe
INTRODUCTION
Science is not unique to the modern world. Historians of science trace the
beginnings of scientific thought to many centuries ago, when individuals engaged
in some kind of theorizing about the nature of life and the universe. These early
notions about matter and motion affected important aspects of life at the time. For
instance, hunting, sowing and reaping seasons were scheduled on the basis of the
positions of the sun, moon and stars.
In this module, we will look at some of the major early theories, models and
concepts about the nature of the universe of which we are a part. Knowing these
theories, models and concepts will help us understand the modern theories of the
universe that have supplanted them and which now form the cornerstone of
modern Physics.
OBJECTIVES
Some of the ancients’ theories about how the position and motion of heavenly
bodies affect human life were logical. Others were pure fancy. The latter
constitutes what we now know as astrology.
Astronomy, on the other hand, is an empirical science which studies the universe
through observations, with mathematical calculations, to predict the position and
behavior of heavenly bodies and how they affect human lives.
SAQ 1-1
Below are sentences about celestial bodies. In the blank after each item, indicate
whether the sentence belongs to astrology or to astronomy.
ASAQ 1-1
1. Astrology 2. Astronomy 3. Astronomy
NET
PLA
MOON
EARTH NET
PLA
spheres
(perfect, crystal,
transparent)
The earth-centered universe was the most natural model during Ptolemy’s time
because the earth with respect to its inhabitants seemed steady, solid and
immobile. The other elements—i.e., the moon, planets, sun, stars, etc.—were seen
to be moving, rising and setting each day. Ptolemy’s geocentric model gave rise
to the so-called “Music of the Spheres” where planets go around the earth affixed
to spheres, indirectly attached through off-center wheels—as the sphere turns, the
wheel rotates, seemingly inspiring a music all its own.
2. The Earth-centered model was supported by the Church which prevented the
advance of astronomy for a millennium.
EARTH
SUN
CIRCULAR
ORBITS
SAQ 1-2
1. Describe Ptolemy’s Geocentric Model of the universe. Why was it the
most natural model during his time?
ASAQ 1-2
1. During Ptolemy’s time, people on earth could observe the sun,
moon, stars and other heavenly bodies, seemingly moving around the
earth, changing positions at equal time intervals during the seasons and
years. Hence, it was very easy and logical to conclude that the earth
was the center of the universe.
SAQ 1-3
What were the effects of the Copernican revolution?
ASAQ 1-3
The Copernican Revolution had two effects:
b) It had a negative effect on the Catholic Church which did not support
it, thereby preventing the advance of astronomy in the next one
thousand years.
2
The Emergence of Physics
INTRODUCTION
The emergence of Physics was marked by the description of the motion of the
planets by Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion. This was followed by Galileo’s
concepts of motion: velocity, acceleration, free fall and relativity. Galileo’s
experiments also ushered in the New Scientific Method.
OBJECTIVES
Kepler’s God was the creative power of the cosmos, the Geometer whose hand
was very evident in the universe. He embraced the Heliocentric Model, and made
the Sun his metaphor for God, around whom everything revolves.
Kepler’s major work consists of what are now known as Kepler’s Laws of
Planetary Motion. They are discussed one by one below.
A1
SUN
A2
Δt 2
If T = period = time for one complete revolution around the sun and r = mean distance
then, the Law of Periods may be written as:
(Equation 2-1) T2 ∝ r3
↓
(Eq. 2-2) T = C r3 where C = constant
2
⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
(Eq. 2-3) C = ⎜⎜ T ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ T ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ T ⎟⎟
⎜ r3 ⎟ ⎜ r3 ⎟ ⎜ r3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ Earth ⎝ ⎠ Mars ⎝ ⎠ Saturn, etc.
Kepler also had to abandon the circular orbits proposed by Pythagoras, Plato,
Ptolemy, Copernicus, and all other Christian astronomers. The circle stood for the
perfect geometrical shape. But Kepler had to abandon the Divine Geometer idea.
In his book, Harmonies of the World, Kepler described the order and beauty of
planetary motion. Mathematical laws were able to explain such motion, with the
inner planets moving more rapidly and the outer planets exhibiting slower and
more stately motion. Indeed, planetary motion was like a celestial machine with
clockwork precision.
SAQ 2-1
1. Suppose you are given the following data:
T(Mercury) = 88 days
R = radius
m = meters
ASAQ 2-1
Given: TMercury = 88 days
⎛T 2 ⎞ ⎛T 2 ⎞
Eq. 1-3: C = ⎜⎜ R 3 ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ R 3 ⎟⎟ = CONSTANT
⎝ ⎠ Earth ⎝ ⎠ Mercury
2 3 2 3
TE R M = TM R E
TE = 133444.09 (days) 2
TE = 365.3 days
m m m
m A A B A B
0 0 0
System0 Mass m displaced Mass m released Mass m swings from
At Rest from 0 → A From A → 0 → B B→0→A
Figure 2-2
Other terms related to vibratory or simple harmonic motion (SHM) are the
following:
1
In general:
T= where T (sec)
f
f (sec-1, cycles per second, cps, Hz (hertz)
Eq. 2-4
A → cm., inches, m, etc.
L
T = 2π g
Eq. 2-5
where:
T = period of motion
L = length
g = acceleration due to gravity
SAQ 2-2
A 1-meter pendulum executes 0.5 cps. Find the acceleration due to gravity, “g”
in the locality.
ASAQ 2-2
Given: L = 1 meter (length)
f = 0.5 cps (cycles/sec) = frequency
L 1 1
Eq. 2-5: T = 2π g ; T= f = =2
0.5
Square both sides of Eq. 2-5:
L
2 2
T = 4π g
m Acceleration due
g = 9.86 to gravity in
sec 2 the locality
Ym YM
m M
If Ym = YM and both stones are released from rest at the same instant, then the
time to reach the ground will be the same for both stones—i.e., tm = tM.M and m
are called freely falling bodies. They are free of the action of any force except the
pull of gravity. When a stone is tied to a string, displaced from equilibrium
position and released from rest, it travels through a curved due to the combined
effect of the string and the pull of gravity.
Galileo’s observations and experiments also gave rise to the following statements
and equations:
1. The total distance is proportional to the square of the time (or double
proportional to time)—i.e., for v 0 = 0,
y ∝ t2 → d = (constant) t2
⎛1 ⎞ 2
d = ⎜ 2 g ⎟t
⎝ ⎠
1
(Eq. 2-9): y = gt2
2
where = total distance traveled
t = time
a = acceleration
v ∝ t → v = (constant) t
(Eq. 2-10) V = gt
SAQ 2-3
A ball is released from rest from a bridge and reaches the bottom in 5 seconds.
How high was the bridge?
ASAQ 2-3
Given:
A
released from rest (Vo = 0)
height
of = y
bridge
t A B = 5 seconds
B
Fig. 10-7
1 2
y = Vot 0 + gt
2
1 245
y= (9.8 m/s2) (5s2)2 = m
2 2
Vo = Vox; Voy = 0
Vx = Vox
y=h Vx = Vox
Vx = Vox
x=R x
Vo = Vox = CONSTANT
4. As the projectile travels down through its trajectory (parabolic path due to
gravitational effect), when it strikes the ground,
Hence, projectiles exhibit constant velocity along the horizontal and accelerated
motion along the vertical. The net effect is the curved, parabolic path.
V, Vy = 0
Vy V Vx
Vx
Vx V
Vy V -Vy
Vx
Ymax
Vx V
Vy = Voy V Vy
Vx
x
0 Vx = Vox
x=R
max Vy
V
Figure 2-6
SAQ 2-4
A book slides off a horizontal table top with a speed of 3.0 m/s, striking the
floor in 0.6 sec.
2.What is the horizontal distance from the edge of the table to the point where
the book strikes the floor?
ASAQ 2-4
Given: Book slides off horizontal table.
Sketch System:
A Vo = Vox
BOOK
0 x B
Figure 2-8
1 2 1 1
a) y = Voyt − gt = 0 − gt 2 = 0 − (9.8 m/sec2) (0.6 sec)2
2 2 2
y = −1.764m , ⊝ sign implies down (↓) from the table
SAQ 2-5
What is the possible effect of air resistance in the motion of a baseball which
follows the path of a general type of projectile?
ASAQ 2-5
In general, especially for high speed systems (baseball, golf ball, etc), air
resistance is NOT NEGLIGIBLE. Because the surrounding air particles offer
resistance, which in general, is proportional to the square of a particle’s speed,
the net effects are the following:
No
Air Resistance
x
0
With
Air Resistance
-y
Figure 2-9
RELATIVITY
Galileo was the first relativistic physicist.
I. SHIP at REST:
B Vo
If a ball is
released from the
ship’s mast with
an initial
horizontal
velocity, Vo, it
A P will travel the
path of a
R projectile and
will hit point P,
at a distance R
from A.
Figure 2-10
B Vo
If this experiment were performed inside a closed cabin in the ship’s interior, it
would be impossible to find out whether the ship is at anchor or moving across
the sea. THIS IS GALILEO’S RELATIVITY. This principle was extended by
Einstein to the case of optical and electromagnetic phenomena, as observed in a
closed, uniformly moving cabin.
In contrast to these results, Aristotle earlier theorized that a ball released from rest
will fall vertically downward and will hit the moving ship closer to the stern.
Nobody bothered to check his results/theory by actual experimentation. All
conclusions at the time were based on debate, philosophy, etc.
1. The surface of the moon is not perfect but full of inequalities, hollows and
peaks just like the earth.
3. The stars are blazes of light shooting out beams (sources of light).
4. Jupiter has three stars (moon) moving around it, as Venus and Mercury move
around the sun.
These observations prove that the Copernican System (which posits that the sun,
not the earth, is the center of the universe) was correct.
However, the reactions of the government and the Church were extremely harsh.
Galileo was arrested by the Holy Inquisition and went through long periods of
solitary confinement. He was made to confess and renounce his “heretic”
works/theories. He was placed under house arrest. He died on January 8, 1642,
completely blind and tired of life.
3
Newton’s Mechanical
Synthesis
INTRODUCTION
“Nature and Natures’ Laws lay hid in the night. God said, Let Newton be! and all
was light.”
(Alexander Pope 1688-1744)
OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCING NEWTON
Isaac Newton was born in Lincolnshire, London in 1642. He was educated at the
Trinity College and the University of Cambridge.
The Great Plague cut short Newton’s studies at the University. But while others
considered the Great Plague as a break in their education, Newton’s 18 months in
Lincolnshire were the most productive in his life.
During the Great Plague, Isaac Newton formulated and pioneered work on the
following:
1. Binomial Theorem
2. Differential and Integral Calculus
3. The Theory of Colors
4. Method of Tangents
5. Gravitation
1. Laws of Motion
2. Theory of Universal Gravitation (Planetary Motion)
3. Optical studies on Dispersion, Reflection and Refraction
4. Publication of the PRINCIPIA: Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy.
At age 26, Newton was a full professor at the University of Cambridge. At age 30,
he was a Fellow of the Royal Society. Sir Isaac Newton was knighted in 1705. He
died in 1727 at the age of 85.
NEWTON’S PRINCIPIA
Newton’s Principia utilizes the mechanistic philosophy in the interpretation of all
physical phenomena. Under mechanics, the study of forces and their effects on
objects, work, energy and momentum are identified.
(IA) AN OBJECT AT
REST STAYS AT
REST ACTED UPON
BY AN
UNLESS EXTERNAL
FORCE
(IB) AN OBJECT IN
MOTION
CONTINUES TO
TRAVEL WITH
CONSTANT
VELOCITY
BOX
SAQ 3-1
1) Give your own examples (two) of systems at rest.
2) Give your own examples (two) of systems moving with constant velocity.
ASAQ 3-1
1. Give two examples of systems at rest.
a)
b)
Package M suspended
from a line attached to
the ceiling.
ASAQ 3-1
a)
Fd (drag force)
Fd = - Fg
Fg (gravitational
force)
b)
A wagon with child being pulled by the father at a constant rate, assuming
friction less pavement.
ΣF = ma
a = acceleration
1 dyne ⇒ the amount of force needed to accelerate a 1-g object at the rate
of 1 cm/s2
a = acceleration
m = mass
IIA → a along ΣF
IIB → a α ΣF
1
IIC → a α
m
Examples:
Solution: Under the same force, the ratio of the masses varies inversely as the
ratio of accelerations.
a1 m
= 2 for constant/same force
a2 m1
Find: a) m1
F1 3N
Solution: F1 = m1a1 → m1 = = = 1.5 kg
a1 2m / s 2
b) If F2 = 4N, a2 = ?
F2 4N
F2 = m2a2 → a2 = = = 2.67m/s2
a2 1.5kg
m2 a1 5m / s 2
F = ma ⇒ = =
m1 a2 11m / s 2
5 5
Solve for m2 = m2 m1 = (1 kg) = 0.45 kg.
11 11
SAQ 3-2
A force of 15N is applied to a mass m. The mass moves in a straight line with
its speed increasing by 10 m/s every two seconds. Find the mass m.
ASAQ 3-2
Given: F = 15 N
ΔV 10m / s m
a=
Δt 2s
=5 2
s
F = ma (2nd Law)
F 15 N
M = = = 3kg
a 5m / s 2
“Forces of interaction between two objects are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.”
3. Both action and reaction forces occur simultaneously. Either can be called the
action and the other the reaction.
4. Action and reaction forces ACT ON DIFFERENT OBJECTS, hence they can
never balance each other.
N′
W′
W ⇒ force acting downward on the block due to the attraction of the earth
W1 Ƹ W
ACTION – REACTION FORCES
N1 Ƹ − N
T′
W T
F
f
N
SAQ 3-3
Given: Picture frame supported by two wires as shown.
ASAQ 3-3
T2 T1
W = mg
Fg = ma but Fg = W
a = g
then Fg = W = mg
gravitational
field
SUN EARTH
(g )
Sun sets up
a gravitational ( g s ) produces
field around it a force on earth
(gs )
Similarly:
Earth produces
a gravitational ( g ) exerts a
E
Properties of momentum ( p ):
m cm
2) Units mv → kg - ; gm -
s s
P = ΣM i Vi = M 1V1 + M 2 V2 + . . . = CONSTANT
V3
V1
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + …
M1
M3
M2 = CONSTANT
V2
wooden
block
at rest M1 + M2
bullet
(M1) V1 M2 V12
8000
m/s = V12
400
20 m/s = V12
towards right
1) Recoil of guns:
MB
VB
MR VR
P T ( BF ) = P T ( AF )
M B V OB + M R V OR = M BV B + M RV R
0 0
∴ − M RV R = M BV B
Velocity of rifle
⎛ MB ⎞
opposite velocity → V R = −⎜ ⎟ VB
⎝ MR ⎠
of bullet
2) Explosions:
In general: M B >> M R
V R << V B
y
M1 original path
M of projectile (bomb)
M2
x
0
F WF = F x d
f
Wf = -fd F along d
d
W & F, W & d → if d = 0 → W = 0
if F opposite d → W = − Fd
Special Cases if F along d → W = + Fd
if F ⊥ d → W = 0
W
P=
t
Units: W = Fd P = w/t
joule
MKS nt – m = joule = watt
sec
CGS dyne – cm = erg
1 kw = 1000 watts
1 hp = 746 watts = .746 kw
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
For a conservative system (no friction), the total mechanical energy is constant.
Example: (1)
1
v = 0 (B) KE = mv2 = 0
2
(A) → h = 0, PE = mgh = 0
1
ME A = (PE + KE) A = KEmax = mv2max
2
0
ME A = ME B = ME C . . . .
Example: (2)
Simple Pendulum
PE A = mgh; KE A = 0
ME A = ME B
0 0
v=0 0 PE A + KE A = PE B + KE B
v=
C h=0 A
h 1
mgh = mv B 2
B 2
PE B = 0, KE B =
1
MVB
2 v B 2 = 2gh → v B = 2 gh (max. speed)
2
ΔV Δ(M V) ΔP
Fnet = ma = m = =
Δt Δt Δt
ΔP
∴ Fnet = TIME RATE OF CHANGE OF MOMENTUM
Δt
F21 F12 M 1M 2
M1 M2 F∝
d2
d
M 1M 2
F = (constant)
d2
G M 1M 2
F=
d2
G
1) Terrestrial Bodies:
M
'
M
G M 1M 2
F= M1 = ME
RE d2
M2 = M
earth G MM E
ME
Mg = 2
d2 = RE2
RE
F = wt. = mg
GM E
(1) GE = 2
→
RE
GM M
GM = 2
RM
since MM < ME
RM < RE
GM < GE
MGM < MGE
(wt)M < (wt) M
∴ We float in the moon!
But Einstein’s theory of relativity showed that space and time are not
absolute; THEY ARE RELATIVE! More on this later in the course.
4
The Unification of Electricity,
Magnetism and Light
INTRODUCTION
Electric charges and electrical interactions are one of nature’s fundamental classes
of interactions. Electrostatic interactions are governed by Coulomb’s law and are
most conveniently described using the concept of electric field. Electrostatic
interactions hold atoms, molecules and our bodies together, but they are also
constantly trying to tear apart the nuclei of the atom. Electrical and magnetic
phenomena gave rise to the so-called Electromagnetic Theory, Faraday’s law of
Induction, and Maxwell’s electromagnetic synthesis. Hence the unification of
electricity, magnetism and light.
OBJECTIVES
The protons and neutrons in an atom make up a small, very dense core called the
NUCLEUS (~ 10-15m). Surrounding the nucleus are the electrons. The number of
protons or electrons in neutral atoms of any element is called the ATOMIC
NUMBER of the element. If one or more electrons are removed, the remaining
positively charged structure is called a POSITIVE ION. A NEGATIVE ION is an
atom that has gained one or more electrons. Shown below is an example of the
neutral Lithium atom, a positive Lithium ion and a negative Lithium ion.
Fig. 1 (a) the neutral Li atom has three protons in its nucleus and three electrons.
(b) A positive ion is made by removing an electron from a neutral atom. (c) A
negative ion is made by adding an electron to a neutral atom. (The electron
“orbits” are a schematic representation of the actual electron distribution, actually
a diffuse cloud many times larger than the nucleus.)
⊕⊕ ⊕ ⊕ ⊖ ⊖
⊕attracts⊖ ⊕repels⊕ ⊖repels⊖
(a) F ∝ q1, q2
q1 q2
r
1
(b) F ∝
r2
q1 q 2 q1 q 2
(a) ε′ (b) F ∝ → F = (constant) (1)
r2 r2
q1 q 2
F=k q1, q2 → charges
r2
r → separation distance
k = electrostatic constant
k = 9 x 109 N-m2 /coul2
ATTRACTIVE REPULSIVE
SAQ 4-1
Give three examples of electric – charge interactions.
1)
2)
3)
ASAQ 4-1
1)
After rubbing:
ASAQ 4-1
2)
glass rods
silk
After rubbing:
3) plastic rod ⊖
glass rod ⊕
+q +q1 +q -q1
SAQ 4-2
1. Two equal point charges of + 3.0 x 10-6 C are placed 0.60m apart. What is
the magnitude of the force each exerts on the other?
ASAQ 12-2
1) Use Coulomb’s Law.
⎛ N −M2 ⎞
⎜⎜ 9 x10 9 ⎟⎟(+3.0 x10 −6 C )(+3.0 x10 −6 C )
C2
= ⎝ ⎠
kq1 q 2
F=
r2 (0.6m) 2
81x10 −3 N − M 2
F= = 225 x 10-3 N or .225 N
0.36M 2
2)
F21 F12
+q1 +q2
Q coulomb
I= = AMPERE
t sec
(VD) Charges move
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT:
ε → seat of emf (electromotive force);
I → supplies electric energy
→ maintains steady voltage and current
+
ε R
V = IR V = voltage (volts)
I = current (ampere)
V∝I R = resistance (ohm)
magnetic
lines of
force B (magneticfield)
magnetic lines
of force
I
I
EMF SOURCE
(electromotive force)
Moving charges give rise to magnetic fields. Magnetic fields exert forces on
conductors that are carrying currents. These forces operate electric motors,
moving coil galvanometers and many other devices.
Electric Magnetic
Current Field
(Moving Charges)
I B
where B = magnetic field; region around a magnet; or
current-carrying wire
S N
Magnet
Conducting
Wire
I I
Solenoid
Magnetic dipole
“The induced emf in a circuit is directly proportional to the time rate of change of
magnetic flux through the circuit.”
V I
S N
V I
S N
Other Properties:
⎛ B⎞ ⎛F ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ B⎠
B
B
FB
θ
θ
+q -q
V
V
FB
FB = q v B sin θ
V = velocity (m/s)
q = charge (coul)
Properties of FB:
1) FB ∝q ∝ = directly proportional
2) FB ∝ v
Case 1: If V II B , θ = 0 → FB = 0
Case 2: If V opposite B , θ = 1800 → FB = 0
Case 3: If V ⊥ B , θ = 900, FB = q vB (max.)
MECHANICS EM
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:
1) Generated by EM disturbances
2) Same speeds : c = 3x 108 m/sec (vacuum)
3) Different wavelength and frequencies.
1023 10-14
1022 10-13
1021 Gamma Rays 10-12
1020 10-11
1019 10-10
X - rays
1018 10-9
1017 10-8
1016 Ultraviolet 10-7
1015 10-6
VISIBLE
1014 10-5
1013 Infrared 10-4
1012 10-3
1011 10-2
1010 10-1
Short Radio Waves
109 1
108 TV & FM Radio 101
107 102
AM Radio
106 103
105 104
104 105
Long Radio Waves
103 106
102 107
101
Frequency, Hz Wavelength, m
2) Exhibit:
N′
A B
n θi θr
n′
where
θi = angle of incidence N
θr = angle of reflection
C
Law of Reflection: θi = θr
n = index of refraction
Green
different colors
t
ligh Yellow
ite
wh
Orange
Red
S1
S2
1) Absorption
2) Reflection
3) Scattering
4) Birefringence
5
Einstein’s Relativistic
Revolution
INTRODUCTION
Who hasn’t heard of Albert Einstein? His name is synonymous with “genius.”
Whiz kids are called Einstein by admiring friends and acquaintances.
Einstein was a brilliant, hardworking man who could work even in the simplest
environment. His primary objective was to formulate a principle or law that
would relate mechanics and electromagnetisim, space and time, mass and energy.
At age 26, Einstein wrote the “Special Theory of Relativity” and after 23 years, at
age 49, he finished the “General Theory of Relativity.”
OBJECTIVES
E
Electromagnetic waves
Sound Waves
B Ether Medium
Z
String Medium
Figure 1
ETHER is considered as the medium that supports the propagation of light and
other electromagnetic waves. For this to be possible, ether must have the
following properties:
Scientists believe that it is possible to determine the velocity of the earth relative
to the ether. The Michelson – Morley Interferometer was designed to verify the
motion of the earth in the ether through “interference fringes.” All
experiments/tests proved negative ⎯ i.e., no interference fringes were detected.
In other words, THE EARTH DOES NOT MOVE RELATIVE TO THE ETHER
or THERE IS NO ETHER.
SAQ 5-1
What is the Michelson-Morley Experiment? Did it achieve its objective?
Why/why not?
ASAQ 5-1
The Michelson-Morley Experiment tried to prove the existence of the ether
medium which supports wave motion. The Experiment proved that there is no
ether.
POSTULATE II: The speed of light is independent of the motion of the source.
Postulates I and II seem reasonable but the implications are quite surprising and
even contradict common sense.
APPLICATION: POSTULATE I
Juan Maria
A v=0 A v
For Juan who is at rest, Maria is moving away from him with speed + V . To
Maria, Juan is moving away from her with speed - V . This proves that the motion
of persons / things depend on the state of the observer. This will also explain the
motion of a freely falling body as predicted by Galileo’s experiments (recall
previous modules).
APPLICATION: POSTULATE II
⎛ stationary ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ observer O1 ⎠
SLS
(stationary light source)
V
⎛ moving ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ observer O 2 ⎠
⎛ moving ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ observer O1 ⎠
v V
MLS
⎛ stationary ⎞
(moving light source) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ observer O 2 ⎠
From Figure 3A, the speed of light measured by O1 is c = 3x 108 m/s. The speed
of light measured by O2 is not c + v. By Postulate I, Figure 3A is equivalent to
Figure 3B where O2 is at rest and the source and O1 is moving with speed v .
Based on Postulate I (“Absolute motion cannot be detected”), it is not possible to
say which is really moving and which is at rest. On the basis of Postulate II (the
speed of light is independent of the motion of the source), it can be seen that O2
measures the speed of light to be c = 3x 108 m/s, just as O1 does.
SAQ 5-2
Recall the two postulates of the Special Theory of Relativity.
ASAQ 5-2
Postulate I: Absolute, uniform motion cannot be detected.
Postulate II: The speed of light is independent of the motion of the source.
TIME DILATION
The time between events that happen at the same place in a reference frame is
called the PROPER TIME, tp. The time interval Δt measured in any other
reference frame is always longer than the proper time. This expansion is called
TIME DILATION, which is expressed in the following equation:
Δt = ɣΔtp
1
ɣ= 2
1− v
c2
Δt = ɣΔtp
1 1 1
ɣ= = =
1− v
2 2
1 − .49
c 2 1 − (.7c)
c2
1 1
ɣ= = = 1.41
.51 (.71)
Δt = ɣΔtp = (1.41) (1h) = 1.41/h
LENGTH CONTRACTION
A meterstick moving with a velocity comparable with the speed of light, c, along
its length, will have a shorter length when it is measured in the frame in which it
is moving. The following equation is used.
v2
L = ɣ (L0) = 1 − (L0)
c2
L0 = 1m
If v = 0 → L = L0 = 1m
L < 1m
If v < c → L < L0
v~ c → L ~ 0 L=0
V<<C V< C V~ C
SAQ 5-3
A stick that has a proper length of 1m moves in a direction along its length with
speed V relative to you. The length of the stick as measured by you is 0.914m.
What is the speed V?
ASAQ 5-3
V2
L = 1− Lp
C2
2
⎛ L ⎞ V2 ⎛ 0.914m ⎞
2
= 0.835
V = c 1 − 0.835 = 0.406c
Δt = ɣΔtp
All inertial frames are equivalent. Can’t Rosario make exactly the same argument
to conclude that Rosalinda is in fact younger? Then each twin thinks that the other
is younger. That’s a paradox.
To resolve the paradox, it should be recognized that the twins are NOT identical
in all aspects. If Rosalinda remains in an inertial frame, at all times, Rosario must
have an acceleration with respect to inertial frames during part of the trip in order
to turn around and come back.
Planet x
c)
(v ~
Δt x
Earth
Δt p
Rosalinda remains always at rest in the same inertial frame. Rosario does not.
Thus, there is a real physical difference between the circumstances of the two
twins. Rosalinda is correct. When Rosario returns, she is younger than Rosalinda.
This may be verified through the time dilation equation.
(Δt)Rosario
(Δt)Rosalinda = V2
1−
C2
If V ~ .8C, then
(Δt)Rosario
(Δt)Rosalinda =
0.6
Mo
M=
V2
1-
C2
If V < < C → M = Mo
V < C → M > Mo
V → C→ M → ∝
V > C → M (imaginary)
Due to the imaginary mass at breakdown (V > C), the speed of an object cannot
be greater than C. Also, the energy of an object/system depends on the mass and
the velocity indicated as follows:
Mo
E = MC2 where M=
V2
1-
C2
This is the famous mass-energy transformation equation for systems moving with
speed V comparable with the speed of light.
a = -g a = -g
(A) (B)
Uniformly-Accelerated Uniform (Homogeneous)
Reference Frame Gravitational Field
a A = aB = − g (same acceleration)
W A = WB (same weight)
MA = MB (same/equivalent mass)
light a
t1 t2 t3 t4
The beam of light entering the accelerating compartment follows a parabolic path.
Hence, a beam of light will accelerate in a gravitational field, just like objects that
have mass. For example, near the earth’s surface, light will fall with an
acceleration of 9.81 m/s2. In a distance of 3000 km, traversed by light in 0.01sec,
a beam of light will fall about 0.5mm.
BLACK HOLES
Black holes were predicted by Appenheimer and Snyder in 1939. From the
General Theory of Relativity⎯
“If the density of an object such as a star is great enough, its gravitational
attraction will be so great that once inside a critical radius, nothing can
escape, not even light or other electromagnetic radiation… hence, the
black hole.
Giant x-rays
Star
Black hole
SAQ 5-4
What are black holes?
ASAQ 5-4
Black holes are very dense objects (such as star) whose gravitational attraction is
so great such that once inside it, nothing can escape, not even light or other
electromagnetic radiation. Since it absorbs everything, including light, it is
therefore black.
Consequences:
1. MINKOWSKI SPACE
Solid space of three-dimensions is just a part of reality; its fourth dimension is
perceptible as a succession of changes in time.
2. HYPERSPACE (4-d space) CONTINUUM 4. Dimensional space is curved or
cusped slightly around each particle of matter in the direction of the fifth
dimension.
6
The Quantum World of
Uncertainties
INTRODUCTION
From the previous modules you know that Newtonian Physics casts light on a
very deterministic system/world. The position of a particle and waves traveling
through space are both defined and observed. In this module we will explore the
properties of another world ⎯i.e., the quantum world.
OBJECTIVES
COMPARISON OF NEWTONIAN
AND QUANTUM WORLDS
NEWTONIAN QUANTUM
Determinism Indeterminate
Newton used the PARTICLE THEORY of light to explain the laws of reflection
and refraction as shown below:
θ1 θ2
material
medium θ3
LAW OF REFLECTION
θ1 = θ2
Angle of Angle of
Incidence = Reflection
n1sinθ1 = n3sinθ3
c
where n = index of refraction of medium =
v
θ3 = angle of refraction
c = speed of light in vacuum (3 x 105 m/s)
v = speed of light in a medium
In general, v < c
SAQ 6-1
Compare and contrast the Newtonian and the Quantum world.
ASAQ 6-1
The Newtonian World is deterministic and objective. It assumes a clockwork
universe where a particle can be at rest at a precise position. It also assumes that
particles/systems exist even when we don’t directly observe them.
SAQ 6-2
State the Law of Reflection. Illustrate it.
ASAQ 6-2
Newton’s Law of Reflection states that: “The angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection.”
A B
θ1 θ2
incident
ray reflected ray
θ1 = θ2
LAW OF REFLECTION
Example: A beam of light in air hits a water surface at an angle of 30°. If the
index of refraction of air is 1.00 and that of water is 1.33, find the angle of
refraction and the angle of reflection. Show these rays on a diagram.
45° 45°
water-air
boundary
air
θ=?
water
Similarly, the wave nature of light becomes apparent when there are obstacles and
apertures with sizes comparable to the wavelength of light. Figures 2a, 2b and 2c
show examples of the diffraction of light and interference-diffraction
effects/patterns.
Figure (1a)
Maximum
(bright)
Minimum (dark)
Maximum
(bright)
Minimum (dark)
Maximum
(bright)
Maximum
(bright)
Minimum (dark)
Maximum
(bright)
Screen
Figure 2a Figure 2b
Diffraction of light around a Diffraction pattern of a round and
razor blade opaque object in the path of a point
source
Light is both wave and particle. Light is a wave when it travels through space
(exhibiting interference, diffraction, polarization and dispersion); light is a
particle when it interacts with matter (exhibiting reflection, refraction and
transmission). This is the wave-particle duality of light.
SAQ 6-3
When is light a particle and when is it wave?
ASAQ 6-3
Light is both wave and particle. Light is a wave when it travels through
space/medium. Light is a particle when it interacts with matter.
SAQ 6-4
What are the proofs that light is a
1. wave?
2. particle?
ASAQ 6-4
1. Interference, diffraction, polarization, dispersion
2. Reflection, refraction, transmission
BLACKBODY RADIATION:
ORIGIN OF THE QUANTUM
The blackbody is an ideal system that absorbs all radiation incident on it.
Essentially, it is a cavity with a very small opening. Radiation entering the cavity
has little chance of leaving the cavity before it is completely absorbed. The
radiation emitted through the hole is therefore characteristic of the temperature of
the object. Figures 3a and 3b show the blackbody and the spectral distribution of
the characteristic radiation of the blackbody.
Pr
1450 K
1200 K
1000 K
1 2 3 4 5 λ, μm
E = nhf
n = integer
E = energy
f = frequency
If n = 1 En = (1) hf
If n = 2 En = (2) hf
SAQ 6-5
1. What is a blackbody?
ASAQ 6-5
1. A blackbody is an ideal system that absorbs all energy incident on it.
2. Studies on blackbody radiation paved the way for the “Quantization of
Energy.”
QUANTIZED
ENERGY DISCRETE
NOT CONTINUOUS
1. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
I
A
Collector
Light
Grid
V
−
e
+ _
Metal plate V
Light of frequency of scatters from an electron as though the light were a particle
(photons). As in the collision of any two particles, the photon’s energy changes
when the photon scatters, and its frequency changes to f1. In general, the energy
of the scattered photon, E2, is less than the energy of the incident photon, E1. The
particle nature of radiation becomes manifest in the Compton Effect.
SAQ 6-6
What are the proofs of the Quantization of Electromagnetic Radiation?
ASAQ 6-6
1. Photoelectric effect
2. Compton effect
DE BROGLIE WAVES
Since light has both wave and particle properties, then matter (electrons) may also
have wave-like properties.
ELECTRON WAVES:
E
f= (frequency)
h
h
λ= (wavelength)
p
De Broglie Waves utilize the same equations for photons and support Bohr’s
Quantum Theory of the Hydrogen atom.
SAQ 6-7
What are DE BROGLIE WAVES?
ASAQ 6-7
De Broglie waves are the so-called electron waves defined by:
E
f= (frequency)
h
h
λ= (wavelength)
p
ATOMIC SPECTRA
It was discovered early in the 19th century that each element has a certain set of
wavelengths in its line spectrum. As shown below, the spectrum of hydrogen
always contains a certain set of wavelengths; sodium produces a different set; iron
still has another. The identification of elements by their spectra became a useful
analytical technique. The characteristic spectrum of an atom was assumed to be
related to its internal structure.
Screen
Line Spectrum
Other scientists who conducted atomic spectra studies were the following:
SAQ 6-8
What is atomic spectra?
ASAQ 6-8
Atomic spectra consist of a discrete set of lines whose color, spacing and
intensities are properties of the bombarded elements.
α
(a) Alpha particle scattering
through a small angle by
the Thomson atom
(a)
Nucleus
α (b) Alpha particle scattered
through a large angle by
the Rutherford nuclear
atom
(b)
a) Positive charges and most of the atom must be concentrated in a very small
region of nucleus and negatively-charged electron, with very small mass, form
a large cloud about the nucleus (similar to the solar system).
nucleus → sun
electrons → planets
Coulomb force → Gravitational force
SAQ 6-9
What experiment gave the first glimpse of the atomic structure?
ASAQ 6-9
Rutherford’s Scattering Experiment in 1911.
ΔW
Photon frequency: f = → difference between initial and final energy
h
• Since only certain electron orbits are allowed, only certain electron jumps
between orbits can take place → energy of emitted light is QUANTIZED
• Since energy of light is related to color, only specific colors of light are
emitted by atoms.
• Hence, Bohr’s theoretical model of the atom accounts for the existence of
mysterious spectral lines.
0.0 eV
8
7
6
5 Paschen (IR) -0.85 eV
4
-1.51 eV
3
-3.4 eV
Balmer (visible)
2
Lyman Series
(UV)
1 -13.6 eV
ηh
mvr = = ɳђ
2π
SAQ 6-10
Who formulated the Quantum theory of the Hydrogen atom?
ASAQ 6-10
Niels Bohr.
To detect a particle, the detector must INTERACT with it; and this interaction
unavoidably changes the state of motion of the particle, introducing uncertainty
about its original state. These uncertainties are fundamental and intrinsic. They
cannot be avoided/circumvented, even in principle, by any experimental
technique.
h
Then: Δx Δp≽ h = Planck’s constant
2π
SAQ 6-11
State the Uncertainty Principle. Can this be overcome by sophisticated
experimental techniques?
ASAQ 6-11
Uncertainty Principle: The momentum and position of a particle cannot be
determined simultaneously with great precision… there are intrinsic and
fundamental uncertainties in the two components which are complementary and
cannot be avoided.
1) Quantum Physics gives the same results as classical physics in the limit of
large quantum numbers.
2) The principles of Quantum Physics yield results identical with those of
classical physical physics in the domain where experiment indicates the
latter to be valid.
SCHROEDINGER’S EQUATION
AND QUANTUM MECHANICS
Schroedinger heard de Broglies’ hypotheses that the electron was a wave. He
therefore devised an equation that the electron wave shape would have to obey if
the electron is part of the hydrogen atom.
SCHROEDINGER’S ACCOMPLISHMENTS
1) Formulated the wave equation.
2) Solved the standing wave problem for H atom, etc.
3) Allowed frequencies, combined with de Broglie E = hf. The same set of
energy levels was obtained as predicted by Bohr.
4) Schroedingers’ Equation is applicable to all types of quantum problems
and proven by experiment.
SAQ 6-12
What are electrons-particles or waves?
ASAQ 6-12
Electrons are not particles but matter waves.
Max Born was the exponent of quantum probabilities and randomness which is
illustrated below.
A A2
SAQ 6-13
Who is the exponent of quantum probabilities and randomness?
ASAQ 6-13
Max Born.
Quantum Probabilities: can propagate through space and change from point to
point.
Predictive Power of Quantum Theory: determines the shape of the wave and how
it moves; how probabilities change in space and time –
INDETERMINISM / RANDOMNESS.
Dirac – showed that matrix and wave mechanics are completely equivalent
- (1) and (2) are different representations within the same theory
- formulated Transformation Theory
↓
Quantum Mechanics/Quantum theory
ELECTRON THEORY
1
1) Intrinsic angular momentum of electron = ђ (spin ½)
2
eh
2) Magnetic moment = (one Bohr magneton)
2m
ANTI-MATTER
SAQ 6-14
What do you call positive electrons?
ASAQ 6-14
Positrons.
FORMATION: MATERIALIZATION
electron (q = -e)
Photon
(E > 1.02 MeV positron (q = + e)
electron
-e
photons Hence, a positron is an
ANTI-PARTICLE of
electron.
+e
positron
Properties of anti-particles:
1) same mass
2) same spin
3) both unstable lifetime
4) opposite charge
SAQ 6-15
A photon materializes into an electron and a position. What is this process
called?
ASAQ 6-15
Pair production.
SAQ 6-16
What happens when a positron meets an electron?
ASAQ 6-16
The electron and the positron are annihilated and two photons appear.
2) Quantum Statistics
- various states of the atom can be determined from its spectrum and the
quantum numbers of these states can be inferred
SAQ 6-17
State Pauli’s Exclusion Principle.
ASAQ 6-17
“No two electrons in an atom can exist in the same quantum state.”
7
Probing The
Subatomic World
INTRODUCTION
The subatomic world is a world within the atom. It is the world of the nuclei
where dynamic nuclear processes like radioactivity (beta, gamma and alpha
decay, nuclear reactions, fission and fusion) occur. In short, it is the exciting
world of Nuclear Physics!
OBJECTIVES
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Interest in the subatomic world started with a series of breakthroughs in the study
of the atomic nucleus. These are the following:
1. HENRY BECQUEREL
- Discovered radioactivity using the double sulfate/uranium
- First to provide information on the atomic nucleus
2. ERNEST RUTHERFORD
- Classified rays emitted by the radioactive nuclei (α, β, ɣ) according to
ability to penetrate matter and ionize air
SAQ 7-1
Describe the modern picture of the atom.
ASAQ 7-1
The atom is composed of a tiny, massive nucleus at the center surrounded by a
cloud of electrons.
PROTONS : ⊕ charge
m = 1.6726 x 10-27 kg = 1.007276 μ
Inside the nucleus are NUCLEONS which exert strong attractive forces on nearby
neighbors resulting in strong nuclear forces (hadronic forces) which are stronger
than electrical forces and very much stronger than gravitational forces. These
forces decrease rapidly with distance.
The size and shape of the nucleus were determined by bombarding the nucleus
with high energy particles and observing their scattering properties.
In general, most nuclei are spherical with a nuclear radius given by the equation:
R = R0 A where R0 ~ 1.5 fm
A ~ atomic mass
Hence, RαA
4. N and Z NUMBERS
N → atomic mass
Z → atomic number = number of protons/electrons
ELEMENT/SYMBOL N Z
Hydrogen/H 1H 1
2H 1
3H 1
3H 1
Helium/He 3He 2
4He 2
Uranium/U 238U 92
Plutonium/Pu 234Pu 94
In general, there are three stable isotopes for each atom. For heavier nuclei,
electron repulsion of protons leads to greater stability.
The mass of the nucleus is equal to the sum of the masses of nucleons making up
the nucleus. When two or more nucleons fuse to form a nucleus, the total mass
decreases and energy is given off. To break up the nucleus into its parts, energy
must be put into the system to be changed into the increase in rest mass.
E = c2 x mass change
SAQ 7-2
Give two examples of nucleons. (Remember that nucleons are particles found in
the nucleus of an atom.)
ASAQ 7-3
Protons and neutrons are nucleons.
RADIOACTIVITY
N = Noe -λt
dN -λt
R= = Roe
dt
Unit: 1 Bq = 1 decay/sec
1Ci = 3.7 x 1010 decays/sec
= 3.7 x 1010 Bq
Bq → Becquerel
N0
1
N0
2
1
N0
4
t1 2 2t1 2
SAQ 7-3
What is radioactivity and what causes it?
ASAQ 7-3
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radioactive radiation - α, ρ, γ. It is
caused by nuclear instability.
HALF LIFE
The average time for half of a given number of radioactive nuclei to decay is
called the half life. It is also the time for which the decay rate decreases to half its
⎛1⎞
original value. For example, if the decay rate is initially Ro, it will be ⎜ ⎟ Ro
⎝2⎠
⎛1⎞ ⎛1⎞
after one half life, ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ Ro after two half lives, etc. Hence, after n half-lives,
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
the decay rate will be:
n
⎛1⎞
R = ⎜ ⎟ Ro
⎝2⎠
t 1 = ln 2 t1 - half life
2 λ 2
λ - decay constant
The half lives of radioactive nuclei vary from very small times (less than 1μs) to
very large times (1016 years, > age of the universe).
BETA DECAY: Occurs in nuclei with too many or too few neutrons. A (radius)
remains while Z either increases by 1 (β- decay) or decreases by
1 (β+ decay).
β- decay equation:
n p + β- + γe
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
free protons electron neutrino
neutron
N 232 Th
α
228
140 Ra 228 Ac
β
β 228
Th
224
α
Ra
135 α
220
Rn
216 Po α
212 α
Pb
130 212
Bi β
β
212 Po
208
α
Tl α
β 208
Pb
125
80 85 90 Z
FISSION: When a very heavy nucleus, such as 235U, breaks up into two lighter
nuclei with the release of energy, a process called fission, occurs.
n 235 U
(a)
236 U
(b)
236 U
(c)
n
n
n Fission
fragments
(d)
FUSION: When two very light nuclei, such as 2H and 3H, fuse together to form
a nucleus of greater mass, a process called fusion occurs.
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Deuterium Tritium Helium neutron energy
SAQ 7-4
What type of radioactive decay is applicable for very heavy nuclei? (Z>83)
ASAQ 7-4
Alpha (α).
PARTICLE ACCELERATORS
Particle accelerators are used to study the properties of elementary particles.
Projectile particles such as protons or electrons are accelerated to high speeds and
allowed to collide with target particles of the same type. The results of such
collisions are then analyzed through sophisticated detectors in which the energies
and momenta of the particles that emerge after the collisions are precisely
measured. The patterns revealed in these measurements are used to prove the
underlying structure of the colliding particles.
The principle in the operation of the cloud chamber is the use of electrically-
charged, fast moving particles that produce ionization when passing through air or
gas. If air is saturated with water vapor, the ions produced become condensation
centers, resulting in a fog-formation along the particle tracks.
THE CYCLOTRON
mv
r =
q B
v q B
ω= =
r m
1 q 2 B2 R 2
Kmax = MV2max =
2 2m
FAMILY OF HADRONS:
BARYONS BESONS
Nucleon p (protons) Pion Π+
n ( neutron)
Π°
Π-
Lambda λ
Sigma Σ+ Σ°, Σ- Kaon K+
K°
Χi ≡°, ≡-
Omega Ω Eta η°
SAQ 7-5
Inside the nucleus, what kind of force do the nucleons exert on their nearby
neighbors?
ASAQ 7-5
Hadronic force.
Leptons are point particles with no structure and can be considered to be really
elementary since they are not composed of other particles.
SAQ 7-6
Enumerate the six leptons.
ASAQ 7-6
The six leptons are:
Electron and neutrino
Muon and netrino
Tau and neutrino
Baryon
Flavor Spin Charge Number Strangeness Charm Topness Bottomness
Quarks
1
u (up)
2
h + 2
3
e + 13 0 0 0 0
1 1
d (down)
2
h −
3
e + 13 0 0 0 0
1 1
s (strange)
2
h −
3
e + 13 −1 0 0 0
1
c (charmed)
2
h + 2
3
e + 13 0 +1 +1 0
1
t (top)
2
h + 2
3
e + 13 0 0 0 +1
b (bottom) 1 1
2
h −
3
e + 13 0 0 0 0
Antiquarks
1 2 1
u h − e − 0 0 0 0
2 3 3
1 1 1
d h + e − 0 0 0 0
2 3 3
1 1 1
s h + e − +1 0 0 0
2 3 3
1 2 1
c 2
h −
3
e −
3
0 −1 −1 0
1 2 1
t 2
h −
3
e −
3
0 0 0 −1
1 1 1
b 2
h +
3
e −
3
0 0 0 0
The six quarks and six leptons (and their antiparticles) are considered the
fundamental, elementary particles that make up all matter. The Table below lists
the masses of the fundamental particles.
Particle Mass
Quarks
u (up) 336 MeV/ c2
d (down) 338 MeV/ c2
s (strange) 540 MeV/ c2
c (charmed) 1,500 MeV/ c2
t (top) 174,000 MeV/ c2
b (bottom) 500 MeV/ c2
Leptons
SAQ 7-7
What are the types of flavors of quarks?
ASAQ 7-7
u (up); d (down); s (strange)
The Table below summarizes the basic properties of the four basic interactions.
SAQ 7-8
What are the four fundamental forces in nature?
ASAQ 7-8
The four fundamental forces in nature are:
8
The Origin and Evolution
of the Universe
INTRODUCTION
Accounting for the origin and evolution of the universe requires the exploration of
the connections between the early history of the universe and the interactions of
fundamental particles. It is surprising to note that the smallest-scale system
(10-18m range of the weak interactions) is closely related to the biggest (1026m
order of magnitude of the universe).
OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the cosmic scenery composed of the planets, stars, galaxies and
quasars;
2. Explain Hubbles’ Law of the Expanding Universe;
3. Explain the birth and death of stars; and
4. Analyze the possible fate of the universe⎯i.e., continuous expansion or
eventual contraction?
The solar system consists of the earth and eight other planets and 34 moons in
gravitationally-bound orbits around a star called the sun. This is the cosmic
scenery.
Indicated below are some physical constants associated with the sun:
SAQ 8-1
Describe the cosmic scenery.
ASAQ 8-1
The cosmic scenery is made up of the solar system with the earth and eight other
planets, 34 moons in gravitationally-bound orbits around a star called the sun.
OBSERVABLE UNIVERSE
SAQ 8-2
How old is the milky way?
ASAQ 8-2
At least 1010 years.
DOPPLER SHIFTS
“All objects within the observable universe are receding from one another at
speeds proportional to their separation.”
These Doppler shifts are the basis of the HUBBLE’S LAW which governs the
observable universe. Below is an illustration of the law:
HUBBLE’S LAW:
V12 α d12
V2
V1
d12 m2
m1
Observable
universe
From equation 1:
V12 α d12
V12 = Hd12
SAQ 8-3
State the Doppler Shift.
ASAQ 8-3
“All objects within the observable universe are receding from each other at
speeds proportional to their separation.
• < 10-30g/cm3
• infinite volume
• ~ 16-20 billion years old
• will expand forever
• ~15-20 billion years ago, the universe was much hotter and denser.
• Hubble’s expansion can be run backwards in time when all galaxies were
close to each other.
• The oldest stars in our galaxy are 12-18 billion years.
• The age of radioactive elements in the Solar System can be determined.
• There are two relics of a hot, dense phase.
SAQ 8-4
Derive the Hubbler’s Law starting from the Doppler Shift.
ASAQ 8-4
∴ V12 = H d12
where H = Hubbles’ constant
= (57 km/sec/Mpc)
SAQ 8-5
What is the chief evidence of an expanding universe?
ASAQ 8-5
Hubbles’ Law.
The evolution of the galaxy involved the exchange of materials between stars and
interstellar gaseous medium and nuclear processes that occur in stars.
SAQ 8-6
What is the big bang?
ASAQ 8-6
The Big Bang was the beginning of the universe. It was an immense explosion
some time in the past when matter in the universe was concentrated in a small
space. It wiped out evidences of what went before.
Irene M. Villaseñor
(Chemistry)
Apart from any fair use for the purpose of research or private study,
criticism or review, this publication may be reproduced, stored
or transmitted, in any form or by any means
ONLY WITH THE WRITTEN PERMISSION
of the author and the University of the Philippines Open University.
The development and preparation of this module was made possible by a grant
from Metrobank Foundation, Inc.
Module 2 Matter, 19
Introduction, 19
Classification of Matter, 20
Pure Substances, 20
Mixtures, 21
States of Matter, 25
Solids, 26
Liquids, 26
Gases, 29
Kinetic Theory, 32
Gas Laws, 32
Properties of Matter, 36
Changes in Matter, 37
1
The Emergence of Chemistry
INTRODUCTION
The birthplace of chemistry was Egypt. The hieroglyphic name for Egypt is
Kême. It means the land of the black earth. It was in Egypt that the earliest
practice of chemistry at about AD 50 was documented and found in the tombs
near Thebes. Such chemical practices include separating gold from quartz;
extracting oils, juices, and dyestuff from plants and animals; enamelling silver,
preparing hides by tanning, baking, brewing, and making pots, bricks, and tiles.
OBJECTIVES
1. enumerate the events that led to the formulation of the atomic theory;
2. state the theories governing the structure of atom;
3. draw the different models of the atom; and
4. describe atomic orbitals using quantum numbers.
ATOMIC THEORIES
Greek Philosophy
Leucippos and Democritus (460-370 B.C.) proposed that all matter was
composed of tiny particles called atomos, a Greek word meaning indivisible.
Epicurus argued that these atoms are too small to be seen singly but they have
weight, shape, occupy space, and may combine with each other to form various
things.
Alchemy
New substances such as the alkali metals, ammonium salts, nitrates for
gunpowder, and amalgams were discovered. The process of distillation also led to
the isolation of new substances such as ethyl alcohol, the “spirit of wine”, nitric
acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid. These acids were considered as new
and powerful chemical reagents. Roger Bacon ((1214-1294), an alchemist,
believed that gold dissolved in a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acid, known
as aqua regia, was the elixir of life. He also found that a mixture of sulfur,
saltpeter, and charcoal, now known as gunpowder, caused explosions.
Iatrochemistry
Phlogiston Theory
With the introduction of new chemical apparatus came the chemical revolution.
Lord Henry Cavendish (1731-1810) discovered the inflammable hydrogen gas
that he called inflammable air, and regarded it as true phlogiston. He also
discovered the formation of water (H2O), when hydrogen burnt, and nitric acid
(HNO3), when a spark is passed through air.
SAQ 1-1
ASAQ 1-1
Modern Chemistry
SAQ 1-2
ASAQ 1-2
1. If phlogiston had mass, then the products of combustion would weigh less
after the phlogiston had escaped. If phlogiston was weightless, then there
should be no change in weight. Either way, there should not be an increase
in mass during combustion.
Postulates 2 and 3 are now incorrect. Of course, we now know that an atom is
divisible. Chemists are concerned only with the three fundamental sub-atomic
particles - the electron, proton, and neutron. Postulate 3 cannot explain the
presence of isotopes, identical elements having different masses. Examples are
carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14; and hydrogen-1, deuterium-2, and tritium-3.
Postulate 4 is the basis for the Law of Definite Composition, which states that
elements combine in definite or fixed amounts to form a compound. In the
formation of water, hydrogen and oxygen combine in a fixed ratio of 2:1 or 2
grams of hydrogen reacts with 16 grams of oxygen.
On the other hand, oxygen may combine with carbon in two different proportions
to form carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) but still in fixed ratios:
1carbon: 1oxygen for carbon monoxide and 1carbon: 2oxygen for carbon dioxide.
When 12 grams of carbon reacts with 16 grams of oxygen, CO is formed.
Reaction of the same amount of carbon with 32 grams of oxygen produces CO2.
Notice that the ratios of oxygen (16 grams:32 grams or 1:2) that reacts with a
fixed mass of carbon (12 grams) are in ratios of small whole numbers. This is an
example of the Law of Multiple Proportions. We will further discuss these two
laws in module 3.
Just how do atoms look like? How are these subatomic particles arranged to form
an atom? Presently, individual atoms of elements can now be seen through
computerized images using a scanning tunnelling microscope (STM). Without
this sophisticated instrument, how did the early scientists deduce the structure of
an atom?
Plum-Pudding Model
anode. From the concept that unlike charges attract and like charges repel, the
cathode ray must consist of negatively charged particles, now known as electrons.
J.J. Thomson also determined the charge to mass ratio of an electron to be equal to –
1.7 x 108 coulombs per gram. In 1909, Robert Millikan (1868-1953) determined the
charge of an electron, using his famous oil-drop experiment, to be 1.602 x 10-19
coulombs. Using these data, the mass of an electron is 9.1097 x 10-28 gram or 5.486
x 10-4 atomic mass unit (amu).
Plum-Pudding Atom
Nuclear Model
The electron and proton have electrical charges of equal magnitude (1.602 x 10-
19
coulombs) but have opposite signs. The unit charge of an electron is 1- while
that of a proton is 1+. The proton weighs 1.6727 x 10-24 gram or 1.0077 atomic
mass unit (amu), which is about 1,840 times the mass of an electron. To account
for the total masses of atoms, Ernest Rutherford, in 1920, postulated the existence
of the neutron. It is an uncharged particle and weighs 1.0087 amu. The radius of
an atom is about 10-10 meter. The radius of the nucleus is only 10-15 meter. Hence,
the nucleus occupies only 1/1013 of the volume of an atom! You don’t have to
memorize these numbers. I just want to impress on you that atoms are extremely
small, with the nucleus being more minute. A single drop of water would already
contain more than a trillion atoms.
SAQ 1-3
1. What is the unit charge of the positive electricity of the Thomson atom
drawn above?
2. Why will 99.9% of the alpha particles pass through the foil?
ASAQ 1-3
1. In the Thomson atom drawn above, there are eight electrons embedded in the
positive electricity. Since atoms are electrically neutral, a given atom must
contain as many electrons as protons. Hence, the positive electricity must
have a unit charge equal to 8+.
2. 99.9% of the alpha particles pass undeflected because most of the volume of
an atom must be empty space.
3. Knowing that liked charges repel (and unlike charges attract), deflection
must be due to the collision between two positively charged species, the
alpha particles and the nucleus.
4. The nuclear model of the atom has a positively charged nucleus in the center
of an atom. It contains the protons and neutrons. The electrons, which
occupy most of the total volume of the atom, are outside the nucleus and are
in rapid, spherical motion outside the nucleus. Since the protons and
neutrons are heavier than electrons, the mass of the atom is essentially due to
the nucleus.
Can you now make conclusions based on experimental observations? Can you
follow the trend of thought of early scientists? Good!
Electronic Model
As electrons move around the nucleus, they lose energy. How then do we explain
the fact that electrons do not spiral into the nucleus due to the attraction between
unlike charges? As early as 1900 Max Planck (1858-1947) had already
concluded that radiant energy is emitted and absorbed as individual bundles of
energy called quanta or photons. The concept that radiant energy is quantized
(discrete, definite) is the basis of the quantum theory. This theory was
previously discussed in Physics, module ____.
In 1913, Niels Bohr (1885-1962), a Danish physicist and Nobel laureate, applied
the quantum theory to Rutherford’s atom. According to Bohr, electrons can
occupy only certain spherical orbits, called energy levels or energy shells. The
energy in a specific energy level is quantized. An electron moving in an orbit has
a definite energy that is characteristic of that orbit. When an electron absorbs or
emits energy, it changed from one energy shell to another. As the radius of the
energy shell increases, the energy of the electrons in the shell also increases. An
electron cannot occupy the space in between energy levels. Electrons are in the
ground state when they occupy the lowest possible energy level. When an
electron absorbs energy and jumps to outer energy levels, it is in an excited state.
SAQ 1-4
What are the similarities and differences between Bohr’s electronic atom and
Schrödinger’s quantum mechanical atom?
ASAQ 1-4
1. Since Bohr treated the electron as a particle, then Bohr’s electrons can only
occupy quantized, specific, discrete energy levels called orbits. Electrons can
jump from one energy level to another by absorbing or emitting energy.
2. The quantum mechanical model used the wave-like properties of an electron.
As a wave, an electron extends into space and its location is not definite.
Hence, we cannot pinpoint the exact location of an electron. We cannot say
that it is in this specific orbit. We can only state that an electron is probably in
this region in space called an orbital.
ATOMIC ORBITALS
There are four types of orbitals: s, p, d, and f orbitals for sharp, principal, diffuse,
and fundamental. These words were used to describe line spectra before the
development of quantum mechanics.
Quantum Numbers
n = 1, 2, 3…
n = 1 refers to the first energy level or energy shell. The larger the value of n,
the larger is the radius of the orbital, and the higher is its energy.
l = 0, 1, 2…(n-1)
In the second energy level (n = 2), there are two types of orbitals
corresponding to l = 0 and l = 1. When l = 1, the orbital is designated as a p
orbital which is dumbbell shape. The two orbitals in the second energy level
are designated as 2s and 2p orbitals.
SAQ 1-5
How many orbitals are in the fourth energy level? In the fifth energy shell?
ASAQ 1-5
There are four orbitals in the fourth energy level because when n = 4, the l values
are 0, 1, 2, and 3 with letter designations of s, p, d, and f, respectively. The
orbitals present in the fourth energy level are 4s, 4p, 4d, and 4f. Keeping in mind
that there are only four types of orbitals, then the 5th, 6th, 7th and other energy
levels can only have four orbitals. In the 5th energy level, the orbitals are 5s, 5p,
5d, and 5f. The orbitals in the 6th energy level are 6s, 6p, 6d, and 6f.
m = +l … 0 … -l
When l = 0, then m = 0. This means that the s orbital, being spherical, has
only one possible orientation in space. Hence, in the first energy shell, there is
only 1 orbital, the 1s orbital, described by the quantum numbers: n = 1, l = 0,
m = 0.
When l = 1, then m values are +1, 0, -1. There are three p orbitals whose
electron densities are concentrated on the two sides of the nucleus. The p
orbital has two lobes that can be oriented along the x, y, and z-axes.
z z z
y y y
x x x
2pz 2px
2py
Therefore, in the second energy shell, there are a total of four orbitals: 2s, 2px,
2py, and 2pz. The 2s orbital is described by the quantum numbers: n = 2, l = 0,
m = 0. The three 2 p orbitals are described by the following quantum
numbers: n = 2, l = 1, m = +1; n = 2, l = 1, m = 0; and n = 2, l = 1, m = -1.
Notice that the four orbitals do not have identical sets of all four quantum
numbers. This is an example of Pauli’s Exclusion Principle.
When l = 2, then m = +2, +1, 0, -1, -2. There are five different orientations for
the d orbital. The d orbital has four lobes that may either be on the axes (dx2 -
dy2 and dz2) or on the plane in-between the axes (dxy, dxz, and dyz).
z z z
y y y
x 3dxy x 3dyz
x 3dxz
z z
y y
x 3dx2-y2 x 3dz2
SAQ 1-6
1. What are the values of m when l = 3. How many possible orientations are
there for the f orbital?
2. How many orbitals are in the 3rd energy level? In the 4th energy level?
ASAQ 1-6
1. l = 3 represents an f orbital. When l = 3, then m = +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.
Therefore, there are seven different f orbitals.
2. A total of nine orbitals are in the 3rd energy level: 3s, 3px, 3py, 3pz, 3dx2 - dy2,
3dz2, 3dxy, 3dxz, and 3dyz. There are 16 orbitals in the 4th energy level: one 4s
orbital, three 4p orbitals, five 4d orbitals, and seven 4f orbitals. Of course,
there will also be 16 orbitals in the 5th, 6th, 7th, etc. energy levels.
n = 1, 2, 3, …
l = 0, 1, … n-1
m = +l, … 0, … -l
2
Matter
INTRODUCTION
Chemistry, in its simplest definition, is the study of matter. Matter is anything
that occupies space and has mass. Everything around us, whether visible or
invisible, whether macroscopic or microscopic, is matter. What is the nature and
composition of matter? What are the different types of matter? What are its
properties? What changes does matter undergo?
We are all familiar with the generic term chemicals. It can mean the water we
drink, the air we breathe, the food we eat, the clothes we wear. It can mean
pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, pesticides, materials such as metals, plastics,
polymers, and ceramics, biomolecules such as carbohydrates and proteins, and
many more. But are you familiar with the basic concepts of chemistry?
OBJECTIVES
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CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Pure Substances
Matter may either be a pure substance or a mixture. A pure substance may be
classified as an element or a compound. An element is the simplest form of matter.
It cannot be decomposed into simpler substances. There are at present 112 known
elements, 83 are naturally occurring while the rest are artificially synthesized.
Elements are assigned a chemical symbol derived from their English names or their
foreign names. The smallest stable unit of an element is an atom. Some elements
normally occur as diatomic molecules such as H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2.
In high school, you became familiar with the first ten elements in the periodic
table and their chemical symbols: hydrogen (H), helium (He) (used to fill
balloons), lithium (Li), beryllium (Be), boron (B), carbon (C) (in diamond, soot,
graphite or “lead” in pencil), nitrogen (N) (in air), oxygen (O) (in air), fluorine
(F), and neon (Ne) (in advertising lights).
You became familiar too with copper (Cu) in electric wires, iodine (I2) as a
disinfectant, chlorine (Cl2) as a water purifier, 24 karat or pure gold (Au) in
jewellery, silicon (Si) in microchips, sodium (Na) in street lights, chromium (Cr)
used for plating car parts, cobalt (Co) as a source of gamma radiation used in
radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer, silver (Ag) in mirrors, cadmium
(Cd) in rechargeable batteries, phosphorous (P) and sulfur (S) in matches and
fireworks, krypton (Kr) in fluorescent bulbs and flash bulbs.
Uranium (U) and plutonium (Pu) are examples of radioactive elements.
Radioactive elements spontaneously emit particles and / or radiation due to the
instability of their nuclei. Uranium was used in the atomic bomb dropped on
Hiroshima, Japan while plutonium was used in the bomb for Nagasaki.
Radioactive elements are also used in nuclear reactors for the generation of
electricity. The Bataan nuclear plant has remained closed since 1986 because of
the problems of radioactive waste disposal and the potential hazards of exposure
to radioactivity such as fire, explosion, exposure to intense radiation, cancer, and
deaths. These radioactive elements are also used as tracers in science and
medicine. The most popular radioactive element used in medicine is iodine, which
is used to test the activity of the thyroid gland.
Most elements react with one or more other elements to form compounds. A
compound is a pure substance that is composed of two or more elements in fixed
proportions joined together by chemical bonds. Hence, compounds can be
decomposed only by chemical means into its constituent elements. The
properties of a compound differ from those of the elements it contains. A
compound is represented by a chemical formula that indicates the actual
numbers and kinds of atoms. The smallest particle of a compound is a molecule.
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Common compounds are water (H2O), dry ice or solid carbon dioxide (CO2),
carbon monoxide (CO), table salt or sodium chloride (NaCl), table sugar or
sucrose (C12H22O11), muriatic acid or hydrochloric acid (HCl), baking soda or
sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), lime or calcium oxide (CaO), milk of magnesia or
magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Mixtures
A mixture consists of two or more pure substances. It does not have a fixed
composition. Each substance in the mixture retains its own chemical identity and
they may be separated by physical means such as:
• filtration (differs in solubility)
• distillation (differs in boiling points)
• magnetic separation (differs in magnetic property)
• evaporation, decantation
• scooping (differs in particle size)
• flotation (differs in density).
Homogenous Mixtures
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3. liquid in solid – amalgams are formed when mercury, also called liquid silver,
combines with all the common metals, except iron and platinum. Dental
fillings may be made of gold or silver amalgam.
4. liquid in gas
5. gas in solid - solid foams for insulation and upholstery; uratex beds
6. gas in liquid - carbonated beverages; carbon dioxide in water known as
carbonic acid, H2CO3. It dissolves limestone, CaCO3 leading to the formation
of stalactites and stalagmites in caves.
The principle followed in solubility is “like dissolves like”, which we will discuss
in Module 4. Other factors affecting solubility are temperature and pressure. The
solubility of solid solutes generally increases with increasing temperature. Gases
generally become less soluble in a liquid with increasing temperature and more
soluble with increasing pressure. Opening a bottle of soft drink reduces the
pressure causing much of the gas to bubble out of solution and escape.
Let us define some more terms before we leave this topic on solutions. When the
maximum amount of solute is dissolved in a definite amount of solvent, the
solution is saturated. The amount of solute needed to form a saturated solution is
known as the solubility of the solute. Added solute will no longer dissolved in a
saturated solution and will instead lead to precipitation. If less than the
maximum amount of solute is dissolved, the solution is unsaturated. Added
solute will dissolve until saturation is reached. If more than the maximum amount
of solute is dissolved, the solution is supersaturated. A supersaturated solution is
made by carefully cooling a saturated solution, which was prepared at a high
temperature. A supersaturated solution is unstable. Addition of a small amount of
the solute leads to crystallization or precipitation.
Solvent Solute
Solution
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Heterogeneous Mixtures
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SAQ 2-1
1. Explain why jewelry, coins, air, seawater, rubbing alcohol, and gasoline are
homogeneous mixtures.
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ASAQ 2-1
1. Pure gold (Au) is labelled as 24 karat. A 12 karat jewelry contains only 50%
Au mixed with either copper (Cu) or silver (Ag). These three elements are
often referred to as “coinage” metals. Air is a gaseous solution whose main
elements are O2 and N2. Seawater is NaCl dissolved in H2O. Rubbing
alcohol may either be ethyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol dissolved in H2O
with varying concentrations (70% vs 40%). Gasoline, which is obtained by
petroleum, contains many different volatile hydrocarbons (compounds of
carbon and hydrogen). In all cases, you cannot distinguish the components of
the mixture.
2. Some examples of heterogeneous mixtures are gravel and sand, salt and
sugar (could be sorted by size), iron (Fe) and Au filings (could be sorted by
color or by use of a magnet to attract Fe filings), and many more.
3. Soot is the element carbon. The compounds are rust, hemoglobin and
chlorophyll. Rust is FeO. Hemoglobin is a protein present in the blood that
carries O2 from our lungs to the other parts of the body. Chlorophyll is the
green pigment in plants which is necessary for photosynthesis.
Homogeneous mixtures are iodized salt, acid rain, champagne, and
Gatorade. Heterogeneous mixtures are beach sand and mayonnaise (an
emulsion).
You are now becoming familiar with the chemical basis (including chemical
formulas for some) of common things around you. Make it a practice to know the
components of what you eat, especially processed foods, by reading their
ingredients.
STATES OF MATTER
Matter consists of tiny particles called atoms (for elements), ions, and molecules
(for compounds). The space in between these particles and the attractive forces
between them determine its state. The states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. A
fourth state, plasma consisting of hot, ionized gas will not be discussed in
Chemistry. There are also substances whose properties are intermediate between
the solid and liquid states. Examples are liquid crystals and glasses.
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You can see and touch solids and liquids. Their main
difference is their rigidity. Solids are rigid with definite
shapes and definite volumes. Liquids are not rigid. They can
flow and take the shape of the container. Gases are invisible
and untouchable. Gases are in constant motion due to the
very weak attractive forces between molecules.
Gas
Solids
Solids are visible, touchable, rigid, or plastic. They have ordered arrangement
with their particles occupying fixed positions in a crystal lattice. The particles of
solids are close together and are held together by strong intermolecular forces of
attraction called van der Waals forces. Hence, a solid has a definite shape, a
definite volume, and is almost incompressible.
Solids melt when the temperature rises. As the temperature increases, the
particles of a solid gain energy. In time, they gain enough energy to break out of
their crystal lattice, making the solid melt. The temperature at which a solid melts
is called the melting or freezing temperature.
A solid may also change directly into a gas. This process is called sublimation. A
solid sublimes when its boiling point at atmospheric pressure is lower than its
melting point. Examples of solids that sublime are mothballs, dry ice (solid CO2),
deodorizers, and air fresheners.
Liquids
Liquids are visible, touchable, but not rigid, not even plastic. The particles are not
as close together as in the solid state. They possess more energy to partially
overcome the van der Waals forces of attraction. Particles of liquids are free to
move relative to each other. Hence, liquids flow and take the shape of the
container.
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As the temperature of liquid decreases, its particles move less freely until they
form a solid. This process is freezing. Heat is released as a liquid changes into a
solid, because its particles need less energy in the solid form. The liquid state of
substances can now be kept at temperatures below their freezing points and these
are called supercooled liquids.
SAQ 2-2
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ASAQ 2-2
In general, most substances contract and become denser when they freeze.
However, when water freezes, it expands and becomes less dense than liquid
water. Observe that ice floats in water. This explains why ice forms at the
surface of bodies of water. This allows the survival of aquatic life.
As the temperature of liquid increases, its particles gain enough energy to break
free and form a gas. The more energetic particles on the liquid’s surface escape
into the air. This process is called evaporation. As the temperature reaches the
boiling point of the liquid, large bubbles form in the liquid. The normal boiling
point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to one atmosphere.
The normal boiling point of water is 100oC. Superheated liquids are heated above
their boiling points.
If a liquid (or a solid) is placed in a sealed container, then the molecules which
evaporate (or sublime) cannot escape. Upon contact with the surface of the liquid
(or solid), these gaseous molecules may condense again. When the rate of
evaporation (or sublimation) is equal to the rate of condensation, the amounts of
liquid (or solid) and vapor remain constant. The pressure exerted by the vapor on
the walls of the container and on the surface of the liquid (or solid) is called the
vapor pressure. As the temperature increases, vapor pressure increases because
more molecules acquire enough energy to evaporate. Vapor pressure also
increases with a decrease in attractive forces. Substances that have weak attractive
forces readily evaporate, and therefore have higher vapor pressures.
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Gases
Gases are invisible and untouchable. Gas particles are far apart with negligible
attractive forces. Gas particles are so energetic, they are in constant motion. When
a gas is released in a container, its particles scatter out to fill the whole container.
Hence, a gas has no definite volume and no definite shape. It gets the volume
and the shape of the container.
Gas particles diffuse. This property explains why we can smell the scent of things
that are far. Gases are easily compressed at high pressures. Gases are more
compressible than liquids or solids. Gases condense when their temperature
decreases. At low temperatures, gaseous particles lose energy and they cannot
move completely free from each other. Hence, they form a liquid.
Air is made up of 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 0.03% carbon
dioxide, and minute quantities of neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen,
oxides of nitrogen, and xenon. Humid or wet air also contains water vapor.
Polluted air contains noxious gases such as NO, NO2, SO2, and SO3, and
suspended particles such as smoke and dust.
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SAQ 2-3
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ASAQ 2-3
1.
2. At low temperatures, gases condenses into liquids and liquids freezes (or
solidifies) into solids. At low temperatures, particles being less energetic, are
held together by stronger attractive forces. Oxygen gas liquefies at about -
183°C, and nitrogen gas at about -196°C.
Gases are normally converted into liquids by compressing them under high
pressure. They are then stored and transported in metal cylinders. (Why use
metal cylinders?). When these liquids are released from their cylinders, their
pressure greatly decreases so they become gases again.
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You are very familiar with the three states of matter and their properties. The
concepts discussed so far are easy to understand because, unlike the invisible
atoms and molecules, gases, liquids, and solids are all part of our every day
existence.
Kinetic Theory
The kinetic theory explains the relationship between the properties of a gas and
the movement of its particles. The postulates of the kinetic theory of gases are as
follows:
2. gas molecules are in constant, rapid, straight-line motion and collide with
each other and their container
When gas particles collide with each other and with the walls of their container,
they exert pressure. In postulate 4, an “ideal” or “perfect” gas exists only at high
temperatures and low pressures. In “real” gases, attractive forces exist.
Gas Laws
The gas laws correlate the behavior of gases to measurable quantities such as
pressure (P), volume (V), and temperature (T). Pressure is measured using a
barometer or a manometer. Its units are atmosphere (atm) or torr or mm Hg or
pascal with the following equalities: 100kPa = 1.01325 x 10 5 Pa = 1 atm = 760
torr = 760 mm Hg. The units of volume are liters (l) or milliliters (ml) where 1
liter is equal to 1000 ml. Temperature refers to the absolute temperature in
Kelvin (K) where K = 0 C + 273.15
1. Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s law states that the pressure and the volume of a gas are inversely
proportional to each other at constant temperature. The pressure of a gas increases
(doubles) when the volume of the gas is reduced (to half) and decreases when the
volume is increased. If the volume of a gas is increased, its particles collide with
the walls of the container and with each other less often, so its pressure decreases.
Mathematically,
P1V1 = P2V2.
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Hence, when the cap of a softdrink bottle is removed, the pressure drops to
atmospheric pressure, causing the gases to expand and escape. Boyle’s law also
explains tire blow-outs after long trips.
2. Charles’s Law
Jacques Charles (1746–1823) proved that the volume of a gas at constant pressure
is directly proportion to its absolute temperature. An increase in the absolute
temperature of the gas will lead to an increase in the volume of the gas.
Mathematically,
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
PV PV
1 1
= 2 2
T1 T2
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4. Amonton’s Law
P1 T1
=
P2 T2
Hence, at constant volume, pressure varies directly with the absolute temperature.
According to postulate 3 of the kinetic theory, when gas molecules absorb heat,
they move faster. More energetic particles collide more often and with greater
force. Heating a gas will therefore increase its pressure. Never throw spray cans
into the fire because they might explode. Amonton’s law also explains why
pressure cookers reduces cooking time and why canned goods are vacuum
packed.
5. Avogadro’s Law
Equal volumes of any two gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the
same number of molecules. The volume of one mole of gas at 273K and 1 atm
pressure (standard temperature and pressure or STP) is 22.4 liters. The more air
we pump into a balloon or a tire (increase in the number of molecules of air), the
bigger it gets (increase in volume).
SAQ 2-4
3. A volume of gas equal to 25 liters was collected at 250C and 1.00 atm
pressure. What would be the volume of the gas if it were collected at 1000C
and 0.85 atm pressure?
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ASAQ 2-4
1. P1V1 = P2V2
(1atm)(25liters)
V= = 16.7 liters
1.5atm
(1atm)(25liters)
P= = 0.5 atm
50liters
V1 V2
2. =
T1 T2
10liters V
Direct substitution gives: a) =
(25 + 273)K (100 + 273)K
10liters 5liters
b) =
(25 + 273)K T
5liters(25 + 273)K
T= = 149K
10liters
PV PV
3. 1 1
= 2 2
T1 T2
(1atm)(25liters) (0.85atm)V
Direct substitution gives: =
(25 + 273)K (100 + 273)K
(1atm)(25liters)(100 + 273)K
V= = 36.8liters
(0.85atm)(25 + 273)K
Module 2: Matter 35
Natural Science I UP Open University
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
We may describe matter either by its physical or chemical properties. The
physical properties are related to the physical appearance of matter and they can
be detected by the senses. Examples of physical properties are color, taste, mass,
volume, boiling and melting points. Chemical properties are associated with the
tendency of a substance to react chemically with another substance. Combustion,
or burning, is a chemical process by which O2 combines with a substance,
releasing heat.
SAQ 2-5
Which of the following are physical properties and which are chemical
properties?
1. A metal is lustrous.
2. NaCl dissolves readily in water.
3. NaCl turns black when heated.
4. Hydrogen is a gas at room temperature.
5. Hydrogen burns in chlorine gas.
6. Sulfur is a yellow solid.
7. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) smells like rotten eggs.
8. Water has a normal boiling point of 1000C and a normal melting point of
00C.
9. Iron rusts.
10. Cu dissolves in nitric acid forming a blue green solution and a reddish
brown gas.
36 Module 2: Matter
UP Open University Natural Science I
ASAQ 2-5
This is an easy question. Practice by focusing on a substance like your car and list
its physical and chemical properties.
CHANGES IN MATTER
The transformations that matter undergoes may either be a physical change or a
chemical change. Changes in size, shape, or state of a substance but not in its
chemical composition and properties are physical changes. Physical changes are
usually reversible. The state of a substance depends on its temperature and
pressure.
high P high P
GASES------------>LIQUIDS ------------->SOLIDS
low T low T
You are all familiar with the physical changes taking place in the water cycle.
Water is present on earth and in the atmosphere. It evaporates from oceans, rivers,
and other bodies of water into the air. As air rises, water cools and condenses into
clouds. When rain clouds form due to an increase in the size of water droplets,
water falls back to earth and the cycle begins again.
Module 2: Matter 37
Natural Science I UP Open University
2Fe + O2 Æ 2FeO
Zn + 2HCl Æ ZnCl2 + H2
In contrast to the water cycle, the carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen cycles involve
chemical changes. In the carbon cycle, CO2 in air is taken in by plants and used in
photosynthesis, together with H2O, to synthesize carbohydrates. Animals eat
plants and uses these carbohydrates as energy reservoir. As sources of energy,
these carbohydrates are decomposed with CO2 as one of the products. CO2 is then
given off into the air during respiration. In the oxygen cycle, O2 is produced as a
waste product of photosynthesis and is consumed by both plants and animals
during respiration.
38 Module 2: Matter
UP Open University Natural Science I
SAQ 2-6
Module 2: Matter 39
Natural Science I UP Open University
ASAQ 2-6
40 Module 2: Matter
UP Open University Natural Science I
3
The Periodic Properties
of Elements
INTRODUCTION
When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers, those similar
properties occur at regular or periodic intervals. The periodic table shows the
graphical regularity among different elements.
OBJECTIVES
A = protons + neutrons
Z = protons
A = Z + neutrons
neutrons = A - Z
Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Thus, 1735Cl and 17
37
Cl are isotopes. They both contain 17 protons and 17 electrons
but differ in the number of neutrons. Isobars are atoms with the same mass
number but different atomic numbers. Thus 1636 S and 18 36
Ar are isobars. Notice that
isotopes have the same atomic symbol while isobars have different atomic
symbols. Isobars are not alike chemically because chemical characteristics depend
upon the number of electrons.
The ages of artefacts are determined by 14C dating using the carbon-14 isotope.
The most abundant isotope of carbon is carbon-12. 14C isotope is produced when
14
N captures neutrons. This 14C isotope is radioactive and decays by beta-particle
emission. This radioactive carbon isotope is eventually converted to 14CO2, which
then enters the carbon cycle. It is continuously used by plants in photosynthesis
and given off by animals in respiration and a constant 14C to 12C ratio is
established. When the plant or animal dies, the 14C isotope decreases in
concentration with time because it is radioactive. This change in concentration is
used to estimate the length of time the 14C isotope has been decaying.
SAQ 3-1
Hypothetical atom V W X Y 56
26 Z 3+
Protons 18 11
Neutrons 40 23 45
Electrons 10 36
Mass Number 63
Atomic Number 29
Net Charge 2+ 0 1-
ASAQ 3-1
Hypothetical atom V 2+
63
29
40
W
18
23
11 X 1+ 80 1−
Y
35
56
26 Z 3+
Protons 29 18 11 35 26
Neutrons 34 22 12 45 30
Electrons 27 18 10 36 23
Mass Number 63 40 23 80 56
Atomic Number 29 18 11 35 26
Net Charge 2+ 0 1+ 1- 3+
There are 22 answers in this SAQ. The passing grade is 60%. Did you pass this
SAQ? Very good, if you pass. Otherwise, you have 112 elements to practice
with after we have discussed the periodic table.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Knowing the number of electrons, how do we distribute them in the different
orbitals? Electronic configuration describes the arrangement of electrons in an
atom. In multi-electron atoms, the electrons are distributed among the different
orbitals following the Aufbau Prinzip (Building Up Principle) with the lowest
energy levels being filled up first.
1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d 6f
Each orbital can accommodate two electrons of opposite spins. A fourth quantum
number, the spin quantum number, s, describes the two ways in which an
electron may be aligned in a magnetic field: parallel to or opposed (anti-parallel)
to the magnetic field. By convention, s = +½ for an unpaired electron and s = -½
for a paired electron.
The first energy level has a 1s orbital that can accommodate two electrons. The
single electron of hydrogen will occupy a 1s orbital. It will have an electronic
configuration of 1s1.
The two electrons of helium will have opposite electron spins and will pair up in
the 1s orbital giving an electronic configuration of 1s2. We can also describe the
two electrons of helium using the four quantum numbers. The first electron has n
= 1; l = 0; m = 0; and s = +½ (an unpaired electron). The second electron of
helium has n = 1; l = 0; m = 0; and s = -½ (it paired up with electron 1). Recall
that this is again an example of Pauli’s Exclusion Principle. Notice that the first
and second electrons of helium have the same n, l, and m values but different s
values.
The third electron of lithium will occupy a 2s orbital. Its electronic configuration
of lithium is 1s2 2s1 while the that of beryllium is 1s22s2.
The fifth electron of boron will be in a 2p orbital with quantum numbers equal to
n = 2, l = 1 ( a p orbital), m = +1 (the first p orbital), s = +½. The sixth electron of
carbon will occupy the second 2p orbital (remember that there are three 2p
orbitals) with n = 2, l = 1, m = 0 (the second p orbital); and s = +½ (the electron is
still unpaired). The seventh electron of nitrogen will go into the third 2p orbital
with n = 2, l = 1, m = -1, s = +½. This is Hund's Rule of Multiplicity, which
states that electrons occupy orbitals with degenerate (or equal) energy levels
singly before pairing. The eighth electron of oxygen will now pair up with its fifth
electron and has n = 2, l = 0, m = +1, and s = +½
SAQ 3-2
1. Following the direction of the arrow in the Aufbau Prinzip, what orbital
follows 6p? 6d and 6f?
2. What orbital will the fourth electron of beryllium occupy? The ninth
electron of fluorine? The tenth electron of argon?
56
5. Give the electronic configuration of 26 Fe and the quantum numbers of the
last entering electron.
ASAQ 3-2
1. 7s, 7p, and 7d orbitals follow 6p, 6d, and 6f orbitals, respectively. After a 7p
orbital is an 8s orbital.
2. The fourth electron of beryllium will occupy a 2s orbital and pairs with its
third electron. The ninth electron of fluorine pairs up with its sixth electron
and occupies the second 2p orbital. The tenth electron of neon will occupy
the third 2p orbital and pair up with its seventh electron. What orbital will
the eleventh electron of sodium occupy? 3s
3-4.
Atom Electronic Configuration Quantum Numbers of the Last Electron
4Be 1s2 2s2 n = 2, l = 0, m = 0, s = -½
5B 1s2 2s2 2p1 n = 2, l = 1, m =+1, s = +½
6C 1s2 2s2 2p1 2p1 (Hund’s rule) n = 2, l = 1, m =0, s = +½
7N 1s2 2s2 2p1 2p1 2p1 n = 2, l = 1, m = -1, s = +½
8O 1s2 2s2 2p2 2p1 2p1 n = 2, l = 1, m =+1, s = -½
9F 1s2 2s2 2p2 2p2 2p1 n = 2, l = 1, m =0, s = -½
10Ne 1s2 2s2 2p2 2p2 2p2 n = 2, l = 1, m =-1, s = -½
5. The mass number of Fe is 56 and its atomic number is 26. Being a neutral
atom, Fe has 26 electrons. Its electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
4s2 3d2d1d1d1d1. Using the Aufbau Prinzip, fill the orbitals with two electrons
each with 4s being next to 3p. There is now a total of 20 electrons and we
need six more. Following Hund’s Rule, we distribute 5 electrons singly to
the five d orbital. The 26th electron then pairs with the 21st electron and
occupy the first 3d orbital. The quantum numbers of the 26th electron are n =
3 (third energy level), l = 2 ( a d orbital), m = +2 ( the first d orbital), and s =
-½ (paired with the 21st electron).
6.
These questions are sequential. You have to know and
understand the answers in question no. 1 before you can
proceed to the other questions.
In the years 1863-1866, John A. R. Newlands proposed his law of octaves. If the
elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic mass, a given element is
similar to the eighth element that follows it.
SAQ 3-3
56
2. To what period will 26 Fe belong (refer to ASAQ 3-2)?
ASAQ 3-3
1. Elements in period 2 occupy the second energy shell (n = 2) where there are
two orbitals, 2s (l = 0) and 2p (l = 1). Recall that there are three possible
orientations for the p orbital, px, py, and pz , corresponding to m = +1, 0, -1. A
total of four orbitals in the 2nd energy shell can accommodate a total of eight
electrons. Hence, there will be eight elements in period 2.
For period 6, there will be thirty two elements following the Aufbau
sequence 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p for a total of sixteen orbitals: 6s, seven 4f, five 5d,
and three 6p orbitals.
The electronic configuration of Fe is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2d1d1d1d1. Fe will
be found in period 4 because 4s represents the outermost energy shell.
Were you able to answer this SAQ? Notice that we have simply defined what a
period in a periodic table is based on our earlier discussion of quantum numbers
and electronic configurations. Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, and Ne (ASAQ 3-2) are the
eight elements belonging to period 2. They all occupy a valence shell
corresponding to the highest principal quantum number, n = 2.
The vertical columns in the periodic table are called groups or families. The
number of electrons in the valence shells is the same for elements of the same
group, and this number is the same as the column number. Within a group or
family, the elements will have the same outermost electronic configurations. The
similarity in the number of valence electrons explains the similarities in their
properties.
Elements in the first vertical column (Group 1A) will all have one electron in
their valence shell and will have electronic configurations of ns1. Those in the 2nd
vertical column (Group 2A) will have outermost electronic configurations of ns2.
Potassium (K) is found in the 1st vertical column (group or family) and the 4th
horizontal row (period). Its outermost electronic configuration will therefore be
4s1 (period refers to valence shell and group refers to valence electrons).
Conversely, if we know the electronic configuration of an element, we can predict
its relative position in the periodic table. The electronic configuration of Fe is 1s2
2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2d1d1d1d1. Its outermost electronic configuration is 4s2
3d2d1d1d1d1. What is its valence shell? 4 and Fe belongs to period 4. How many
electrons are there in the valence shell? Eight electrons and hence Fe will occupy
the 8th vertical column (Group 8B) in period 4.
SAQ 3-4
2. Ruthenium (Ru) and Osmium (Os) are both located in the same group as Fe.
What will be their outermost electronic configurations?
3. Manganese (Mn) is on the left of Fe while cobalt (Co) is on the right. What
will be the outermost electronic configurations of Mn and Co?
ASAQ 3-4
1.
Atom Electronic Configuration Group No. Period No.
3Li 1s22s1 1A 2
4Be 1s2 2s2 2A 2
5B 1s2 2s2 2p1 3A 2
6C 1s2 2s2 2p1 2p1 4A 2
7N 1s2 2s2 2p1 2p1 2p1 5A 2
8O 1s2 2s2 2p2 2p1 2p1 6A 2
9F 1s2 2s2 2p2 2p2 2p1 7A 2
10Ne 1s2 2s2 2p2 2p2 2p2 8A 2
The electrons occupy the 2nd valence shell. Hence, they will be found in period
2. Since there are eight elements (Why? Refer to ASAQ 4-1) in period 2, then
there will be eight vertical columns in period 2. Li with one valence electron will
occupy the 1st vertical column (Group 1A) and Ne with eight outermost
electrons will occupy the 8th vertical column (Group 8A).
2. If Ru and Os belong to the same group or family as Fe, then they will all
have the same outermost electronic configuration of ns2 (n-1) d2d1d1d1d1.
3. Mn has one electron less than Fe while Co has one electron more. The
electronic configuration of Mn is 4s2 3d1d1d1d1d1 while that of Co is 4s2
3d2d2d1d1d1. Mn is in period 4, vertical column 7 while Co is in period 4,
vertical column 9 (9 valence electrons).
Let us summarize the concepts that we have discussed:
1. Elements in the same period will have electrons in the same valence (or
outermost) shell. The period number will therefore be the same as the
highest principal quantum number, n. Electrons of all elements in period 7
will occupy the 7th energy shell with n = 7.
2. Elements in the same group or family will have the same valence electrons.
All Group 6A elements will have 6 valence electrons with an outermost
electronic configuration of ns2 p2 p1 p1.
This is the confusing part! Everything depends on your understanding of
electronic configurations. The rest of the module will be merely definitions. If
you were able to answer this SAQ, you’ll breeze through the rest of this module.
Otherwise, practice by writing down the electronic configurations of elements,
and then specifying their period and group numbers. Refer to the periodic table
to see if your answers are correct.
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
We may classify the elements according to their electronic configurations into
four types:
The alkali metals are very reactive. They are stored under oil
Li because they react immediately with oxygen in the air and
Na vigorously with water. The alkali metals are very soft and light
K with low melting and boiling points.
Rb Only very small traces of francium exist on earth because all Be
Cs known isotopes of francium are radioactive. But we can predict Mg
Fr the properties of francium based on its relative position in the Ca
periodic table.
Sr
The alkaline earth metals are reactive elements but they are not Ba
as reactive as alkali metals. They may be used to make light Ra
alloys.
The p-block elements are those in vertical columns 13-17 of the periodic
F table and include groups 3A (ns2 p1) to 7A (ns2p2p2p1). These elements
Cl have partially filled p orbitals and include a mixture of metals,
Br metalloids, and non-metals.
I
At Group 7A elements are called halogens, meaning “salt former”, because
they react with metals to form salts. With the exception of helium, neon
and argon, all elements in the periodic table react with halogens.
Fluorine is very reactive and it is not found as an element in nature. At
ordinary temperatures, chlorine is a gas, bromine is a liquid, and iodine is
a solid.
2. Noble gases are found at the end of each period in group 8A. He
They are also called inert or rare gases because they are Ne
chemically unreactive and do not form compounds readily. Ar
They are colorless, odorless, and tasteless gases. All noble gases Kr
have outer configurations of ns2 p6, a very stable arrangement. Xr
Helium is used to fill balloons, and argon and neon are used as Rn
lights and gas lasers.
4. Inner-transition or f-block elements are all metals found at the bottom of the
periodic table but should properly follow 3B. The last electron added to each
element is an f electron, either 4f or 5f. The 6th period is called the lanthanide
series while the 7th period is the actinide series with atomic numbers from 89
to 103. All the isotopes of the actinides are radioactive. Of these elements,
only actinium (Ac), thorium (Th), protactinium (Pa), and uranium (U) occur
naturally.
SAQ 3-5
Draw a block diagram of a periodic table showing the classification of elements
according to their electronic configurations.
ASAQ 3-5
1s 1s2
2s 2p1 2p6
3s 3p1 3p6
4s 3d1 3d10 4p1 4p6
5s 4d1 4d10 5p1 5p6
6s 5d1 5d10 6p1 6p6
7s 6d1
4f1 4f14
1
5f 5f14
PERIODIC PROPERTIES
The periodic table is arranged such that elements with similar properties belong to
the same group. Moving down the groups, each level represents an additional
electron shell. These additional shells, the increased distance from the nucleus of
their valence electrons, and the shielding effect of the inner shells, result in these
electrons being bound less tightly. Hence, as one moves down from period 1 to
period 7 within a group, there is a decrease in attraction between the nucleus and
the valence electrons.
Elements from left to right within a period have the same valence shell of
electrons. The next element contains one more electron in this shell. The increase
in the nuclear mass and charge, without an increase in the number of energy
shells, results in a greater nuclear attraction on the valence electrons. The valence
electrons are bound more tightly. Hence, as one moves from left to right within a
period, there is an increasing nuclear attraction that draws valence electrons
inwards.
SAQ 3-6
1. Lithium belongs to group 1A and period 2. Its outermost electronic
configuration is 2s1. Francium belongs to group 1A and period 7 and its
outermost electronic configuration is 7s1.
a. What is the nuclear charge of Li? Ne? Which will exert a greater nuclear
attraction?
ASAQ 3-6
1.
a. Fr is bigger due to increase in atomic radius with increasing energy shells.
b. Fr readily loses its valence electron due to decrease in nuclear attraction. Hence,
the amount of energy needed to remove the most loosely held electron in Fr will
be lesser than that for hydrogen.
c. H readily attracts an electron (electrons are attracted to the nucleus).
2.
a. The nuclear charge of Li is +3 because it has 3 protons as dictated by its atomic
number. The nuclear charge of Ne is +10. Both has valence electrons in the 2nd
energy shell. Therefore, Ne will exert greater nuclear attraction.
b. Li is bigger than Ne because there is greater nuclear attraction in Ne and hence,
the electrons are drawn inwards.
c. Li readily loses its valence electron.
d. Although Ne exhibits greater nuclear attraction, it will not attract electrons
because it is chemically unreactive due to the stability of its filled outermost
electrons.
Remember that the larger the value of n, the further the energy shell is from the
nucleus, the lesser is the nuclear attraction, and the higher is the energy of the
electron in that shell.
1. Atomic size
SAQ 3-7
2. Francium, an alkali metal, has the lowest ionization energy while fluorine, a
nonmetal, has the highest electronegativity. What conclusions can you draw
regarding the tendency of metals and nonmetals to either lose or gain
electrons?
ASAQ 3-7
2. Metals have low ionization energies and they tend to lose electrons forming
positive charged ions called cations. Metallic property decreases (as
ionization energy increases) from left to right across a period and increases
(as ionization energy decreases) from top to bottom in a group.
M → M+ + e -
e-+ NM → NM-(g)
Were you able to deduce the tendency of metals to lose electrons and nonmetals
to gain electrons? Very good! This is the basis of our next module on chemical
bonding. If you were not able to do so, it’s alright. But definitely you’ll have to
fully understand that the relative positions of elements in the periodic table and
their classification is dictated by their electronic configurations. With regards to
periodic trends, just remember that a decrease in atomic radius means that the
ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity values for the atom
increase, and these reflect the increased attraction that the nucleus has for
electrons.
4
Chemical Bonds
INTRODUCTION
Chemical bonds are the forces that hold atoms together. The different types of
chemical bond include ionic bonds in salts, covalent bonds in molecules, and
metallic bonds between metal atoms. Which type of bond is formed depends on
the atoms involved, and on how their electrons are distributed.
We have described noble gases as being inert gases because they are chemically
unreactive and do not form compounds readily. Their stability is ascribed to their
outer electronic configuration of ns2p6, with filled orbitals. Hence, elements lose,
gain, or share electrons to have the same stable electronic configuration as a noble
gas. This is known as the octet rule referring to the eight valence electrons of
noble gases.
OBJECTIVES
IONIC BOND
Metals have low ionization potentials and they readily lose valence electrons to
achieve a stable electronic configuration. Metals form positive ions called cations.
Nonmetals are electronegative and tend to gain electrons forming negative ions
called anions. The electrostatic attraction between a cation and an anion results in
strong bonds – called ionic bonds or electrovalent bonds – that hold the ions
together in an ionic compound. An ionic bond, therefore, is formed by the
transfer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal.
Na Æ Na+ + e-
1s2
2s22p6
3s1
Cl + e- Æ Cl-
1s2
2s22p6
3s2 3p2p2p1
From these ionic charges, formulas may be derived knowing that the number of
electrons lost by the metal should be equal to the number of electrons gained by
the nonmetal. The total positive ionic charge must equal the total negative ionic
charge of that compound.
Na Æ Na+ + e-
Cl + e- Æ Cl-
Na + Cl Æ Na+Cl- (NaCl)
SAQ 4-1
ASAQ 4-1
1. Magnesium has two valence electrons while oxygen has six. Their
electronic configurations are:
Mg Æ Mg+2 + 2 e-
1s2
2s22p6
3s2 (tendency is to lose two electrons to be isoelectronic with neon)
O + 2e- Æ O-2
1s2
2s22p6
3s2 3p2p1p1 (tendency is to gain two electrons to have eight outer
electrons)
Mg Æ Mg+2 + 2 e-
O + 2e- Æ O-2
Mg + O Æ Mg+O- (MgO)
We need two chlorine atoms for every atom of magnesium to balance the
number.of electrons.
Mg Æ Mg+2 + 2 e-
(Cl + e- Æ Cl-)2
COVALENT BONDS
When atoms of non-metals react, molecules are formed which are held together
by covalent bonds. Since these atoms need to gain electrons, electron transfer
does not occur. Instead, electrons are shared. A covalent bond consists of a pair
of electrons that is shared by two non-metals. Each non-metal may contribute one
electron (normal covalent bond), or a single non-metal may contribute both
electrons (coordinate covalent bond).
Consider the bond formed by two hydrogen atoms. A hydrogen atom has one
electron occupying a 1s orbital and needs one more to have a filled 1s orbital.
Sharing of electrons between these two hydrogen atoms will make them
isoelectronic with helium (1s2).. The hydrogen molecule can be represented by
the symbol H:H or H-H. Although the electrons belong to the molecule as a
whole, each hydrogen atom can be considered to have the noble gas configuration
of helium. The strength of the covalent bond comes from the attraction of the
positively charged nuclei for the negative cloud of the bond.
Since the number of valence electrons is the same as the group number for the
nonmetals, then group 4A elements (s2p1p1) have four valence electrons and needs
four more to have eight valence electrons (octet rule). Thus, they form four
covalent bonds with other nonmetals to gain four electrons.
SAQ 4-2
How many covalent bonds will group 5A elements form? Group 6A? 7A?
ASAQ 4-2
Group 5A elements (s2p1p1p1) have five valence electrons and need two more.
They will form three covalent bonds. Group 6A elements (s2p2p1p1), with six
valence electrons, will form two covalent bonds to gain two electrons to have an
octet. With seven valence electrons, group 7A elements (s2p2p2p1) will form one
covalent bond.
What is the magic number? Eight!
A covalent bond with one electron pair is a single bond. In methane, CH4, carbon
has four single bonds as represented by four bonding electron pairs. Nitrogen has
five valence electrons and needs three more. It forms three single bonds with
hydrogen. Nitrogen in ammonia has three bonding electron pairs and a non-
bonding or unshared electron pair. Oxygen in water has two bonding electron
pairs and two nonbonding electron pairs for a total of eight valence electrons.
H H
H C H H N H H O H
Some covalent compounds contain multiple bonds. These may be either double
bonds, two shared pairs of electrons, or triple bonds, three bonding electron
pairs. Single bonds are formed by the overlap of the half-filled orbitals along their
axes (head-on overlap)
H H H Cl Cl Cl
a b c
Sigma bonds formed by the axial overlap of a) two s orbitals in H2
molecule; b) s and p orbitals in HCl molecule; and c) two p orbitals in
Cl2
O O
Oxygen atoms are doubly bonded to each other in O2 molecule.
There are one sigma bond, one pi bond, and two non-bonding O2
electron pairs in O2.
N N
Nitrogen atoms are triply bonded in N2 molecule. In N2, there are
one sigma bond, two pi bonds, and one non-bonding electron pair. N2
SAQ 4-3
2. Draw the Lewis structures for the following compounds: C2H6, C2H4, and
C2H2.
ASAQ 4-3
1. Lewis structures
Cl P Cl F Si F H Se H O C O
F
Cl SeH2 CO2
PCl3 SF4
2. Lewis structures
H H
H H
H C C H C C H C C H
H H
H H C2H2
C2H4
C3H6
Did you get the correct answers? You may have noticed that this is an all or
nothing type of SAQ. You either know or do not know how to draw the Lewis
structures. If you were able to draw one of the structures, you should be able to
draw the others. Let’s try drawing the Lewis structure of CO2 step by step:
O C
• with 6 valence electrons, oxygen can form only two bonds to have an octet
• carbon has only 6 electrons (2 bonding electron pairs and 2 unpaired
electrons) and needs two more
O C O
• each atom has now an octet of electrons with carbon having four bonding
electron pairs (two double bonds) and oxygen has two bonding electron pairs
and two non-bonding electron pairs
Molecular Geometry
The molecular geometry is the arrangement of the atoms in space. The geometry
or shape of a molecule is dictated by the valence shell electron pair repulsion
(VSEPR) theory. This theory simply states that electron pairs, both bonding and
non-bonding, will repel one another. Hence, to minimize repulsion, electron pairs
are arranged as far apart as possible from each other.
Two electron pairs are arranged linearly, 180o apart. The shape of three electron
pairs is trigonal planar and they are 1200 apart. Four electron pairs will have the
shape of a tetrahedron with a bond angle equal to 109.50.
SAQ 4-4
ASAQ 4-4
If you got at least 60% correct answers, that’s still ok, provided you were able to
answer that CO2 and C2H2 are both linear. Here’s a short cut based on the number
of bonds and non-bonding electron pairs:
In PCl3, phosphorus is bonded to three atoms but don’t forget the non-bonding
electron pair. Hence, its type formula is AB3E and it is trigonal pyramidal. SeH2
is AB2E2.
Polarity of Molecules
SAQ 4-5
ASAQ 4-5
The dipoles in PCl3 are in opposite directions and they
cancel out but their magnitudes differ. Hence, PCl3 is
weakly polar. In contrast, SiF4 is non-polar because the
P dipoles cancel out and the magnitudes of the bond dipoles
Cl Cl Cl are the same because all the bonds are identical (Si → F).
Weakly polar PCl3 SeH2 is polar using the same reason to explain the polarity
of water. All the other molecules are non-polar due to their
symmetrical tetrahedral and linear shapes.
SAQ 4-6
Let us first integrate what we have studied so far. Do not use a periodic table.
Given a hypothetical compound X with atomic number of 8 and mass number
of 18. Give the following:
a. Number of protons;
b. Number of electrons;
c. Number of neutrons;
d. Its electronic configuration;
e. The quantum numbers of the differentiating or last electron;
f. The type of element;
g. Its period number and group number
h. The most stable ion it can form;
i. Compound formed when it reacts with Mg (2A);
j. The type of chemical bond formed in i;
k. Compound formed when it reacts with F (7A);
l. The type of chenical bond formed in k;
m. Polarity of the bond formed in k;
n. Shape of the molecule in k;
o. Polarity of the molecule in k.
ASAQ 4-6
o. weakly polar
X
F F
Another sequence question. You must hate them by now! With or without a
periodic table, you should be able to locate an element based on its electronic
configuration. You should be able to predict the type and number of chemical
bonds that an element will form based on the number of valence electrons.
Let us digress a bit and go back to a discussion of solutions (module 2). We can
now better understand solutions with our background knowledge on polarity of
molecules. The principle followed in solubility is “like dissolves like”. Non-polar
solute, the substance to be dissolved, dissolves in non-polar solvents, the
dissolving medium. Polar solute dissolves in polar solvents.
SAQ 4-7
ASAQ 4-7
SeH2 is polar and will thus be soluble in water. All the other molecules, being
non-polar, will be soluble in a non-polar solvent such as CCl4.
Remember: “like dissolves like”.
METALLIC BOND
-- --
Metals have low ionization potentials. The outer +
+ --
electrons of metal atoms are loosely held and move --
--
freely throughout a metallic crystal. The positive metal -- +
-- --
ions are packed together tightly. The negative cloud of + -- +
the freely moving electrons binds the crystal together. -- --
This is the electron-sea model where the positive metal Metal cations in a sea of
ions are in a sea of electrons. electrons
• Metals conduct heat and electricity. The valence electrons of metal absorb
heat and transfer it rapidly to all parts of the metal. It is also this sea of
electrons that carries an electric current.
• Metals are malleable and ductile. The bonds between metal atoms are not held
in a fixed position because the electrons are mobile. Hence, bonds between
metallic atoms can change direction when the metal is bent (ductility) or
hammered (malleability), rather than simply breaking.
• Most metals have comparatively high densities and melting points. The
metallic bond is strong as shown by the close-packed arrangement of the
positive metal ions and the electrostatic attraction between the metal cations
and the electrons.
• Metals are lustrous. Luster is light emitted by electrons when they go into
lower energy orbitals.
SAQ 4-8
ASAQ 4-8
Nonmetals are:
Let us summarize what we have learned about metals and nonmetals. Metal atoms
are held together by metallic bonds while nonmetal atoms are joined through
covalent bonding. The properties of metals are explained by their low ionization
potentials and the freely moving electrons. The properties of nonmetals are
dictated by their high electronegativities and the shared electron pairs.
METALLOIDS
Metalloids, such as silicon and germanium, are normally poor conductors. The
atoms of Si and Ge have four outer electrons that are linked with those of
adjacent atoms, and no electrons are free for conduction. But at high
temperatures or when minute impurities are added to them in a process known
as “doping”, they become much better conductors. If the impurity used for
doping has five outer electrons, such as phosphorus or arsenic, then only four of
these electrons are needed for bonding, and there will be “free” electrons
available. Such process is called n (negative) -doping. The addition of atoms
such as boron, aluminium, or gallium, with only three valence electrons, will
result in vacancies or holes among the bonding electrons. This hole behaves like
a positive charge and attracts electrons towards it. This process is p (positive) -
doping. Semi-conductors are used in transistors, integrated circuits, electronic
circuits present in microcomputers, audio and video equipment, and
communication satellites; in solar cells; in semiconductor lasers (acronym for
light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), which are used in space
communications, in medicine to cut, cauterise, and weld certain tissues, and in
laser-guided missiles, aircrafts, and satellites.
5
Chemical Reactions
INTRODUCTION
A chemical reaction occurs when substances, called reactants, change into new
substances, the products. Recall that chemical reactions may either be
combination, decomposition, displacement, or double displacement. For a
chemical reaction to take place, the bonds between atoms and molecules in
reactants must break and then re-form in different ways to form the products. The
products have different physical and chemical properties from those of the
reactants. A chemical equation describes a chemical reaction.
Matter is not created nor destroyed during chemical reactions. They are simply
rearranged. This is a statement of the Law of Conservation of Mass. This is the
same principle that governs stoichiometry, the quantitative study of reactants and
products in a chemical reaction.
OBJECTIVES
The molecular mass is just the sum of all the masses of the atoms in the
molecule. For example, the molecular mass of H2SO4 is equal to 2(1.0 amu) +
32.0 amu + 4(16.0 amu) or a total of 98.0 amu.
SAQ 5-1
1. Three isotopes of silicon occurs in nature: 28Si (92.21%), which has a mass of
27.97693 amu; 29Si (4.70%), which has a mass of 28.97649 amu; and 30Si
(3.09%), which has a mass of 29.97376 amu. Calculate the atomic mass of
silicon.
2. Calculate the molecular mass of sucrose, table sugar, C12H22O11, and the
formula mass of calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2.
ASAQ 5-1
Easy question. Note the use of formula mass when referring to the mass of ionic
compounds.
MOLE CONCEPT
How do we count the number of atoms of an element or the number of molecules
of a compound? We use the mole concept. By international agreement, one mole
of a substance contains as many particles as the number of atoms in exactly 12
grams of 12C. This number was determined experimentally and is equal to
6.022045 x 1023 particles. This is known as Avogadro’s number. Recall that
Avogadro is the scientist who proposed one of the gas laws discussed in module
2. A mole is simply a term, much like a dozen for 12, a ream for 500 sheets, a
century for 100 years, or a millenium for 1000.
The mass of one mole of a substance, known as the molar mass, is numerically
equal to the atomic mass of the element and the molecular mass of the compound
but its unit is grams. Hence, 1 mole of silicon contains 6.022 x 1023 Si atoms and
has a mass of 28.09 grams. One mole of H2SO4 and 1 mole of sucrose will each
contain 6.022 x 1023 molecules but will have molar masses equal to 98 grams and
342 grams, respectively.
What is the mass of a single atom of 12C? The mass of 6.022 x 1023 atoms of 12C
is 12 grams. Therefore, the mass of 1 atom of carbon is
Mass in grams of 1 atom of 12C = 1 atom x (12 grams / 6.022 x 1023 atoms)
= 1.661 x 10-24 grams
How many atoms are present in 1.0 g sample of Na? We know that 1 mole of Na
contains 6.022 x 1023 Na atoms. The mass of 1 mole of Na is 22.99 grams. In
equation form:
1 mole Na = 6.022 x 1023 atoms Na
1 mole Na = 23.0 g
SAQ 5-2
ASAQ 5-2
1. a) 1 mole of H2 = 2 grams H2
1 mole of H2 = 6.022 x 1023 molecules H2
1moleH 2
gH 2 = 10gH 2 ( ) = 5molesH 2
2gH 2
The solution above is known as dimensional analysis. Always add the units to
the number they qualify. It involves the use of a conversion factor. The
conversion factor describes the same quantity but in different units. Hence, it is
an equality and hence the ratio is 1. From the above example, there are 2
conversion factors that we can used:
1moleH2 2gH 2
=
2gH 2 1moleH2
Use a conversion factor such that the unit of the denominator cancels with the
given unit and the unit of the numerator has the desired unit. In some cases, it
may be necessary to use more than one conversion factor. In the above
example, we were given 10 grams of H2. Our desired unit is moles H2. We then
use a conversion factor where grams H2 is in the denominator and molesH2 is in
the numerator.
2. Molecular mass of aspartame = 14(12 amu) + 18(1 amu) + 2(14 amu) + 5 (16
amu) = 294 amu (notice that we are using whole number approximations of
the atomic masses)
a) molar mass of aspartame = 294 grams
b)
1mole
73.5g( ) = 0.25mole
294g
ASAQ 5-2
c)
294g
0.75mole( ) = 221g
1mole
The above SAQ and ASAQ involves the interconversion of moles, molecules,
grams.
14(12)
%C = x100 = 57%
294
18(1)
%H = x100 = 6%
294
14(2)
%N = x100 = 10%
294
5(16)
%O = x100 = 27%
294
SAQ 5-3
ASAQ 5-3
100 g of nicotine would contain 74.1 g C, 8.6 g H, and 17.3 g N. However, the
subscripts in the formula refer to the relative number of moles of the element.
Hence, we have to convert grams to mole:
1moleC
74.1gC( ) = 6.17moleC
12.01gC
1moleH
8.6gH( ) = 8.5moleH
1.008gH
1moleN
17.3gN( ) = 1.23moleN
14.01gN
To get a whole number ratio, we divide the number of moles by the least number:
For example, the molar mass of nicotine is about 160g. What is its molecular
formula? The empirical mass of nicotine is 5(12 g) + 7(1g) + 1(14g) or 81 g.
Since its molar mass is twice its empirical mass, then the number of atoms in the
molecular formula must be twice the number of atoms in the empirical formula.
The molecular formula of nicotine is 2(C5H7N) or C10H14N2.
SAQ 5-4
ASAQ 5-4
1moleC
0.624gC( ) = 0.0520moleC / 0.0130 = 4molesC
12.01gC
1moleH
0.065gH( ) = 0.064moleH / 0.0130 = 5molesH
1.008gH
1moleN
0.364gN( ) = 0.0260moleN / 0.0130 = 2molesN
14.01gN
1moleO
0.208gO( ) = 0.0130moleO / 0.0130 = 1moleO
16.00gO
STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry that deals with mass relations between
elements and compounds in chemical reactions. It predicts the amount of products
that can be produced using specific amounts of reactants. Or the amount of
reactants needed to produce a specified amount of the product.
According to the Law of Conservation of Mass, when substances react, they are
neither created nor destroyed. The total number of atoms before and after a
chemical reaction is unchanged. Hence, the total mass of the reactants should be
equal to the total mass of the products.
For example, in the formation of water from its constituent elements, we write the
chemical equation as H2 + O2 Æ H2O. However, notice that, although we have the
same number of H atoms on both sides of the equation, we have 2 O atoms on the
reactant side and only 1 O atom on the product side. We balanced the O atoms by
adding the prefix 2 to H2O as follows: H2 + O2Æ 2H2O. An inspection of the
equation shows that the H atoms are not balanced – 2 H atoms on the reactant side
and 4 H atoms on the product side. The balanced equation is therefore: 2H2 + O2
Based on the balanced equation, we can now compute for the relative amounts of
reactants and products. For example, a) how many grams of O2 will react with 10
grams of H2? b) How many mole of H2O is produced when 5 grams O2 reacts
with sufficient amount of H2. c) What masses of H2 and O2 are needed to prepare
15 grams of H2O?
2H2 + O2 Æ 2H2O
mole:mole relationship: 2 moles 1mole 2 moles
mass:mass relationship: 4g 32 g 36g
32gO 2
a )10gH 2 ( ) = 80gO 2
4gH 2
2molesH 2O
b)5gO 2 ( ) = 0.3moleH 2 O
32gO 2
4gH 2
c)15gH 2 O( ) = 1.7gH 2
36gH 2 O
32gO 2
15gH 2 O( ) = 13gO 2
36gH 2 O
SAQ 5-5
Suppose 3.00g of salicylic acid are heated with 5.00 g of acetic anhydride,
which reagent will be completely consumed? How many grams of aspirin can
be produced? How many grams of the excess reagent are left unconsumed?
ASAQ 5-5
3.00 grams of salicylic acid react with 2.22g acetic anhydride. Therefore,
salicylic acid is completely consumed. It is called the limiting reagent. Acetic
acid is the excess reagent. It is in excess by (5.00-2.22)g or 2.78 g.
Did you check if the chemical equation is balanced? Never assume that the
given equation is balanced. Remember that stoichiometric calculations are
based on a balanced equation.
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is the study of the interconversion of heat and other forms of
energy. It will help us understand the energies involved during a chemical
reaction and the directions of these reactions.
Enthalpy
Almost all chemical reactions absorb or release energy. A calorimeter is used
to measure these energy changes. The substances involved in the chemical
reaction are called the system. Everything outside the system is known as the
surroundings. In the laboratory, beakers, flasks, and test tubes are part of the
surroundings. A system may exchange mass and energy with the surrounding,
Module 5: Chemical Reactions 90
Natural Science I UP Open University
an open system, energy but not mass, a closed system, or neither, an isolated
system.
ΔH = Hproducts - Hreactants
If heat is given off during a chemical reaction, then the enthalpy of the products
becomes lower than that of the reactants, and ΔH is negative. This is an
exothermic reaction. On the other hand, when heat is absorbed, ΔH is positive
and the reaction is endothermic. For an athermic reaction, there is no energy
change during the chemical reaction and ΔH is zero. For example, melting of ice
and evaporation of water are both endothermic processes. The opposite reactions,
freezing and condensation of water, are exothermic reactions.
Of these two examples, melting of ice is said to be spontaneous. A spontaneous
reaction proceeds on its own without outside assistance. Other examples of
spontaneous processes are the rusting of iron, dissolution of salt and sugar in
water, and mixing of gases in all proportions. In general, a reaction is more likely
to be spontaneous if it is exothermic rather than endothermic, but there are other
factors we must consider.
Entropy
Another thermodynamic function that is needed to predict the spontaneity of a
reaction is entropy, S. Entropy is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a
system. According to the second law of thermodynamics, the entropy of the
universe increases in a spontaneous reaction. In the above examples, melting of
ice involves an increase in entropy from the solid state, a highly ordered state, to
the liquid state and ΔS is positive. The same holds true when water evaporates to
the gaseous state, a highly disordered state.
ΔG = Gproducts - Greactants
If the products of the reaction have a lower free energy than the reactants, then
ΔG is negative and the reaction is spontaneous. If the products have a higher free
energy, ΔG is positive and energy is needed for the reaction to proceed. Hence,
this is a non-spontaneous reaction. The reverse reaction is, of course,
spontaneous. If the free energies of the reactants and products are equal, then ΔG
is zero and the reaction is in chemical equilibrium. This means that the rate of the
forward reaction is equal to the rate of the backward reaction.
The change in Gibbs free energy combines changes in enthalpy, entropy, and
temperature. It is given by the equation:
ΔG = ΔH - TΔS
Going back to the previous examples, melting of ice has positive ΔH and ΔS. The
process becomes spontaneous at room temperature because the melting point of
ice is 00C or 273K. The freezing of water has negative ΔH and ΔS, and the
process becomes spontaneous at 00C, the freezing point of water.
SAQ 5-6
ASAQ 5-6
The examples that were given are practical, everyday occurrences. We know that
water will not boil by itself. We have to heat it. We now know the
thermodynamics involved in these processes – the interplay between enthalpy,
entropy, and Gibbs free energy.
CHEMICAL KINETICS
In the discussion on thermodynamics, we predicted whether or not a chemical
reaction would take place. Once started, different reactions take place at different
rates. The erosion of a mountain, although spontaneous, is a very slow process.
On the other hand, the chemical reactions taking place in an explosion are
extremely fast even though an explosion is not spontaneous. We have to light
firecrackers and Roman candles to start the reaction of potassium nitrate, which
supplies oxygen, with substances such as charcoal and sulfur to produce heat and
light. Of course, you have experienced how fast you would withdraw your hand
from a painful stimulus like heat.
Raising the pressure also increases the rates of gaseous reactions. The reactants
are brought closer together, and they therefore have a greater chance of colliding.
In solids, the surface area affects the overall rate. Bigger surface areas expose
more particles to other reactants at any one time. Sawdust burn faster than logs.
Fire builders always start with kindling.
Catalysts increase the rate of chemical reactions by providing a large surface area
on which reactants may react or by affording an alternative reaction path with
lower activation energy. Enzymes catalyze many biochemical reactions or cell
processes. For example, the enzyme trypsin cuts protein into shorter pieces, as
part of the digestive process in the intestines.
In the oil refinery, cracking is used to break down complex organic molecules into
simpler compounds. This is done either by the application of heat and high
pressure, a process known as thermal cracking, or by catalytic cracking, which is
a combination of heat and a catalyst, usually alumina-silica gel powders. In
catalytic converters of automobiles, palladium and platinum are used as catalysts
to change pollutants, such as CO, into the less toxic CO2 and water.
SAQ 5-7
4. One's skin becomes tanned more readily in the summer than during the cold
weather.
ASAQ 5-7
1. Concentration
2. Temperature
3. Temperature – Insects are cold-blooded animals.
4. Temperature
5. Catalyst
6. Surface area
We now have the scientific basis for the things that we do and observed in our
daily lives. Everything that we do and observe involves either physical or
chemical changes. In this module, our interest was on chemical changes or
chemical reactions. Stoichiometry gave us the recipe, what and how much of the
reactants do we need to produce the desired product. Chemical Thermodynamics
helped us predict whether the change, both physical and chemical, will take place.
Chemical Kinetics helped us deduce the rates of these reactions.
In the next module, we will still be discussing chemical reactions. But this time,
these reactions do not take place in the laboratory but in living organisms. These
are biochemical reactions.
6
Organic and Biochemistry
INTRODUCTION
Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of carbon
compounds. It involves a wide variety of chemical reactions, both natural and
synthetic. Examples of organic compounds are plastics, pharmaceuticals, dyes,
pesticides, vitamins, fats, carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. The last four
examples are called biomolecules, substances that are essential for life. These
biomolecules carry out the chemical reactions that enable living organisms to
grow and reproduce. The branch of chemistry that studies the structures and
functions of biomolecules is biochemistry.
OBJECTIVES
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
From our previous discussion, recall that carbon belongs to group 4A, thus it
has 4 valence electrons. It needs 4 more to have an octet of electrons. Therefore,
it forms 4 covalent bonds. These bonds may either be 4 single bonds, 2 double
bonds, 2 single and 1 double bonds, or a triple and single bonds. Carbon can
also form long chains and rings or cyclic compounds. This ability to form 4
covalent bonds to other non-metals accounts for the large number, almost 4
million, and diverse structures of organic compounds. Organic compounds
contain carbon attached to other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
sulfur, and the halogens. The groups that distinguishes organic compounds from
each other are called functional groups. They determine the chemical
properties of organic compounds.
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are made up of carbon and hydrogen. They may be open-chain or
cyclic. Saturated hydrocarbons contain single bonds while unsaturated
hydrocarbons have multiple bonds, double or triple. This are the simplest of the
organic compounds and may be considered as the parent compounds from which
other organic compounds were derived. Hydrocarbons are non-polar compounds
and, hence, are insoluble in water.
Alkenes or olefins contain a carbon-carbon double bond and have the type
formula CnH2n. The simplest member is ethene, H2C=CH2. Ethene is present in
coal gas and petroleum. It is also a plant hormone causing the ripening of fruits.
Polymerization of ethene produces polyethylene, or polyethene, which is used as
plastic. In naming alkenes, we simply change the suffix –ane for alkanes with the
suffix –ene. Alkenes are chemically reactive, adding atoms at the double bonds.
Isoprene and butadiene are present in natural rubber and are used in the
manufacture of synthetic rubber and plastics.
Alkynes contain a carbon-carbon triple bond and have the general formula CnH2n-
2. They are chemically alike to alkenes, adding atoms at the triple bond. Ethyne,
HC≡CH, burns very strongly in oxygen. It is used in oxy-acetylene torches for
cutting and welding metals.
The functional group present in ethers is C-O-C. The word ether refers to diethyl
ether, CH3CH2OCH2CH3, which was formerly used as a general anesthetic for
surgery. However, ethyl ether has serious side effects and is highly flammable.
An epoxide is a cyclic ether with the oxygen atom forming a bridge between two
adjacent carbons. It is commonly used as an adhesive.
The functional group of aldehydes and ketones is the carbonyl carbon, C=O. The
simplest aldehyde is methanal or formaldehyde, HCHO. You are more familiar
with formalin, which is used as a preservative, mostly for cadavers. Formalin
contains 40% formaldehyde and 60% water or alcohol. Do you still recall the
formalin scare, that formalin is also used in the preservation of fruits and
vegetables? Recent studies showed that formaldehyde is carcinogenic. Recent
studies also showed that alcoholic pregnant women give birth to babies with
physical malformations, a malady known as teratogenesis. This is due to the
metabolism of ethanol to ethanal, a known teratogen. You have also used acetone
to remove nail polish. It is the simplest ketone and it is also known as propanone.
It is a very important solvent in the laboratory and in industry. A word of caution
– acetone is flammable!
SAQ 6-1
What is the structure of propanone, commonly known as acetone? What are the
formulas of propane, propene, propyne, propanol, and propanal?
ASAQ 6-1
The suffix –one indicates that propanone is a ketone. Hence, the functional
group is C=O. Unlike aldehydes which contain a terminal carbonyl carbon,
ketones have a C=O that is internal, which means that the carbonyl carbon is
bonded to two hydrocarbon groups. The prefix prop- indicates the presence of
three carbons. Hence, the structure of propanone is
H3 C C H3
C
O
CH3CHCH3
OH
Notice that the first and the third carbons are equivalent and they are both
position 1.
Did you get the correct formulas? Good! Notice that the naming of organic
compounds is very systematic. The prefix gives the number of carbons while
the suffix indicates the functional group present. The names given above are
IUPAC names. Some organic compounds are more popularly known by their
common names such as acetone. The common name of 2-propanol is isopropyl
alcohol. Sounds familiar? You’re right! Isopropyl alcohol is rubbing alcohol.
Remember the TV ad on the 70% versus 40% isopropyl alcohol?
Do not forget that carbon has 4 bonds each, oxygen has two, and each
hydrogen has 1 bond.
Other atoms, such as the halogens, nitrogen, and sulfur may be substituted for
hydrogen in an alkane, as long as the correct number of chemical bonds is
observed – one bond for halogens, three bonds for nitrogen, and two bonds for
sulfur. Hence, CH3CH2Cl is ethyl chloride, CH3CH2NH2 is ethyl amine, and
CH3CH2SH is ethyl thiol.
SAQ 6-2
What are the functional groups present in the following organic compounds?
CH3
CH3 CH3 CH3 H3C
CH2OH
2
CH3
Retinol
CH3
CH2OH
COOH O
H COH O
O
O C C H3
H
HO OH
Ascorbic acid Acetylsalicylic acid or Aspirin
NH C C H3 CH3C HCOOH
OH C H2CH(CH3)2
Acetaminophen Ibuprofen
SAQ 6-2
CH3 CH3
N O O N
2 CH3COCCH3
OH CH3C O O O CCH3
HO O
O Heroin O
Morphine
ASAQ 6-2
Ascorbic acid is, of course, Vitamin C. Although it is an acid, it does not belong
to the carboxylic acid group. The functional groups present are alcohols (-OH)
and an alkene (C=C) moieties. Also present is an ester, specifically a cyclic ester
or a lactone. We usually take Vitamin C when we have colds. Fruits rich in
Vitamin C are oranges, lemons, tomatoes, dalanghita, pomelo, among others.
Vitamin C deficiency leads to a malady known as scurvy, which is characterized
by weakness, spongy and inflamed gums, loose teeth, swollen and tender joints,
and hemorrhage.
CH2OH
HO OH
Ascorbic acid
ASAQ 6-2
Both morphine and heroin are alkaloids. Morphine is extracted from opium
poppy, Papaver somniferum. They are both amines. The phenol and the alcohol
groups present in morphine were both converted into an ester in heroine. The
other functional groups present are an alkene, a cyclic ether, and cycloalkanes.
Morphine is also an analgesic but it is considered a drug, rather than a medicine,
because is addictive. It is an opiate whose analgesic property is similar to
endorphins and enkephalins, the body’s natural painkillers. (Have you seen the
movie “I Come in Peace”?). A synthetic derivative of morphine is Demerol,
usually given as a painkiller when giving birth. Heroine is three times as potent
as morphine.
You are familiar with the different examples of organic substances we have
discussed. β-carotene is added to orange juices and to some noodles. A related
compound, lycopene, is present in tomato sauce and catsup. How many times
have you use aspirin, Alaxan, Tylenol for body pains and fever? Of course, you
know that heroin is banned and morphine is very seldom used except for pain
management. Another banned drug is shabu or methamphetamine hydrochloride.
It belongs to a group of chemicals known as amphetamines. Amphetamines are
used to treat depression. However, abusive use leads to serious mental illness
including paranoia, delusions, hallucinations, and violent behavior.
BIOMOLECULES
Biochemistry is study of the substances found in living organisms, called
biomolecules, and the chemical reactions that are necessary for a living cell to
carry out its functions. Biomolecules are also called giant molecules or
biopolymers. They are made up of thousands of atoms with repeating units,
known as monomers or building blocks. The important classes of biomolecules
are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are made up of sugars. They are classified based on the number
of sugar units – monosaccharides, with one sugar unit, di-, tri-, and
polysaccharides. The most popular monosaccharide is glucose, which is the
major product in plant photosynthesis. Glucose is present in the blood of
animals, in honey, and in juices of fruits. It is used mainly as a sweetening
agent. Another example of a monosaccharide is fructose, which is also known
as fruit sugar. Glucose is a polyhydroxy aldehyde, an aldose, while fructose is a
polyhydroxy ketone, a ketose. Glucose is an aldohexose, a polyhydroxy
aldehyde with six carbons, while fructose is a ketohexose.
CHO
H OH
CH2OH CH2OH
H OH O O
HO HO OH
HO H HO HO
OH OH
H OH
OH
CH2OH α-D-Glucose β-D-Glucose
Fischer structure of
D-Glucose
CH2OH 4 CH2OH
CH2OH 4 CH2OH O O
O O
HO HO 1 O OH
HO 1 HO HO HO
OH OH OH OH
O OH
Maltose Cellobiose
Proteins
Protein is derived from the Greek word proteios, meaning first. They are giant
molecules, with molecular masses of 10,000 amu and more, whose building
blocks are amino acids. Amino acids are alpha-amino carboxylic acids whose
general formula is
R
H 2N COOH
H
When the carboxylic acid group, -COOH, of one amino acid reacts with the
amino group, -NH2, of another amino acid, a peptide bond is formed.
peptide bond
CH3 H O CH3
H
H 2N COOH + H2N COOH H 2N C NH COOH
H H H H
SAQ 6-3
What is the functional group present in a peptide bond? How many possible
dipeptides are formed when glycine reacts with alanine?
ASAQ 6-3
The primary structure of proteins is the linear polypeptide chain. The presence
of intermolecular forces of attraction between atoms of the amino acid moieties
bring about the coiling and folding of proteins into its secondary structures,
either as alpha helix or beta pleated sheets. The intermolecular forces of
attraction are hydrogen bonds, London dispersion forces between non-polar
amino acids, dipole-dipole attractions between polar amino acids, and disulfide
bridges. Proteins are further classified according to their tertiary structure: either
as fibrous proteins or globular proteins.
Fibrous Proteins
Fibrous proteins are not soluble in water. They are long and thread-like and
form fibers by intramolecular hydrogen-bonding. Their function is chiefly
structural. Structural proteins are present in tissues and organs. They are
necessary in the growth and repair of tissues. Examples of fibrous proteins are
collagen, keratin, fibrinogen, and myosin. The tensile strength of bones, skin,
tendons, and cartilage is due to collagen. Keratin is present in skin, hair, nails,
wool, horn, feathers, scales, hooves. Curly hair is due to disulfide linkages.
Therefore, hair straightening involves breaking these disulfide bridges using a
suitable reagent. Can you imagine what will happen if our fibrous proteins are
water-soluble? Fibrinogen is a globular protein which is converted into the
fibrous protein fibrin, and causes the clotting of blood. Myosin combines with
actin, both muscle proteins, to form actomyosin, which is responsible for
muscle contraction.
Globular Proteins
Molecules of globular proteins are coiled into compact units which are spherical
in shape. They are water soluble. Their function is mainly regulatory in nature.
All enzymes, some hormones, antibodies, albumin, hemoglobin are examples of
globular proteins. Enzymes are biological catalysts that increase the rates of
metabolism in the body, both catabolic and anabolic. Examples of enzymes are
amylases in saliva, which initiates the digestion of starch; alcohol
dehydrogenase, which catalyzes the conversion of ethanol to ethanal; carbonic
anhydrase in blood plasma, which catalyzes both the formation of carbonic
acid, H2CO3, and its decomposition to CO2 and H2O – essential in the
maintenance of the pH, or level of acidity, of the blood; proteases, which
breaks down proteins. Other enzymes are oxidases, reductases, hydrolases,
lyases, transferases, whose functions are apparent in their names.
Hormones are chemical messengers that direct the activities of plants and
animals. Plant hormones regulate the growth and development of plants.
Examples are auxins, which promote growth to occur at the top of the plant
stem; gibberellins stimulate the growth of plants, including the growth of side
buds; cytokinins promote cell division and differentiation; and ethene, which is
responsible for ripening in fruits.
Lipids
Lipids are biomolecules that are insoluble in water. They are hydrophobic and
are
described as being lipophilic or fat-soluble. Classified as lipids are fats,
phospholipids, steroids, and fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamin A, E, and K.
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
A deficiency in Vitamin A causes night blindness while an excess weakens the
bones and cartilage. Cod-liver oil and fishes are sources of Vitamin A. Seed
oils and wheat germ are rich in Vitamin E, another essential nutrient whose
specific role in the human body is not as yet identified. Vitamin K is essential
for blood clotting because it produces prothrombin, an enzyme that converts
fibrinogen into fibrin. Rich sources of Vitamin K are green leafy vegetables and
egg yolk.
Fats
Fat are triglycerides produced from the reaction of fatty acids with glycerol. We
have already mentioned several fatty acids such as lauric acid, oleic acid,
linoleic acid, and linolenic acid when we discussed carboxylic acids.
O
CH2OH CH2OC(CH2)10CH3
O
CHOH + 3 CH3(CH2)10COOH CHOC(CH2)10CH3
O
CH2OH CH2OC(CH2)10CH3
The glycerol group is the same for all fats. The fatty acids vary, resulting in fats
with different properties. The fat illustrated above is a simple fat, which
contains only one type of fatty acid. Mixed fats or mixed triglycerides contain
two or three different fatty acids.
SAQ 6-4
ASAQ 6-4
Fats are esters. Fats are water-insoluble because of the non-polar long-chain
hydrocarbon moiety.
Fatty acids are classified as either saturated or unsaturated fatty acids. From our
previous discussion, saturated fatty acids are joined by single bonds while the
characteristic feature of unsaturated fatty acids is the presence of a double
bond. Lauric acid is a saturated fatty acid while oleic, linoleic, and linolenic
acids are examples of unsaturated fatty acids. Unsaturated fatty acids are liquids
at room temperatures or oils and are usually of vegetable origin such as coconut
oil, palm oil, corn oil, olive oil, soybean oil, among others. Meats and dairy
products are sources of saturated fats. Monounsaturated fats are present in olive
oil and avocados while polyunsaturated fatty acids, with more than 1 double
bond, are found in fish and vegetable oils.
Fats are energy reservoirs and are used as lubricants and insulators. More
energy can be stored as fat than as carbohydrate or protein. In the above
reaction, the backward reaction, hydrolysis of fat, occurs when fats are broken
down during digestion. Digestion of fats is exothermic and yields energy.
A word of caution: Too much eating of animal fat causes obesity and raises the
level of cholesterol in the blood. This causes atherosclerosis, in which fatty
deposits build up on the inside walls of arteries. Atherosclerosis is the principal
cause of heart disease and strokes. Fat burners are the in thing now.
Phospholipids
The structure of phospholipids is similar to fats with one of the fatty acid side-
chains being replaced by a phosphate group, PO4-3. The phosphate group is
hydrophilic while the fatty acid chains are hydrophobic. Phospholipids form a
bilayer structure in cell membranes, with the polar groups on the outside and the
non-polar groups in the middle, forming a thin layer of fat that encloses the cell.
O
CH2OC-(CH2)10CH3
O non-polar side chains
CHOC-(CH2)14CH3
O
CH2OP O- polar phosphate group
O -
The cell membrane is approximately 50% phospholipids and 50% proteins. Many
of the proteins have attached long carbohydrate chains and these are called
glycoproteins. Cell membranes are semi-permeable. The middle non-polar fatty
layer acts as a barrier to molecules that are lipophobic or hydrophilic. These
hydrophilic molecules may pass through pores in some protein molecules through
simple diffusion or through active transport.
Steroids
The more popular examples of steroids are the sex hormones, testosterone,
estrogen, and progesterone. Some oral contraceptives are synthetic steroids
made of female sex hormones and they function by inhibiting ovulation. On the
other hand, anabolic steroids are derived from the male sex hormone. They are
used to increase weight and muscle mass. In 1974, the International Olympics
Committee banned the use of anabolic steroids because they have been misused
by many athletes.
Another example are the sterols. We have already discussed cholesterol. Some
sterols are converted to Vitamin D when the skin is exposed to the ultraviolet rays
of the sun. Vitamin D is needed for normal bone formation because it helps in the
retention of calcium and phosphorus in the body.
Nucleic Acids
The name nucleic acid was derived from the word nucleus because they were
initially isolated from the nucleus of the cell. The two types of nucleic acids are
DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, and RNA, ribonucleic acid. DNA is the hereditary
or genetic material of the cell while RNA takes part in protein synthesis. The
tightly coiled DNA, along with proteins, is present in chromosomes.
Chromosomes are divided into units called genes.
Chromosomes exist in pairs, one inherited from the mother and the other from the
father. The number of chromosome pairs varies with the species. For example,
dogs have 38 pairs, tomato has 12 pairs, and humans have 23 pairs, a pair of
which are called sex chromosomes. One sex chromosome is inherited from the
mother, always an X chromosome, while the other is from the father, either an X
or a Y chromosome. Females have an XX chromosome pair while males have an
XY chromosome pair. This topic will be discussed further in your Natural Science
II course.
RNA is a single strand, helical structure with alternating ribose and phosphate as
the backbone. DNA is a double stranded helix, similar to a spiral staircase, the
structure of which was determined by Francis Crick (1916- ) and James Dewey
Watson (1928- ), both 1962 Nobel laureates. Similar to RNA, the DNA strands
are made up of alternating 2-deoxyribose and phosphate. The two strands are held
together by hydrogen bonds between specific base pairs – adenine with thymine
(A-T) and guanine with cytosine (G-C).
ATG GC TG C A
TA C ATCG A C A G
T CG T
CG TA CGT A
replication
transcription translation
DNA RNA Proteins
In replication, the DNA helix unwinds and each strand acts as a template. In the
above example, a portion of one strand, the parent strand, contains the base
sequence ATGC and the new strand, a daughter strand, will contain the
complementary base sequence TAGC. The base sequence TAGC is present in the
other parent strand and its daughter strand will contain the base sequence ATGC.
These produce two identical double helices DNA molecules, the strands always
consist of an old parent strand and a new daughter strand.
7
Applications of Chemistry
INTRODUCTION
This last module of the Chemistry portion of Natural Science I discusses the
different applications of the basic concepts of Chemistry, which we studied in the
previous modules. We have actually discussed some applications of chemistry:
uses of metals as thermal and electrical conductors, and as materials; uses of
metalloids as semi-conductors; superconductors; examples of therapeutic
substances and their uses; uses of radioactive substances in atomic bombs, nuclear
reactors, and in medicine.
In this module, we will discuss the synthesis and uses of polymers and liquid
crystals; cite examples of chemical pollutants and how we can help in their
control; and look into the controversy surrounding natural versus synthetic food.
OBJECTIVES
POLYMERS
A-A-A-A-A-A-A-
We have already discussed the basic homopolymer
concepts of polymerization in the
previous module when we discussed
A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B
biopolymers. Homopolymers consist
of only one type of monomer while alternating copolymer
copolymers are formed from two or
more monomers. Copolymers may A-A-A-B-B-A-A-B
either be alternating copolymers or random copolymer
random copolymers.
Fibers
Fibers are hair like structures exhibiting great tensile strength along the fiber.
Fibers from animal sources are proteins. The main component of silk is fibroin
while that of wool and fur is keratin. Silk is from spiders and cocoons of silk
worms. Wool may come from sheep, camels, Kashmir goats, rabbits, mink, and
beavers, among others.
Fibers from plants are mostly cellulose. The two most common sources of plant
fibers are cotton and kapok. Cotton is usually woven into fabrics and is used in
the paper making industry while kapok is used for upholstery. Kapok beds have
now been replaced by uratex beds, made from polyurethane. Our barong Tagalog
is either jusi, from banana leaves, or piña, from pineapple fiber. The Bicol region
is known for its abaca, or Manila hemp, which is made into rope, slippers, mat,
and hammock, among others.
Do you know that glass is an example of a fiber from mineral origin? Glass is
made from silica sand. Ceramics are also fibers made from aluminum oxide,
silicon carbide, and boron carbide. Asbestos fibers, used for insulation and
fireproofing, is no longer being used because it is carcinogenic.
Examples of synthetic fibers are nylon, a polyamide, acrylic and Orlon, both
polyacrylonitriles, Dacron, a polyester, and spandex, a polyurethane. The
intermolecular forces of attractions present in fibers is usually strong, like H-
bonding in polyamides, because the uses of fibers depend on the high tensile
strength along the fiber.
Elastomers
Elastomers are synthetic polymers that exhibit the properties of rubber.
Elastomers are elastic and flexible. Rubber is used in vehicle tires, conveyor belts,
piping and tubings, hoses, rollers, shock absorbers, balloons, balls, cushions, rain
proof garments, diving gears, and gloves, among others. The most common
elastomers are rubber bands!
Natural rubber is extracted from the latex of rubber trees. It is a polyisoprene. The
chemical formula of isoprene is H2C=C(CH3)CH=CH2. Several synthetic rubbers
have been produced, mostly in the United States. Examples are neoprene, whose
monomer is chloroprene, H2C=C(Cl)CH=CH2; Buna-N rubber, a copolymer
whose monomers are butadiene and acrylonitrile with sodium as catalyst; GR-S,
another copolymer whose monomers are butadiene and styrene; and butyl rubber,
a copolymer between butadiene and isobutylene.
Plastics
The word plastic means can be formed into desired shapes. Plastics are
lightweight materials which are very durable. Linear and branched molecules are
thermoplastic, soften when heated and harden when cooled, while cross-liked
polymers are thermosetting, harden when heated.
There are numerous examples of plastics with various uses. Among the most
common examples of plastics are: polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in plastic pipes, vinyl
coatings, and wire insulation; urea-formaldehyde resins in tableware; acrylic resin
as a binder for laminated glass; polymethyl methacrylate, whose brand name is
Lucite and Plexiglas, for eyeglass and camera lenses; polystyrene resins for radio-
frequency insulation and in refrigeration installations; polytetrafluoroethylene,
whose commercial name is Teflon, as a high-performance engineering plastic but
whose popularity is now limited to non-stick frying pans; polycarbonates, acetals,
and polyamides and other synthetic plastics used instead of metal in machinery
and safety helmets; low-density polyethylene (LDPE) as rolls of clear-plastic
wrap; high-density polyethylene (HPDE) in thicker plastic films, plastic trash
bags and containers; polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride,
and polyvinylidene chloride as packaging materials; and polyethylene
terephthalate (PETE) in soft drink bottles.
C-NH-(CH2)2-NH-C-O-(CH2)2-O
OCH2CH2-O-C- _C
O O
Polyurethane
O O
Polyethylene terephthalate
-NH-(CH2)6-NH-C-(CH2)4-C
O O
Nylon 6,6
The main problem with plastics is their disposal because they are non-
biodegradable. The amount of styrofoam, another non-biodegradable material,
and plastic eating utensils used by fast food chains alone is staggering! Plastics
are often recycled. The recycling symbol is made up of three arrows in the
shape of a triangle with a number in the middle of the triangle. The number
indicate the kind of polymer from which the plastic was made: 1 for PETE, 2
for HDPE, 3 for PVC, 4 for LDPE, 5 for PP, 6 for PS, and 7 for other types of
polymers.
SAQ 7-1
What type of polymer (fiber, elastomer, or plastic) is present in the following
examples?
ASAQ 7-1
The fishing line is made of nylon, a synthetic fiber. The feeding bottle is a
plastic while the nipple is an elastomer. The bicycle tires are elastomers, the
shoes are rubber shoes, the helmet is hard plastic, the jersey and cycling shorts
are fibers. The rope is a natural fiber from abaca. The basketball and the football
are elastomers while the bowling and the billiard balls are hard plastics. The
more affordable frames for eyeglasses are the plastic frames. As mentioned
earlier, Lucite or Plexiglass is used for eyeglasses.
Easy question! I know you are familiar with these polymers when classified as
fibers, elastomers, or plastics. What we learned in this lesson is to give the
chemical structures associated with these materials.
LIQUID CRYSTALS
Liquid crystals have an orderly arrangement, like solids, but they can flow,
similar to liquids. Liquid crystals behave as both solid and a liquid only over a
certain limit of temperatures and pressures. At high temperatures and low
pressures, liquid crystals become ordinary liquids. They solidify at low
temperatures and high pressures.
The optical properties of liquid crystals also changes in the presence of magnetic
and electrical fields. By applying a small electric field, liquid crystals can be used
as displays in laptop computers, digital watches, calculators, hand-held video
cameras, cellular phones, beepers, and in flat televisions. The LCD, or liquid
crystalline display, has displaced the bulkier cathode ray tube (CRT)-based screen
or monitor.
In arcades, virtual reality games are an in-thing. This involves a simulated world.
To see in the virtual world, one wears a head-mounted display (HMD) with
screens, made of liquid crystals, directed at each eye.
SAQ 7-2
Visit a nearby store that sells medical equipment. List down the instruments
with liquid crystal displays (LCD).
ASAQ 7-2
Most medical equipment are now digital. The most familiar ones are the
sphygmomanometer, which measures blood pressure, the glucometer, which
measures blood glucose levels, and the thermometer. There is even an equipment
that measures the menstrual cycle! It looks like a beeper.
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
Common chemicals that we think are harmless are actually contributing to various
forms of pollution. You have seen vehicles that are smoke belchers and industrial
chimneys emitting black smoke, but are you aware of the chemicals that are given
off to the atmosphere and their effects on humans? The first major pollutants were
heavy metals such as lead, copper, and mercury, from the mining and smelting of
ores during the metal age. Pollution became prevalent and global during the
industrial revolution. The main cause of environmental problems is the increase in
population worldwide. The solutions to most environmental problems are
sustainable development and conservation. However, the definitions of
sustainable development and conservation are open to different interpretations by
different sectors of society.
Air Pollution
A major source of air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels such as coal,
petroleum and gasoline. The most common air pollutants are oxides of carbon,
sulfur, and nitrogen. Nitric oxide is formed by the reaction of nitrogen gas and
oxygen gas. Reaction of oxides of nitrogen, NO and NO2, with uv rays produces
smog, or photochemical smog, which is a mixture of solid and liquid fog and
smoke particles, as illustrated in the equations below. The third reaction is a
photochemical reaction, specifically a photodissociation reaction.
Photodissociation is the cleavage of a chemical bond due to absorption of
radiation by a molecule.
N2 (g) + O2 (g) Æ 2NO (g)
2NO (g) + O2 (g) Æ 2NO2 (g)
NO2 (g) + uv rays Æ NO (g) + O (g)
O (g) + O2 (g) Æ O3 (g)
Sulfur dioxide, when oxidized by air, is converted to sulfur trioxide, which reacts
with water vapor to produce sulfuric acid, H2SO4. H2SO4 and nitric acid, HNO3,
form acid rain.
Acid rain affects aquatic and plant ecosystems. It also corrodes metals and
building materials. The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 emitted an estimated
15 million tons of sulfur dioxide. Moreover, ash falls and lahar destroyed the
plant biodiversity in the area. Only grasses, such as cogon and talahib, survived
the Mt. Pinatubo eruption.
Gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide trap the heat from the
sun that causes global warming, also called the greenhouse effect. Since our
country is dependent on coal and petroleum as sources of energy, increasing
levels of carbon dioxide are being produced from their combustion.
The ozone layer in the stratosphere protects us from the ultraviolet rays of the sun,
which causes skin cancer. The uv rays from the sun are very intense from about
10 a.m. to 3 p.m. Chlorinated compounds, including laboratory and industrial
solvents, are now banned because of their hazardous effects, not only to the
environment, but also to humans as well.
The Clean Air Act recently passed by Congress prohibits the use of incinerators
as a means of waste disposal. Incineration of wastes that contain chlorinated
compounds and heavy metals releases these toxic heavy metals, such as arsenic
and lead, and hydrochloric acid (HCl) into the atmosphere. However, even in the
United States, incineration is used to dispose of infectious medical wastes and
hazardous waste. The Clean Air Act also mandates the use of unleaded gasoline
because of the toxic effects of lead.
Water Pollution
You are aware of the billions of pesos, the Piso Mula sa Puso project, needed to
rehabilitate Pasig River; the death of Tullahan river; the fish kill in Manila Bay
and Marikina river, and the polluted state of Laguna de Bay. Even the beach in
Boracay was recently reported to have high E. coli count because of improper
sewage disposal. You have also read about the numerous oil spills in Manila Bay
and Subic Bay. Most of our bodies of water are too polluted such that authorities
prevent swimming and fishing activities.
The main water pollutants are sewage, domestic wastes and garbage, industrial
wastes such as heavy metals, oil spills, and agricultural chemicals such as
fertilizers and pesticides. Sewage and domestic wastes, although biodegradable,
are dumped into bodies of water faster than they can decompose. Fertilizers
containing phosphates and nitrates produce algal bloom, which depletes the
oxygen supply leading to death of aquatic life. This process is called
eutrophication. Toxic pesticides, usually non-biodegradable, and untreated
industrial wastes also contribute to the death of aquatic and marine life. No
wonder the price of galunggong soared beyond the six pesos per kilo selling price
during the Cory administration!
Aside from the depletion of aquatic and marine life, some fishes, shellfishes, and
prawns are contaminated with toxins. Mercury, from mine tailings, in fish causes
cancer, birth defects, and death. The Minimata Bay experience in Japan wherein
people suffered from nervous disorders, tremors, paralysis, and subsequent death
due to the accumulation of mercury in fishes is well-publicized. In our country,
authorities monitor the red tide toxins, produced by phytoplankton, in fishes and
shellfishes such as clams, mussels, and oysters. Monitoring is usually done in
summer. Red tides cause diarrhea, paralysis and even death. It is disastrous to the
economies of coastal towns and provinces when red tide alerts are issued. Public
officials, with much fanfare, eat shellfishes to assure consumers that shellfishes
from their towns are safe to eat!
Even our groundwater, which is the source of our drinking water, is polluted. Our
water supply, or lack of it, led to the privatization of our Metro Manila
Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS). Nowadays, most houses, offices,
and restaurants use mineral water, and variations thereof, as drinking water. We
are constantly complaining about the rising prices of gasoline products but do you
realize that gasoline is much cheaper than bottled water? We pay P14.90 for 1
liter or 1000 ml of unleaded gasoline and we buy a 250 ml bottle of mineral water
for P10.00! Moreover, although the Bureau of Food and Drugs (BFAD) monitor
the quality of bottled water, refilling stations need only a mayor’s permit to
operate!
Solid Waste
Solid wastes may either be biodegradable such as garbage, paper, and wood, or
non-biodegradable such as metals, plastics and other synthetic materials.
Biodegradable solid waste is usually buried in landfills (with emphasis on buried).
In a modern landfill, waste is spread in thin layers, compacted by a bulldozer, and
covered by clean earth. Waste is decomposed through aerobic and anaerobic
means. In our country, landfills become mountains of garbage like the Smokey
mountain in Tondo, the Carmona and San Mateo landfills, and the Payatas landfill
in Quezon City.
Bioremediation
Another alternative waste disposal method is bioremediation. This is the use of
microorganisms to enzymatically degrade environmental pollutants or to clean up
contaminated areas. Microorganisms metabolize toxic wastes into non-toxic
substances. Examples of microorganisms engaged in bioremediation are members
of the genera Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, Arthrobacter, and Azotobacter.
Scientists are now using genetic engineering to produce microorganisms that can
degrade non-biodegradable synthetic materials.
FOOD
The biomolecules that we discussed in the previous chapter are known as
macronutrients. We are now familiar with their structures and functions. They
are sources of energy, have structural or framework as well as regulatory
functions. We have also mentioned the fact that essential fatty acids and amino
acids are not synthesized by the body but are supplied to the body through the
diet. Hence, the importance of a balanced diet cannot be overemphasized.
Minerals
Inorganic mineral nutrients are supplied in the diet. There are two classes of
minerals: the major minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron,
iodine, sodium, and potassium; and trace elements such as copper, cobalt,
manganese, fluorine, and zinc.
Potassium, sodium, and magnesium form the major ions of the fluids in cells and
regulate the water balance in the body. Potassium is the major intracellular cation
while sodium is present in the fluid outside the cells, the extracellular fluid.
Sodium is present in most natural foods and in salted foods. Excess amounts of
sodium causes edema, a swelling due to a glut of extracellular fluid, and
hypertension.
Iron is necessary in the formation of hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells
responsible for transporting oxygen. It is actually iron that bonds to oxygen. Rich
sources of iron are liver and bitter gourd. Iron deficiency leads to anemia.
Copper and zinc are present in some enzymes. Cobalt is part of vitamin B12.
Chromium is necessary for glucose metabolism. You are more familiar with
fluorine as a trace mineral. Fluorine helps harden the bones and tooth enamel. It
is included in multivitamins for infants and in toothpastes.
Vitamins
Vitamins are classified as either fat-soluble or water-soluble. We have already
discussed the fat-soluble vitamins, Vitamin A, D, E, and K, in the previous
module. Of the water-soluble vitamins, Vitamins B and C, we have already
mentioned Vitamin C in one of the SAQs. Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy.
We will now discuss vitamin B complex, all eight of them: Vitamin B1, B2, B3,
B6, B12, folic acid, panthothenic acid, and folic acid. Vitamin B complex is
necessary for carbohydrate metabolism. Deficiency in Vitamins B2, or
riboflavin, and B6, or pyridoxine causes skin lesions. Thiamine, or vitamin B1,
deficiency brings about beriberi while that of niacin, or Vitamin B3, causes
pellagra. Cobalamin, or vitamin B12, and folic acid deficiency leads to anemia.
If you want to know the symptoms of the aforementioned diseases, it is best to
consult a medical book.
A well-balanced diet, as the old adage goes, contains all these essential vitamins
and minerals. Supplements are needed for pregnant and lactating women, and for
those on special diet or medication. Just remember that vitamins and minerals do
not have therapeutic values. They do not cure diseases but merely help in the
prevention of these diseases. Health food stores are now in every corner. Their
selling pitch is that their products are natural. The supplement facts of a
children’s dietary supplement lists, aside from the usual vitamins and minerals, a
‘whole food blend’, which includes ‘pineapple, broccoli, carrots, apple, tomato,
brussel sprouts, cauliflower, beet, celery, grape, grapefruit, kale, lemon, lime,
plum, raspberry, spinach, strawberry, watermelon, radish, cantaloupe, cherry,
leek, onion, papaya, peach, pear, yellow pepper’. And yes, the chewable tablets
are quite expensive!
Food Additives
There is much controversy about the use of food additives. These are substances
purposely added to food to produce a beneficial effect. The first food additive is
probably sodium chloride, which is used as a food seasoning and a preservative.
Other examples of food additives that act as food seasoning are black pepper,
paprika, curry and turmeric powder, ground ginger, ground garlic, and a
collection of herbs such as oregano, basil, mentha, among others. A more
common food enhancer is monosodium glutamate or MSG or vetchin. Some
people developed Chinese restaurant syndrome upon ingestion of MSG. The
symptoms are lightheadedness, headaches, and general discomfort. MSG is the
sodium salt of glutamic acid, which is an amino acid.
A food additive that cures meat to produce tocino and longganisa is salitre, whose
chemical name is sodium nitrite or NaNO2. Much has been written about the
metabolism of nitrites into nitrosamines, which are known carcinogens. These
nitrosamines can react, specifically through alkylation, with the DNA of the cells,
Most food preservatives are anti-oxidants and anti-microbial. The most commonly
used are weak acids such as sodium benzoate, ascorbate, salicylate, and sorbate.
Benzoate is also known as a paraben, esters of para-hydroxybenzoic acid. Sufur-
containing preservatives include sulfur dioxide (SO2), sodium sulfite (Na2SO3)
and bisulfite (NaHSO3). Recall that SO2 is a pollutant. Other preservatives are
butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Vitamins
C and E are also anti-oxidants and may be used as preservatives. In the United
States, one cannot use a new preservative or use a known preservative in a
different method and in different amounts. Remember the uproar brought about
by the use of formalin to retard the brown coloration of vegetables? Although
formalin is a known preservative, everybody knows it is used only for the
preservation of dead animals and cadavers!
SAQ 7-3
Are instant noodles nutritious?
ASAQ 7-3
1 pouch, or 55 grams of instant noodles contains fat, carbohydrate, protein,
Vitamin A, folic acid, riboflavin, thiamin mononitrate, D-biotin, Vitamin B12,
Vitamin E, nicotinamide, Vitamin D3, pyridoxine hydrochloride, calcium D
panthothenate. So, are instant noodles nutritious? Yes, if you eat them once in a
while. No, if you eat them most of the time to replace your meals! In all the
chemicals that we have discussed, moderation is the key to their use. Not even
all natural health foods are totally harmless. I heard a speaker in a seminar say
that “Everything is toxic. Nothing is toxic. It depends on the dosage”.
There are other applications of cemistry, a lot more, which we have not
discussed. Some applications are in cosmetics and personal care,
pharmaceuticals, although we have mentioned a few, in the petroleum, brewery,
and semi-conductor industries, among others. Of course, chemistry is also
involved in both chemical and biological warfare.
What I have noticed is that some products made in the Philippines do not even
list their ingredients! A skin whitener has “a unique blend of ingredients that
effectively…” Shampoos, lotions, conditioners, softeners, astringents, facial
washes, among others are not even labeled with their contents. Compare them
with imported items, which are all properly labeled.
I hope that you will always practice your chemistry when making choices. You
don’t have to “pindot-pindot, pisil-pisil, lapi-lapirot, amoy-amoy ang iyong
bibilhin”. Just read the label!