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Variation and Selection
Variation and Selection
➢ Continuous variation
➢ Discontinuous variation.
1
CONTINUOUS VARIATION.
✓ There is complete range of measurements from one extreme to
SAMPLE QUESTION.
N 16 P41 Q2(d) Body length is an example of continuous variation.
(i) Suggest what causes the variation in body length in a population of fish. [2]
(ii) Continuous variation is shown with a histogram.
Name the type of graph that should be used to show discontinuous variation. [1]
MARKING POINTS.
(d) (i)
✓ Caused by genes;
✓ environmental factors e.g food availability, nutrition, temperature,
predation, disease, fishing.
2(d)(ii) bar chart;
2
SAMPLE QUESTION.
Q5 (b)The length of time between ringing and trapping was recorded for each bird that
was identified before it was released.
The mean age at trapping was calculated for birds with each wing length.
The results are shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1
(b) (i) Explain why wing length is an example of continuous variation. [2]
(ii) Suggest a feature of reed warblers, other than wing length, that shows
continuous variation. [1]
Marking points.
(b) (i)
✓ quantitative feature;
✓ range between two extremes ;
✓ there are many intermediates ;
✓ not in distinct groups ;
✓ influenced by the environment (and genotype) ; [2]
(ii)
✓ body mass ;
✓ age ;
3
Discontinuous variation
✓ Variation caused by genes only, environment has no effect.
4
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION.
Continuous variation Discontinuous variation
Continuous variation exhibits many Has sharply contrasting
characteristics.
SAMPLE QUESTION.
J 11 P22 Q5 (a) Two types of variation, continuous and discontinuous, occur in living
organisms.
Complete Table 5.1 about the two types of variation.
5
Marking points.
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MUTATIONS.
Gene Mutations.
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CAUSES OF MUTATION.
➢ Ionising radiations
➢ Ultraviolet radiation.
➢ X-rays and Gamma rays.
➢ Benzyrene in cigarette smoke.
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Sickle- shaped red blood cells
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• The defective haemoglobin cause red blood cells turn sickle
shaped when oxygen concentration is low.
• Sickle shaped red blood cells block the capillaries reducing
the flow of blood.
• Less oxygen reaches the respiring cells.
• Homozygous (Hb S HbS ) individuals do not survive to
reproductive age.
• Heterozygous (HbAHbS) have no symptoms of SCA.
Genetic diagram showing how SCA is inherited.
10
✓ cold, hands / feet ;
✓ inflammation / soreness, of tongue ;
✓ brittle nails ;
✓ unusual cravings for non-nutritive substances, such as ice, dirt or starch ;
✓ poor appetite ;
Distribution of sickle cell allele in humans.
The map below shows the distribution of the allele for the abnormal form of haemoglobin (HS) and
malaria in Africa.
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• There is a strong selection pressure against people
homozygous for normal allele (HbA HbA) because they could
die of malaria.
SAMPLE QUESTION
3(d)(i)
✓ iron
3(d)(ii)
✓ tired ;
✓ shortness of breath ;
✓ chest pain ;
✓ fast heartbeat ;
✓ frequent infections ;
✓ headache / dizziness / light-headedness ;
✓ cold, hands / feet ;
✓ inflammation / soreness, of tongue ;
✓ brittle nails ;
✓ unusual cravings for non-nutritive substances, such as ice, dirt or
starch ;
✓ poor appetite ;
3(e)
✓ mutation ;
✓ change in, base sequence of DNA ;
✓ in gene / allele, for haemoglobin ;
✓ If the allele is inherited the allele an abnormal haemoglobin is
produced. ;
✓ having the recessive allele(s) / being, homozygous recessive
produce, abnormal haemoglobin ;
✓ red blood cells have, sickle shaped;
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Sample Question.
N11 P31 Q5 Haemoglobin is a large protein molecule. The structure of each haemoglobin
molecule is controlled by a gene that has two alleles:
A
• Hb codes for the normal form of haemoglobin,
• HbS codes for an abnormal form of haemoglobin.
Red blood cells containing only the abnormal form of haemoglobin become a stiff, sickle
shape in conditions of low oxygen concentration. This gives rise to sickle cell anaemia.
(a) Describe the harmful effects on the body of having red blood cells which become
sickle-shaped. [5]
People who are heterozygous for the gene for haemoglobin produce both the normal and
abnormal forms of haemoglobin. These people show no symptoms or have very mild
symptoms known as sickle cell trait.
(b) (i) Complete the genetic diagram to show how a couple who are both heterozygous
may have a child with sickle cell anaemia.
(ii) What is the chance of a child born to this couple having sickle cell anaemia? [1]
In some parts of the world, up to 25% of the population have sickle cell trait.
(c) State the advantage of having sickle cell trait. [1]
(d) Discuss whether sickle cell trait is an example of codominance. [2]
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4 (a) Sickle cell anaemia is a genetic disorder that is found among people in certain parts of
the world.
A sample of blood was taken from a person with sickle cell anaemia and examined with
an electron microscope.
Fig. 4.1 shows some of the red blood cells in the sample.
Fig. 4.1
Explain the problems that may occur as these cells circulate in the blood system.[4]
(b) The gene for haemoglobin exists in two alternative forms:
HA codes for the normal form of haemoglobin;
HS codes for the abnormal form of haemoglobin.
(i) State the name for the alternative forms of a gene.[1]
(ii) A child has sickle cell anaemia. The parents do not have this disorder.
Complete the genetic diagram to show how the child inherited the disorder.
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(iii) The parents are about to have another child.
What is the probability that this child will have sickle cell anaemia? [1]
(c) The maps in Fig. 4.2 show the distribution of sickle cell anaemia and malaria in some
parts of the world.
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Fig. 4.2
(i) Explain why sickle cell anaemia is common in people who live in areas where
malaria occurs. [4]
(ii) Suggest why sickle cell anaemia is very rare among people who live in Indonesia
and northern Australia. [2]
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ADAPTIVE FEATURES.
1. Camel.
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2. Polar bear.
Polar bears leave in cold environments.
Adaptive features.
• Large size-this reduces surface area to volume ratio so less
heat is lost.
• Has thick layer of fat under the skin insulates heat.
• Has black skin to absorb heat.
• White hair for camouflage when hunting its prey.
• Arteries on the legs run very close to the veins so that heat is
transferred to the veins before it reaches the feet.
• Thick coat for insulation.
Adaptations of Xerophytes.
Xerophytes – are plants that are able to exist in conditions
where water is scarce.e.g cacti and marram grass.
SAMPLE QUESTION.
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M16 P32 Q2 Fig. 2.1 shows three mammals.
For each mammal, choose one adaptive feature visible in Fig. 2.1 and
outline how it helps the mammal to survive in its environment.
Choose a different feature for each mammal.
Write your answers in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
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How cacti reduce water loss and conserve water.
➢ Their leaves are reduced to spines. This reduces the surface area of
leaf over which water can be lost.
➢ A thick, wax cuticle covers the plant’s surface and reduces
transpiration.
➢ They have swollen stems containing water –storage tissue.
➢ They shallow, spreading root system to quickly absorb any water
from rain and overnight condensation.
➢ Many cacti have round, compact shape which reduces their surface
area so there is less surface through which water can be lost.
➢ They have shiny surfaces which reflect heat and light.
➢ Their stomata are closed during the day to reduce water loss. They
open their stomata at night to absorb the carbon dioxide which they
store for use in photosynthesis during the day.
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SAMPLE QUESTION.
N 12 P32 Q3.Some plants are adapted for life in dry habitats where it can be very hot
during the day and very cold at night.
Fig. 3.1 shows some saguaro cacti from the Sonoran desert in Arizona and Mexico.
Fig. 3.2 shows the surface of the stem of a saguaro cactus.
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(c) Explain how two features, visible in Fig. 3.1 or Fig. 3.2, are adaptations to the
conditions in the Sonoran desert. [2]
(d) The stomata of some desert plants, such as the saguaro cactus, open at night and
close during the day.
Explain how this allows the cacti to survive in the desert, but limits their growth rate.[4]
Adapations of Hydrophytes.
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Cross section of a water lilly.
➢ Leaves contain larger air spaces to make them buoyant, so they can
float on or near the surface- this enables them to gain light for
photosynthesis.
➢ The lower epidermis lacks stomata to prevent water entering the air
spaces, while stomata are present on the upper epidermis for gas
exchange.
➢ Roots also contain air spaces to allow rapid passage of oxygen for
respiration.
➢ They have roots that are alcohol tolerant.
➢ Has thin cuticle so there is no need to reduce transpiration.
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NATURAL SELECTION.
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STAGES OF NATURAL SELECTION
STAGE1: Variation within population
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2.Production of many offspring.
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SAMPLE QUESTION.
N13P33Q6 Fig. 6.1 shows Soay sheep on St. Kilda, a group of small
remote islands off the coast of Scotland. These islands experience
extreme conditions of cold, wind and rain.
Sheep were introduced to the islands thousands of years ago and the
Soay sheep are descended from them. The islands of St. Kilda have
been uninhabited by people since 1930. The sheep are now left
unfarmed and in their natural state.
Fig. 6.1
Explain how natural selection could account for the adaptive features
of Soay sheep. [4]
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MODEL ANSWER.
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(ii) Statement B mentions alleles. An allele is a version of a gene.
State one way new alleles are formed [1]
(iii) State one factor that can increase the rate at which new alleles
are formed. [1]
(b) Fig. 8.1 shows four animals with different adaptive features.
They are all mammals.
Fig. 8.1
(i) Define the term adaptive features. [2]
(ii) Describe two features, visible in Fig. 8.1, which show that all of
these animals are mammals. [2]
(iii) Describe one feature of mammals that is not visible in Fig. 8.1. [1]
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N12 P33Q1 Islands in the Pacific have been colonised by populations
of animals that have migrated from Australia, mainland Asia and the
Americas. Over many generations these populations
have changed. Now they are unable to breed with animals of the
original populations in Australia, mainland Asia and the Americas.
(e) Explain how natural selection has resulted in changes in the
populations of animals on islands in the Pacific. [4]
MARKING POINTS
✓ Adapt to environment / conditions in new places are
Different;
✓ Competition between individuals;
✓ Struggle for existence;
✓ survival of fittest / those that are better adapted
survive;
✓ Reproduce, pass on their alleles;
✓ Mutations / changes in DNA;
✓ Change in the gene pool ;
✓ Changes to physical;
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SAMPLE QUESTION
J09P3Q3(d) Fig. 5.1 is a map that shows the distribution of the allele for the
abnormal form of
haemoglobin (HS) and malaria in Africa.
Fig. 5.1
Explain how natural selection is responsible for the distribution of the allele for
the abnormal form of haemoglobin (HS). [5]
MARKING POINTS.
✓ .idea that areas with high percentage of sickle cell (allele) are places
with malaria ;
✓ .HSHS / homozygous recessive, reduced life span because of sickle cell
anaemia ;
✓ .HNHN / homozygous dominant / without HS , susceptible to malaria /
✓ .HNHS / heterozygous / carrier/ with HS, resistant / not affected / less
susceptible ;
✓ .HNHS (carrier) survive and have children / HNHN or HSHS do not ;
✓ .HNHS / carrier, pass on the allele / HS ;
✓ .(if HNHS x HNHS) 1 in 4 chance of, HSHS / homozygous recessive ;
✓ .2 in 4 / 50% / ½ , have advantage of resistance to malaria ;
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EXAMPLE OF EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION.
antibiotic treatment.
35
✓ Bacterial cells with the most favourable features are
is formed.
SELCTIVE BREEDING/ARTIFICIAL SELECTION.
inbreed/mate together.
36
SELECTIVE BREEDING IN DAIRY CATTLE.
mate with cow or sperm cells from a selected bull are artificially
✓ The offspring are interbred with the bull that produced cows
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SELECTIVE BREEDING IN DOGS.
All modern breeds of dog belong to the same species and are thought to have
originated from 14 ancient breeds by the process of artificial selection. The golden
retriever is an example of a modern breed that is often used as a guide dog for
people who are blind or visually impaired.
How the principle of artificial selection was used to produce golden retriever.
✓ Dogs with desirable characteristics are selected by humans e.g.
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SELECTIVE BREEDING IN PLANTS.
39
DIFFEREMCES BETWEEN NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL
SELECTION.
NATURAL SELECTION ARTIFICIAL SELECTION.
• Selection is due to • Selection due to human
species
40
SAMPLE QUESTION
Q1(J14P33Q4(c&d)(a0 Plants of this species that grow at low altitudes produce flowers
60 days before the plants of the same species that grow at high altitudes.
(i) Suggest one environmental reason why lilies that grow at lower altitudes flower earlier
than the lilies at higher altitudes. [1]
(ii) Explain why flowering time is an example of continuous variation . [2]
(b) Scientists think that plants of L. polyphyllum growing at high altitudes may evolve into
a new species.
Explain how natural selection could lead to the evolution of a new species of lily. [5]
(c) N17P43Q3d(iii) ome fast-growing breeds of cattle have been produced by artificial
selection.
Outline the ways in which artificial selection differs from natural selection [4]
MARKING POINTS
(a) (i)
✓ temperature / warmth ;
✓ light ;
✓ water availability ;
✓ wind ;
✓ pollinator life-cycle timings ;
✓ CO2 concentration ;
✓ pressure ; [max 1]
(ii)
✓ influence by genes and environment ;
✓ range of phenotypes / flowering times results ;
(b)
✓ different environments have different selection / competition
pressures ;
✓ variation occurs (at fertilization / meiosis) ;
✓ Variation occurs due to mutation ;
✓ best adapted organisms most likely to survive ;
✓ (those that survive) pass on their alleles ;
✓ competition for survival ;
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✓ cross pollination ensures more variation (than selfpollination);
✓ reproductive isolation by different flowering times ;
✓ changes in adaptive features occur over generations ;
✓ no cross-pollination will occur between low and high altitude
plants ;
42