VARIATION AND SELECTION.

Variation – is the differences between individuals of the same

species.

• Variation is caused by new combinations of genes through:

✓ sexual reproduction,
✓ Mutation,
✓ migration of individuals with new gene combinations.
• For example domestic cats belong to the same species, but there
are many variations of
✓ size,
✓ coat colour ,
✓ eye colour.
• The variations are genetic and phenotypic.
➢ Genetic variation- is differences in the genotypes of
individuals.
➢ Phenotypic variation- differences in the external
appearance.

TWO TYPES OF PHENOTYPIC VARIATION.

➢ Continuous variation
➢ Discontinuous variation.

1
 CONTINUOUS VARIATION.
✓ There is complete range of measurements from one extreme to

the other e.g height, colour of skin, weight and intelligence.

✓ There are many intermediates.

✓ quantitative feature;
✓ It is significantly affected by the environment.
Eg.Milk yield in cows is affected by pastures, weather and hygiene.
✓ Controlled by many genes.

SAMPLE QUESTION.
N 16 P41 Q2(d) Body length is an example of continuous variation.
(i) Suggest what causes the variation in body length in a population of fish. [2]
(ii) Continuous variation is shown with a histogram.
Name the type of graph that should be used to show discontinuous variation. [1]

MARKING POINTS.
(d) (i)
✓ Caused by genes;
✓ environmental factors e.g food availability, nutrition, temperature,
predation, disease, fishing.
2(d)(ii) bar chart;

2
SAMPLE QUESTION.
Q5 (b)The length of time between ringing and trapping was recorded for each bird that
was identified before it was released.
The mean age at trapping was calculated for birds with each wing length.
The results are shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1

(b) (i) Explain why wing length is an example of continuous variation. [2]
(ii) Suggest a feature of reed warblers, other than wing length, that shows
continuous variation. [1]

Marking points.
(b) (i)
✓ quantitative feature;
✓ range between two extremes ;
✓ there are many intermediates ;
✓ not in distinct groups ;
✓ influenced by the environment (and genotype) ; [2]

(ii)
✓ body mass ;
✓ age ;

3
Discontinuous variation
✓ Variation caused by genes only, environment has no effect.

✓ Characteristics can be divided into distinct categories in which

individuals can be placed e.g sex, blood group, tongue rolling.

✓ There are no intermediates.

✓ There are usually small number of phenotypes

✓ Characteristic is controlled by one or few genes.

4
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION.
Continuous variation Discontinuous variation
Continuous variation exhibits many Has sharply contrasting

intermediate characteristics. characteristics with no

intermediate forms between

characteristics.

The characteristics are not easily The characteristics can be

distinguishable. distinguished easily.

The environment has effect on the The environment has on effect on

characteristic. the characteristic.

Variation is brought about by the It is brought about by one or only

combined effects of many genes. a few genes.

SAMPLE QUESTION.
J 11 P22 Q5 (a) Two types of variation, continuous and discontinuous, occur in living
organisms.
Complete Table 5.1 about the two types of variation.

5
Marking points.

6
MUTATIONS.

A Mutation is a change in a gene or chromosome that may

cause a change in a phenotypic characteristic.

Gene Mutations.

Gene mutation -is a change in the base sequence of DNA.

❖ Change in the base sequence results in the change in the

order of amino acids in the protein molecule.When the
order of amino acids is changed the function of the
protein changes and the phenotype changes.
• Gene mutations can be harmful, but some mutations are beneficial
and some have no effect.
• Example of gene mutation occurs in albinos. A gene controls
production of the skin, hair and eye pigment melanin, which
protects the skin and eyes from ultraviolet light.
• The gene mutated to give a recessive allele that does not code for
melanin.
• Homozygous recessive individuals are albino.
• Gene mutations are the cause of many human genetic diseases.
Sickle cell anaemia is an example.
• NB: Gene mutation is the only way in which new alleles are
formed.

7
 CAUSES OF MUTATION.

➢ Ionising radiations
➢ Ultraviolet radiation.
➢ X-rays and Gamma rays.
➢ Benzyrene in cigarette smoke.

SICKLE – CELL ANAEMIA (SCA).

Normal red blood cells.

8
Sickle- shaped red blood cells

• Sickle cell anaemia is genetic disease resulting from gene

mutation.
• Mutation occurs on the allele that codes for normal
haemoglobin ( Hb A) resulting in the formation of a mutant
allele (Hb S ) that codes for abnormal form of haemoglobin.
❖ The two allele are codominant so that people who are
heterozygous have both forms of haemoglobin in their red
blood cells.

9
 • The defective haemoglobin cause red blood cells turn sickle
shaped when oxygen concentration is low.
• Sickle shaped red blood cells block the capillaries reducing
the flow of blood.
• Less oxygen reaches the respiring cells.
• Homozygous (Hb S HbS ) individuals do not survive to
reproductive age.
• Heterozygous (HbAHbS) have no symptoms of SCA.
Genetic diagram showing how SCA is inherited.

Symptom of sickle cell anaemia.

✓ Weakness.
✓ shortness of breath ;
✓ chest pain ;
✓ fast heartbeat ;
✓ frequent infections ;
✓ headache / dizziness / light-headedness ;

10
 ✓ cold, hands / feet ;
✓ inflammation / soreness, of tongue ;
✓ brittle nails ;
✓ unusual cravings for non-nutritive substances, such as ice, dirt or starch ;
✓ poor appetite ;
Distribution of sickle cell allele in humans.
The map below shows the distribution of the allele for the abnormal form of haemoglobin (HS) and
malaria in Africa.

• SCA allele is common among people in areas where malaria

is common, they are resistant to malaria because the malaria
parasite cannot enter red blood cells with abnormal
haemoglobin.
• There is a strong selective advantage for heterozygous
individuals since they do not suffer badly from anaemia and
are protected from malaria.

11
 • There is a strong selection pressure against people
homozygous for normal allele (HbA HbA) because they could
die of malaria.
SAMPLE QUESTION

J17 P43 Q3 (d) A type of anaemia is caused by a dietary deficiency.

(i) State the nutrient that is deficient in the diet when this type of anaemia occurs. [1]
(ii) State two symptoms of anaemia. [2]
(e) Some people have sickle cell anaemia.
Describe the cause of this type of anaemia. [4]
MARKING POINTS.

3(d)(i)
✓ iron

3(d)(ii)
✓ tired ;
✓ shortness of breath ;
✓ chest pain ;
✓ fast heartbeat ;
✓ frequent infections ;
✓ headache / dizziness / light-headedness ;
✓ cold, hands / feet ;
✓ inflammation / soreness, of tongue ;
✓ brittle nails ;
✓ unusual cravings for non-nutritive substances, such as ice, dirt or
starch ;
✓ poor appetite ;
3(e)
✓ mutation ;
✓ change in, base sequence of DNA ;
✓ in gene / allele, for haemoglobin ;
✓ If the allele is inherited the allele an abnormal haemoglobin is
produced. ;
✓ having the recessive allele(s) / being, homozygous recessive
produce, abnormal haemoglobin ;
✓ red blood cells have, sickle shaped;

12
Sample Question.
N11 P31 Q5 Haemoglobin is a large protein molecule. The structure of each haemoglobin
molecule is controlled by a gene that has two alleles:
A
• Hb codes for the normal form of haemoglobin,
• HbS codes for an abnormal form of haemoglobin.
Red blood cells containing only the abnormal form of haemoglobin become a stiff, sickle
shape in conditions of low oxygen concentration. This gives rise to sickle cell anaemia.
(a) Describe the harmful effects on the body of having red blood cells which become
sickle-shaped. [5]
People who are heterozygous for the gene for haemoglobin produce both the normal and
abnormal forms of haemoglobin. These people show no symptoms or have very mild
symptoms known as sickle cell trait.
(b) (i) Complete the genetic diagram to show how a couple who are both heterozygous
may have a child with sickle cell anaemia.

(ii) What is the chance of a child born to this couple having sickle cell anaemia? [1]
In some parts of the world, up to 25% of the population have sickle cell trait.
(c) State the advantage of having sickle cell trait. [1]
(d) Discuss whether sickle cell trait is an example of codominance. [2]

13
4 (a) Sickle cell anaemia is a genetic disorder that is found among people in certain parts of
the world.
A sample of blood was taken from a person with sickle cell anaemia and examined with
an electron microscope.
Fig. 4.1 shows some of the red blood cells in the sample.

Fig. 4.1
Explain the problems that may occur as these cells circulate in the blood system.[4]
(b) The gene for haemoglobin exists in two alternative forms:
HA codes for the normal form of haemoglobin;
HS codes for the abnormal form of haemoglobin.
(i) State the name for the alternative forms of a gene.[1]
(ii) A child has sickle cell anaemia. The parents do not have this disorder.
Complete the genetic diagram to show how the child inherited the disorder.

14
(iii) The parents are about to have another child.
What is the probability that this child will have sickle cell anaemia? [1]
(c) The maps in Fig. 4.2 show the distribution of sickle cell anaemia and malaria in some
parts of the world.

15
 Fig. 4.2
(i) Explain why sickle cell anaemia is common in people who live in areas where
malaria occurs. [4]
(ii) Suggest why sickle cell anaemia is very rare among people who live in Indonesia
and northern Australia. [2]

16
ADAPTIVE FEATURES.

Adaptive feature- is an inherited functional feature of an

organism that increases fitness.

Fitness-the probability of an organism surviving and reproducing in the

environment in which it is found.

Adaptive features of some animal spicies.

1. Camel.

Camels leave in deserts.

Adaptive features.
• Closable nostrils and eyelids, which help keep out wind-
blown sand.
• Broad feet to spread out pressure, so reducing the tendency to
sink into the sand.
• Thick fur insulates the body against heat gain in the intense
sunlight.
• Stomach has large –water holding capacity.
• Its body temperature rises above the outside temperature to
reduce heat gradient, so less heat is absorbed.
• Nasal passage are lined with mucus, during exhalation, the
dry mucus absorbs water vapour.During inhalation the now
moist mucus adds water vapour to the inhaled hair.

17
2. Polar bear.
Polar bears leave in cold environments.
Adaptive features.
• Large size-this reduces surface area to volume ratio so less
heat is lost.
• Has thick layer of fat under the skin insulates heat.
• Has black skin to absorb heat.
• White hair for camouflage when hunting its prey.
• Arteries on the legs run very close to the veins so that heat is
transferred to the veins before it reaches the feet.
• Thick coat for insulation.

Adaptations of Xerophytes.
Xerophytes – are plants that are able to exist in conditions
where water is scarce.e.g cacti and marram grass.
SAMPLE QUESTION.

18
M16 P32 Q2 Fig. 2.1 shows three mammals.

For each mammal, choose one adaptive feature visible in Fig. 2.1 and
outline how it helps the mammal to survive in its environment.
Choose a different feature for each mammal.
Write your answers in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1

5 An adaptive feature helps an organism survive in its environment.

Adaptive features are inherited.
Fig. 5.1 contains diagrams of three animals.
(a) For each animal, select one adaptive feature visible in Fig. 5.1 and
briefly suggest how it helps the animal to survive.
An example has been done for you.

19
20
How cacti reduce water loss and conserve water.

➢ Their leaves are reduced to spines. This reduces the surface area of
leaf over which water can be lost.
➢ A thick, wax cuticle covers the plant’s surface and reduces
transpiration.
➢ They have swollen stems containing water –storage tissue.
➢ They shallow, spreading root system to quickly absorb any water
from rain and overnight condensation.
➢ Many cacti have round, compact shape which reduces their surface
area so there is less surface through which water can be lost.
➢ They have shiny surfaces which reflect heat and light.
➢ Their stomata are closed during the day to reduce water loss. They
open their stomata at night to absorb the carbon dioxide which they
store for use in photosynthesis during the day.

How the marram grass is adapted.

Marram grass lives in sand dunes.
➢ Marram grass has long roots to search for water deep down
the sand.
➢ Its leaves roll to reduce surface areas.
➢ Their leaves have sunken stomata
➢ Leaves have hairs around the stomata which reduces air
movement so humidity builds up and transpiration is reduced.

21
SAMPLE QUESTION.

N 12 P32 Q3.Some plants are adapted for life in dry habitats where it can be very hot
during the day and very cold at night.
Fig. 3.1 shows some saguaro cacti from the Sonoran desert in Arizona and Mexico.
Fig. 3.2 shows the surface of the stem of a saguaro cactus.

22
(c) Explain how two features, visible in Fig. 3.1 or Fig. 3.2, are adaptations to the
conditions in the Sonoran desert. [2]
(d) The stomata of some desert plants, such as the saguaro cactus, open at night and
close during the day.
Explain how this allows the cacti to survive in the desert, but limits their growth rate.[4]

Adapations of Hydrophytes.

Hydrophytes are plants that grow submerged or partially submerged in

water.

23
24
Cross section of a water lilly.

➢ Leaves contain larger air spaces to make them buoyant, so they can
float on or near the surface- this enables them to gain light for
photosynthesis.
➢ The lower epidermis lacks stomata to prevent water entering the air
spaces, while stomata are present on the upper epidermis for gas
exchange.
➢ Roots also contain air spaces to allow rapid passage of oxygen for
respiration.
➢ They have roots that are alcohol tolerant.
➢ Has thin cuticle so there is no need to reduce transpiration.
25
26
NATURAL SELECTION.

Definition: Natural selection is the process by which organisms that

are well adapted to their environment have greater chance to survive

and reproduce to pass on their alleles to the next generation than

those that are less well adapted.

• If the environment does not change, then natural selection

maintains populations of organisms so they do not change much,
as many are already well adapted to their environment.
• When the environment changes, individuals with features that help
them to survive in the new conditions are at an advantage over
others.
• These individuals that are now better adapted, compete
successfully, survive, breed and pass on their alleles.
• Natural selection brings about a change to a species.
• Natural selection then leads evolution (change in adaptive features
of a population).

27
STAGES OF NATURAL SELECTION
STAGE1: Variation within population

STAGE 2 :Production of many offspring.

STAGE 3: Competition for survival.

STAGE4 : Survival of the fittest.

STAGE 5:Inheritance of beneficial variations.

Summary of Natural Selection.

1. Variation within population.
• Most populations of organisms contain individuals which
vary slightly different from one another.
• Variations are caused by gene mutation and formation of
new gene combinations during meiosis and random
fertilization.
• Some slight variations may better adapt organisms to their
environment than others.

28
2.Production of many offspring.

• Most organisms produce lots of offspring so they can survive to

adulthood.

3.Competition for survival.

• The population doesn’t generally increase in size so there must

therefore be considerable competition for survival between the
organisms.
4. Survival of the fittest.
• Best adapted organisms most likely to survive.
5. Inheritance of beneficial variations.
• Well – adapted organisms that survive and reproduce and pass on
the allele that is advantageous to the next generation.
• Change of adaptive features of a population occurs over time
resulting in formation of genetically distinct species i.e evolution.

29
 SAMPLE QUESTION.

N13P33Q6 Fig. 6.1 shows Soay sheep on St. Kilda, a group of small
remote islands off the coast of Scotland. These islands experience
extreme conditions of cold, wind and rain.
Sheep were introduced to the islands thousands of years ago and the
Soay sheep are descended from them. The islands of St. Kilda have
been uninhabited by people since 1930. The sheep are now left
unfarmed and in their natural state.

Fig. 6.1
Explain how natural selection could account for the adaptive features
of Soay sheep. [4]

30
 MODEL ANSWER.

✓ There is variation among the sheep in the population.

✓ Variations arise due meiosis during gamete
formation and by mutation giving result to new
allele.
✓ New allele may code for thick fur.
✓ Sheep with thick fur survived by the cold conditions.
✓ They reproduced and passed on their allele for thick
fur.
✓ Over time better adapted features/trait become more
common in the population.
SAMPLE QUESTION.
J17 P33 Q8 (a) The theory of natural selection explains how one
species can gradually evolve into a new species.
The statements A to F describe six stages in the process of natural
selection.
The stages are not in the correct order.
A competition for resources
B passing on of their alleles to the next generation
C production of many offspring
D reproduction by individuals that are better adapted to the
environment than others
E struggle for survival
F variation within populations
(i) Arrange the stages in the correct order and then complete the flow
chart by writing the
letters in the four empty boxes.
Two of the stages have been filled in for you.

31
 (ii) Statement B mentions alleles. An allele is a version of a gene.
State one way new alleles are formed [1]
(iii) State one factor that can increase the rate at which new alleles
are formed. [1]

(b) Fig. 8.1 shows four animals with different adaptive features.
They are all mammals.

Fig. 8.1
(i) Define the term adaptive features. [2]
(ii) Describe two features, visible in Fig. 8.1, which show that all of
these animals are mammals. [2]
(iii) Describe one feature of mammals that is not visible in Fig. 8.1. [1]

32
N12 P33Q1 Islands in the Pacific have been colonised by populations
of animals that have migrated from Australia, mainland Asia and the
Americas. Over many generations these populations
have changed. Now they are unable to breed with animals of the
original populations in Australia, mainland Asia and the Americas.
(e) Explain how natural selection has resulted in changes in the
populations of animals on islands in the Pacific. [4]
MARKING POINTS
✓ Adapt to environment / conditions in new places are
Different;
✓ Competition between individuals;
✓ Struggle for existence;
✓ survival of fittest / those that are better adapted
survive;
✓ Reproduce, pass on their alleles;
✓ Mutations / changes in DNA;
✓ Change in the gene pool ;
✓ Changes to physical;

33
SAMPLE QUESTION
J09P3Q3(d) Fig. 5.1 is a map that shows the distribution of the allele for the
abnormal form of
haemoglobin (HS) and malaria in Africa.

Fig. 5.1
Explain how natural selection is responsible for the distribution of the allele for
the abnormal form of haemoglobin (HS). [5]
MARKING POINTS.

✓ .idea that areas with high percentage of sickle cell (allele) are places
with malaria ;
✓ .HSHS / homozygous recessive, reduced life span because of sickle cell
anaemia ;
✓ .HNHN / homozygous dominant / without HS , susceptible to malaria /
✓ .HNHS / heterozygous / carrier/ with HS, resistant / not affected / less
susceptible ;
✓ .HNHS (carrier) survive and have children / HNHN or HSHS do not ;
✓ .HNHS / carrier, pass on the allele / HS ;
✓ .(if HNHS x HNHS) 1 in 4 chance of, HSHS / homozygous recessive ;
✓ .2 in 4 / 50% / ½ , have advantage of resistance to malaria ;

34
EXAMPLE OF EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION.

The development of antibiotic resistant bacteria.

✓ Bacteria reproduce rapidly- a new generation can be

produced every 20 minutes.

✓ When bacteria are exposed to antibiotics, the non –

resistant bacteria die.

✓ Mutations occur during reproduction, which produce

some variation in the population of bacteria.

✓ Mutation may enable bacteria to resist being killed by

antibiotic treatment.
35
✓ Bacterial cells with the most favourable features are

most likely to survive and reproduce.

✓ The allele that gives bacteria selective advantage is

passed on to the next generation of bacterial cells.

✓ Over time population of antibiotic resistant bacteria

is formed.
SELCTIVE BREEDING/ARTIFICIAL SELECTION.

• It involves intervention by humans.

• Nature provides variations and humans select those variations
they find useful .

GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF SELECTIVE BREEDING.

➢ Individuals with desirable features are chosen to

cross breed or interbreed i.e selective breeding.

➢ Desirable alleles are passed on to the offspring

➢ Offspring with desirable features are chosen to

inbreed/mate together.

➢ This is repeated over many generations

➢ Over many generations organisms with undesirable

characteristics disappear in the population.

36
 SELECTIVE BREEDING IN DAIRY CATTLE.

✓ Humans select cows with desirable features e.g. docility, fast

growth rate, high milk yield, absence of horns.

✓ A bull with offspring with desirable characteristics is selected to

mate with cow or sperm cells from a selected bull are artificially

inseminated into a cow when it’s on heat.

✓ Offspring(cows) with desirable features are selected.

✓ The offspring are interbred with the bull that produced cows

with desirable features.

✓ Inbreeding is repeated over many generations ;

✓ The frequency of desired allele(s) increases and frequency of

undesired allele(s) decreases.

37
 SELECTIVE BREEDING IN DOGS.
All modern breeds of dog belong to the same species and are thought to have
originated from 14 ancient breeds by the process of artificial selection. The golden
retriever is an example of a modern breed that is often used as a guide dog for
people who are blind or visually impaired.

How the principle of artificial selection was used to produce golden retriever.
✓ Dogs with desirable characteristics are selected by humans e.g.

calm temperament / obedient / intelligent.

✓ Dogs are allowed to mate / breed together.

✓ Offspring with ideal characteristics chosen to mate.

✓ Offspring are allowed to inbreed over (many) generations.

✓ Allele frequency (for ideal characteristics) increases .

38
 SELECTIVE BREEDING IN PLANTS.

✓ humans select crops with desirable characteristics e.g

big ears/more grains/higher yield/tolerance to high
temperatures/ fast growing/disease resistance.
✓ Plants with desirable characteristics are cross bred.
✓ Seeds are collected.
✓ Seeds are grown and plants with desired features are
selected.
✓ Breeding is done over several generations only using
offspring with desirable characteristic(s) .
✓ Frequency of desirable allele(s) increases .

Problems that may arise from artificial selection.

✓ Increase in homozygosity- If all organisms have the same genotype and

phenotype if environmental conditions change and if they fail to adapt all
will die.
✓ Harmful recessive alleles may be expressed;
✓ Inbreeding depression-eg poor yields and poor quality .
✓ Decrease in genetic variation e.g. Loss of desirable traits.

39
DIFFEREMCES BETWEEN NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL
SELECTION.
NATURAL SELECTION ARTIFICIAL SELECTION.
• Selection is due to • Selection due to human

environmental factors. influence.

• Its slower • It’s faster.

• Produces greater • Less biodiversity.

biodiversity • Produces varieties of

organisms very different

from native generation.

• Benefits the organism • Benefits humans

• Increased heterozygosity • Increased homozygosity.

• More hybrid vigour. • Reduced hybrid vigour.

• May lead to new species. • Does not result in new

species

40
 SAMPLE QUESTION
Q1(J14P33Q4(c&d)(a0 Plants of this species that grow at low altitudes produce flowers

60 days before the plants of the same species that grow at high altitudes.

(i) Suggest one environmental reason why lilies that grow at lower altitudes flower earlier
than the lilies at higher altitudes. [1]
(ii) Explain why flowering time is an example of continuous variation . [2]
(b) Scientists think that plants of L. polyphyllum growing at high altitudes may evolve into
a new species.
Explain how natural selection could lead to the evolution of a new species of lily. [5]
(c) N17P43Q3d(iii) ome fast-growing breeds of cattle have been produced by artificial
selection.
Outline the ways in which artificial selection differs from natural selection [4]

MARKING POINTS

(a) (i)
✓ temperature / warmth ;
✓ light ;
✓ water availability ;
✓ wind ;
✓ pollinator life-cycle timings ;
✓ CO2 concentration ;
✓ pressure ; [max 1]
(ii)
✓ influence by genes and environment ;
✓ range of phenotypes / flowering times results ;

(b)
✓ different environments have different selection / competition
pressures ;
✓ variation occurs (at fertilization / meiosis) ;
✓ Variation occurs due to mutation ;
✓ best adapted organisms most likely to survive ;
✓ (those that survive) pass on their alleles ;
✓ competition for survival ;

41
 ✓ cross pollination ensures more variation (than selfpollination);
✓ reproductive isolation by different flowering times ;
✓ changes in adaptive features occur over generations ;
✓ no cross-pollination will occur between low and high altitude

plants ;

✓ If they fail to reproduce , they become different species.

(C) artificial selection –

✓ humans, act as selection pressure / choose parents ;
✓ reduced genetic variation ;
✓ faster ;
✓ for benefit of humans / not for benefit of animals ;
✓ increased chance that harmful recessive alleles will, come
together and expressed.
✓ inbreeding depression ;
✓ loss of hybrid vigour ;
✓ increased homozygosity / decreased heterozygosity ;

42