SECTION 1.

1: L IMITS OF A FUNCTION
Learning calculus can be one the most
stimulating and exciting educational
experiences. The two underlying mathematical
At the end of the lesion, you should be able
to: operations in calculus are differentiation and

 find limits of functions using integration. These operations involves

numerical, graphical and analytical computational derivative and the definite
methods;
integral, in which each based on the notion of
 prove limits of functions using the
definition of limit; limit. The concept of limit of a function is the
 show alternative methods of fundamental foundation of Calculus and
finding the limit of the function;
and probably the single most important topic in
 pose problems individually and calculus. This concept actually links the gap
collaboratively on finding limits of
between Algebra and Calculus. It describes the
functions using different methods.
behavior of functions at a specific value of x,
which is the independent variable.
The concept of limits allows us to study continuous change. This is basically the idea of
Calculus, which is commonly described as the study of such change.

What is your idea of a limit? In real life what is the application of limit? How
do we determine a limit of a function at a certain number which the function
will have a zero divisor?

x2  9
Illustration 1: Suppose the function f defined by f ( x)  . We will investigate the
x 3
function values as x gets closer and closer to 3. Here we are not concerned with the value of
the function when x  3 . In fact, for the given function f , f (3) is undefined in which case, it

is customary to indicate this with an open circle when you sketch the graph of the function f

at x  3.

Method 1: Mathematical Investigation/Numerical Approach

Table 1 and 2 that follows, shows the table of values of which the value of x gets closer
to 3 from both directions, either moving toward from 3 from the left of 3 and from the right of
3.
 Table 1 Table 2
Showing values before 3 Showing values after 3

x2  9 x2  9
x y  f ( x)  x y  f ( x) 
x 3 x 3
0 3 6 9
1 4 5 8
2 5 4 7
2.5 5.5 3.5 6.5
2.9 5.9 3.1 6.1
2.99 5.99 3.01 6.01
2.999 5.999 3.001 6.001
2.9999 5.9999 3.0001 6.0001
2.99999 5.99999 3.00001 6.00001
-as the value of x - the value of f(x) -as the value of x -the value of f(x)
gets closer to 3 closer to 6. gets closer to 3 gets closer to 6.

Notice that from Table 1 and Table 2, as x gets closer and closer to 3, the value of f (x)
gets closer and closer to 6. The number 6, which f (x) gets close to when x gets closer to, but

x2  9
not equal to 3 is said to be the limit of the function f ( x)  as x approaches to 3.
x 3

Illustration 2: Let g x  
x
. Clearly, the function will become undefined at x  0 , Thus,
x  1 1
we will investigate the value of this function as x approaches 0. The table below shows the
behavior of this function as we choose x very near to 0 from left and right.

x approaches 0 from the left x approaches 0 from the right

x -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01

g(x) 1.99499 1.99950 1.99995 ? 2.00005 2.00050 2.00499

g(x) approaches 2 g(x) approaches 2

From the results shown in the table, clearly the limit of g(x) as x approaches 0 is 2.
Method 2: Graphical Approach
Graphing functions is an alternative way of finding the limit of a function at a certain number.
The graph of the function would give a clear picture as to which number the function is getting
closer to from both directions which would be the limit of the function.

x2 1
What if you have the function f ( x)  . To sketch the function we should take note first the
x 1
domain of the function, that is, all real numbers except 1. We certainly cannot find a function
value there because f(1) is undefined so the best we can do is to see what happens to the
function as the value gets nearer the point x = 1. To do this we will graph the function. Since
the function is not easy to graph as it is written we will simply plot a few points:

x2 1
Figure 1. Graph of the function f ( x) 
x 1
There is a gap at x=1 because the function is undefined at that point. We can use numbers into
the function that close to 1 but we cannot use 1 itself. When we say that the function is
undefined at the certain value of x did not tell us much about the function. What we would like
to be able to answer is the question
What happens to f(x) as it get near to x=1?

ANSWER: As x gets close to 1 the value of f(x) gets close to 2. We can see this from the graph.

As we plot the points  1, 0, 0,1 , 0.9, 1.9, 0.99, 1.99, 1, undefined  close to 2. This implies that

the limit of the function as x approaches 1 is 2. Examining graph, it is the easiest way to find
the limit. Trying to create a table on numbers will work if the function behaves well. If it tends
to change values very quickly this method may not be very accurate.
It may be faster to find a limit of a function if one will evaluate a limit graphically or numerically
(through a table). However, in some cases it’s actually easier and faster to find a limit with
direct substitution. Before we perform the direct substitution method let us take a look at first
the scientific definition of a limit of a function:

Definition 1 (Limit of a Function) Let f(x) be a function defined at every number on

some open interval containing a itself. The limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L

written as

If the following statement is true given any , however small, there exists a

such that whenever then f x  L   .

What is the meaning of the definition? Let’s take a look at the following graph and let’s also
suppose that the limit does exist.

Figure 2.

What the definition is telling us is that for any number that when we pick a number greater
than zero we can go to our graph and sketch two lines consisting the point  a , L   and

 a   , L   .

Illustration 1: Let the function f be defined by the equation f ( x)  4 x  1, given that lim f x   11
x 3

. Find a  for   0.01such that f x  11  0.01 whenever 0  x  3   , equivalently

x  3  0.0025 .
Solution: Using the definition we need to prove that lim 4 x  1  11 . We want to show that
x 3

for any   0 , there exists a   0 such that (4x  1)  11   whenever 0  x  3   .

Thus, (4x  1)  11    4x  12  
= 4 x 3  

= x3 
4

Therefore,   .
4

Illustration 2: Prove by definition lim x  4 .

2
x 2

Solution: We must show that for any   0 , there exists a   0 such that x  4   whenever
2

0  x  2   . By factoring x 2  4  x  2 x  2 , suppose we let   1 since 1  0 , then

x  2  1 . Now
1  x  2  1
4 4 4
3 x2 5
Thus, x  2 5    x  2  
5

Therefore,  min  1,   .
 5
8
Illustration 3: By definition, prove that lim  2.
t 7 t  3

Solution: We want to show that for any   0 , there exists a   0 such that 8
2 
t 3

whenever 0  t  7   .

8  2t  3 8  2t  6 14  2t  2t  7  2 
 t  7
8
Now, 2     
t 3 t 3 t 3 t 3 t 3  t  3

 2 
  t  7     , choose   1
 t  3
1  t  7 1
4 4 4  t  7   2  
3 t 3  5 3
Now, Thus,
3
1
 
1 1
 or t 7 
3 t 3 5 2
1 1 1
 
5 t 3 3
 2
Illustration 4: Prove using definition: lim  2.
x 5 x  4

2
Solution: We must show that for any   0 , there exists a   0 such that 2 
x4

whenever 0  x  5   .

Now,
2 2  2x  4
2   
x4 x4
2  2x  8
 
x4
 2 x  10
 
x4
 2x  5
 
x4
2
  x  5 
x4
2
 x5 
x4

What if we choose   1 , then x  5  1 , implies that:

1 x  5 1
1 1 1
0 x42
1
This is not possible, now we choose another    0 , this implies that:
2
1 1
  x5 
2 2
1 1 1
1 3
 x4
2 2
1 2 2 1
The reciprocal will result to 2      2.
x4 3 3 x4
Thus,

2
 x5 
x4
 1 
 x  5 2  
 x  4
 x  5 2 2  
 x  5 4  

 x5 
4

1  
Therefore,  min  , 
2 4
 SECTION 1.2: L IMIT THEOREMS
In the previous section, we have seen
methods of determining limits of functions
At the end of the lesion, you should be able using graphical, numerical or tabular and
to:
proved limits of functions applying the limit
 evaluate limits of algebraic functions
using limit theorems definition. However, it might be better to
explore accurate methods for finding the
limits of functions. In this section, we will
see fundamental theorems as well as some
algebraic techniques that we can use to evaluate limits more precisely.

Limit Theorems

Theorem 1. Limit of a Constant

If c is any constant, then for any a , lim c  c.
x a

Theorem 2. Limit of a Linear Function

If m and b are any constants, then lim mx  b  ma  b .

x a

Theorem 3. Limit of the Sum and Difference of Two Functions

If lim f x   L and lim g x   M then lim  f x   g x   L  M

x a x a x a

Theorem 4. Limit of the Product of Two Functions

If lim f x   L and lim g x   M then lim  f x   g x   L  M

x a x a x a
 Theorem 5. Limit of the nth Power of a Function

If lim f x   L
x a
and n is any positive integer, then lim
x a
 f x   Ln
n

Theorem 6. Limit of the Quotient of Two Functions

lim f x   L lim g  x   M f x  L
If and then lim  if M  0.
x a x a x a g x  M

Theorem 7. Limit of the nth root of a Function

If n is a positive integer and lim f x   L then lim n f x   n L with

x a x a

the restriction that if n is even, L  0.

A. Evaluate each of the following limits, if it exists:

1. lim 8 2. lim 5 x  2
x  5 x 3

2x 1 x 2  3x  4
3. lim 2 4. lim
x  1 x  3 x  4 x 2 x3 1
 SECTION 1.3: OTHER STRATEGIES FOR EVALUATING L IMITS
On the previous section, you have
studied evaluating limits of functions applying

At the end of the lesion, you should be able to:

the limit theorems and direct substitution. In
this section, we will evaluate limits of functions
 evaluate limits using factoring and
rationalizing techniques. whose limit by direct substitution is an
0
indeterminate form using the analytical
0
method of factoring and rationalizing. These techniques involves simplifying the given
rational expression using factoring the numerator or denominator and rationalizing the
numerator or denominator of the fractional expression.

Find the limit of the following, if it exists:

x 2  36
lim x2  2x  8
1.) x6 x  6 2.) lim
x2 x2  x  2
x  1 1 x5 2
3) lim 4.) lim
x0 x x1 x 1

You group into fives (5) and discuss your answers in your group. You are given 10
minutes to discuss among yourselves the answers to the assigned problems. At
random, a group will discuss the answers using fishbowl method. Anybody from
the group will be tasked to discuss the answers on the board and corresponding
points will be given to those who was able to present correct solutions. You are
encourage to provide novel and different solutions to each item. The solutions of
each student will be grade according to fluency, flexibility and novelty of solutions.
Rubrics for the assignment of points will be given to you for your guidance.
Factoring Method

Illustration 1:
Solution:

We cannot find the limit by substituting x = 1 because is undefined.

Instead, we need to do some preliminary algebra. We factor the numerator as a difference of
squares and then cancel out the common term (x – 1).

Therefore,

Note: In the above example, we were able to find the limit by replacing the

function by a simpler function g(x) = x + 1, with the same limit. This is valid
because f(x) = g(x) except when x = 1.

Illustration 2:
Illustration 3:

The result above was shown graphically:

Rationalizing Technique
Illustration 1:

This result can be shown graphically:

Illustration 1:
Solution:
We cannot use the substitution method because the numerator and denominator would
be zero.

ACTIVITY 1: Pose two (2) problems on finding limits of functions using factoring
and rationalization methods. Anyone of you will be asked to show the problems
and solutions in front of the class the next meeting.

ACTIVITY 2: Propose alternative solutions not mentioned in this section and will
be given 10 points for each original solution presented in the class.
 SECTION 1.4: ONE-SIDED LIMITS
In
the definition of the limit of a function, it
is a requirement that is defined on
At the end of the lesion, you should be able some open interval containing the
to:
number itself (not necessarily at
 Evaluate one-sided limits.
 Determine the relationship itself), for the limit of as approaches
between one-sided limits and the
limit of the function.
to exist. Consider answering the
 Sketch graph of functions to activity below:
illustrate the limit of the function.

(a) Give an example of a function in which the limit is undefined. Illustrate using

graph that the limit is undefined.

(b) Given: lim

x 0
 
x  1 , what do you think is the limit of the function? Provide

justification of your answer.

The above examples and behavior of functions can be best described using

one-sided limits, thus, we define right hand and left hand limit and state the

theorem which can be applied in finding the limit of a function:

DEFINITION 1.4.1. RIGHT-HAND LIMIT
Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval (a, c). Then the
limit of f(x), as x approaches a from the right, is L, written
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = L
𝒙→𝒂+

if any 𝜺 > 𝟎 , however small, there exists a 𝜹 > 0 such that if 0 < a – x < 𝜹 then
| 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝑳| < 𝜺

DEFINITION 1.4.2. LEFT-HAND LIMIT

Let f be a function defined at every number in some open in some open interval
(d, a). Then the limit of f(x), as x approaches a from left, is L, written
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = L
𝒙→𝒂−

if any 𝜺 > 𝟎 , however small, there exists a 𝜹 > 0 such that if 0 < a – x < 𝜹 then
| 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝑳| < 𝜺
 For the we now have (note the “+”) which
means that we know will only look at .

Likewise for the we have (note the “-”) which

means that we will only be looking at .

𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) exists and is equal to L if and only if 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) both
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂− 𝒙→𝒂+
exist and both are equal to L.

Also, note that as with the “normal” limit we still need the function to settle
down to a single number in order for the limit to exist. The only difference this
time is that the function only needs to settle down to a single number on either
the right side of or the left side of depending on the one-sided limit
we’re dealing with.

So when we are looking at limits it’s now important to pay very close
attention to see whether we are doing a normal limit or one of the one-sided
limits. Let’s take the following examples for further understanding.

Evaluate the following limits, if it exists:


1.) lim 1  2  x
x 2

Solution: Since the function f x   1  2  x is not defined at any real number

 
greater than 2, then lim 1  2  x does not exist.
x 2
2.)

The

graph of the function confirms the answer which was shown below:
3.)

Solutions:
For a, b, and c:
For d, e, and f:
 SECTION 1.5: INF IN ITE LIMITS
When you turn on an automobile or a
light bulb many things happen, and
some of them are uniquely part of the
start-up system. These “transient”
At the end of the lesion, you should be able
to: things occur only during start up, and
 Illustrate and evaluate infinite then the system settles down to its
limits.
steady-state operation. The start-up
behavior of systems can be very
important, but sometimes we want to
investigate the steady-state or long
term behavior of the system: how is the system behaving “after a long time?” In
this lesson we consider ways of investigating and describing the long term
behavior of functions and the systems they model: how is function behaving
“when x (or –x) is arbitrarily large?”

(a) Consider the function f x  

1
, clearly, the function is undefined at x=0.
x2

What is the behavior of the function as we choose x very close to zero from the

left and from the right?

(b) Pose another rational function in which the value of the function would either

become very large or very small as you choose values very close to which it is

undefined from the left and right. Investigate it using tabular method.

In the above illustration, the value of the function increases without bounds as

we choose x to be very near zero either from left and right. The graph was shown

below:
 𝑓
𝐼 𝑎 𝑎 𝒙
𝒂 𝒇(𝒙)
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎
N 𝛿
|𝑥 − 𝑎| 𝛿 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑁

−1
𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑥2
−1
𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑥2

g g(x)
decreases without bound.
 𝑓
𝐼 𝑎 𝑎 𝒙
𝒂 𝒇(𝒙)
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎
N 𝛿
|𝑥 − 𝑎| 𝛿 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑁

r
1
lim+ = +∞
𝑥 → 0 𝑥𝑟

1
lim− 𝑥𝑟 = { −∞ r +∞ r
𝑥→0

vertical asymptote of the graph of the function

𝑥+2
lim+ 𝑥−3
𝑥→3

𝑥+2 3+2 5
lim+ 𝑥−3 3+ −3 0+
𝑥→3

→ 3+ →0
𝑥+2 5
𝑥−3 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑥+2
lim− 𝑥−3
𝑥→3

𝑥+2 3+2 5
lim−
𝑥→3 𝑥−3 3− −3 0−
 → 3− →0
𝑥+2 5
𝑥−3 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑥 2 +𝑥+2
lim− 𝑥2 −2𝑥−3
𝑥→3

𝑥 2 +𝑥+2 𝑥 2 +𝑥+2 32 +3+2 14

lim 2 lim
𝑥→3∓ 𝑥 −2𝑥−3 𝑥→3∓ (𝑥−3)(𝑥+1) (3−3)(3+1) (0+ )(4)

𝑥 2 −𝑥−6
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 −𝑥

𝑥 2 −𝑥−6 𝑥 2 −𝑥−6
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 −𝑥 𝑥(𝑥−1)

𝑥 2 −𝑥−6 𝑥 2 −𝑥−6
lim+ = +∞ lim+ = −∞
𝑥→0 𝑥(𝑥−1) 𝑥→1 𝑥(𝑥−1)

You will be group into fives (5) randomly to perform the activity below. Each of your
group will be given 15 minutes to discuss and answer the activity and discuss the
answer in the class. 10 points will be given to the group who successfully performed
the tasks.
ACTIVITY: Pose a two (2) functions for which the limit of the function as x
approaches a increases or decreases without bounds. Provide different solutions for
the problem and sketch the graph of the function.
 SECTION 1.6: L IMITS AT INF IN ITY

In this section, we are going to

observe the behavior of a function as

At the end of the lesion, you should be able
to: the independent variable increases or
 Illustrate and evaluate limits at
decreases without bound. Consider the
infinity
 Illustrate the concept of limit
infinity by constructing table of following assignment problems:
values and graph of 1/x.

Find the limit of the following, if it exists by filling up the values of the function
using the following values of x and write your conclusions below:
x x
f x   f x  
1 1
x x
10 -10
100 -100
1000 -1000
10,000 -10,000
100,000 -100,000
1,000,000 -1,000,000

Conclusion:

" x  " " x  "

𝑓(𝑥) =
1
increasing
𝑥
without bound decreasing without bound .
 figure 1.0
1
Table 1.0a. Table of values for 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 as x approaches infinity
x increases without bound (𝑥 → ∞)
𝑥 10 100 1 000 10 000 100 000 1 000 000
1
𝑥 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 0.000001

1
Table 1.0b. Table of values for 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 as x approaches negative infinity
x decreases without bound (𝑥 → −∞)
𝑥 -10 -100 -1 000 -10 000 -100 000 -1 000 000
1
𝑥 -0.1 -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 -0.00001 -0.000001

1
As observed from the table of values, gets sufficiently close to zero as x
𝑥
1
increases without bound (𝑥 → ∞). Similarly, 𝑥 gets sufficiently close to zero as x
1 1
decreases without bound (𝑥 → −∞). Therefore, lim 𝑥 = 0 and lim = 0.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥

1
Hence, as x approaches infinity from both sides, the value of 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥
approaches 0.
1 1
lim = 0 (𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏. 𝟎) and lim = 0 (𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟐. 𝟎)
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥

3 5
Illustration 1: Evaluate lim 𝑥. Illustration 2: Evaluate lim .
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 2
Solution: Apply basic limit laws and
equation 1.0. Solution: Apply basic limit laws and
equation 2.0.
3 1
lim = lim (3 ∙ 𝑥)
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 5 1
lim = lim (5 ∙ 𝑥 2 )
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥2 𝑥→−∞
 1 1
= 3 ∙ lim = 5 ∙ lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥2
= 3∙ 0 1 1
= 5 ∙ lim ∙ lim
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥
=0
= 5∙ 0 ∙ 0

=0
7 −8
Illustration 3: Evaluate lim . Illustration 4: Evaluate lim .
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3
Solution: Apply basic limit laws and
equation 1.0. Solution: Apply basic limit laws and
equation 2.0.
7 1
lim = lim (7 ∙ 𝑥)
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ −8 1
lim = lim (−8 ∙ 𝑥 3 )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥3 𝑥→∞
1
= 7 ∙ lim 𝑥
𝑥→−∞ 1
= 7∙ 0 = −8 ∙ lim 𝑥 3
𝑥→∞
1 1 1
= −8 ∙ lim ∙ lim ∙ lim
=0 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥

= −8 ∙ 0 ∙ 0 ∙ 0

=0
Studying closely the examples above, we can generalize limits at infinity by the
following rule:

𝒌
The limit of
𝒙𝒏
at infinity for all real numbers k and n a positive integer is given by:

𝑘 𝑘
lim = 0 (𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟑. 𝟎) and lim = 0 (𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟒. 𝟎)
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑛
 𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3
Illustration 5: Evaluate lim .
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 −4

Solution: The given function is quiet complex and it is required to simplify the
𝑘
given function so as to get a term of the form 𝑥 𝑛. This can be done by dividing each term
𝑘
of the function by the highest power which is 𝑥 2 . If the form 𝑥 𝑛 is obtained, apply basic
limit laws and equation 3.0 to solve for the desired limit. Thus,

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥2 − 4

𝑥 2 2𝑥 3
2 − 2 − 𝑥2
= lim 𝑥 2 𝑥
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 4
2 − 2
𝑥 𝑥
2 3
1−𝑥− 2
= lim 𝑥 1−0−0
𝑥→∞ 4 =
1− 2 1−0
𝑥 1
=
2 3 1
lim (1 − 𝑥 − 2 )
𝑥
= 𝑥→∞ =1
4
lim (1 − 2 )
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

Illustration 6: Evaluate lim (3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥).

𝑥→∞

𝑘
Solution: Rename the given function so as to get a term of the form 𝑥 𝑛. This can be
done by dividing each term of the function by the highest power which is 𝑥 3 . If the
𝑘
form 𝑥 𝑛 is obtained, apply basic limit laws and equation 3.0 to solve for the desired
limit. Thus,
3𝑥 3 2𝑥 2 2
(3𝑥 3
− 2𝑥 ) 3 − 3 3− 2 lim 3 − lim 2
𝑥→∞ 𝑥
lim (3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥) = lim = lim 𝑥 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 = 𝑥→∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 1 𝑥→∞ 1 𝑥→∞ 1 1
3 3 lim 3
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
3−0 3
= = =∞
0 0
3
Since the value of 0 is undefined, the limit reaches infinity (∞).
Part 1. Answer the following as directed. In each item, you are tasked to present the
following solutions: (a) standard solution and (b) alternative solution.

1 2 4x  8 3x  1000
1. lim 7  2. xlim 3. lim
x  3x x 2  5x x  x  100

5x  5
5. lim 5x 2  2
2
4. xlim
 7 x2  1 x  4x  7

Part 2. Pose a rational function and solve the limit as x increases or decreases without
bounds using the standard method and provide an alternate/novel solutions.
 SECTION 1.7: CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION
In

At the end of the lesion, you should be able to:

this section, we will study the notion of

 Illustrate continuity of a function at a continuity. This concept is so essential

number.
 Determine whether a function is to calculus that without it, the whole
continuous at a number or not;
 Determine the types of discontinuity
subject would not have been developed

as we know it today. It is arguably one

of the most important concepts not only in this discipline, bit in other

branches of mathematics as well. Loosely speaking, we say that the function is

continuous at a point if we can trace the graph of the function and pass through

the point without lifting our pen. What does “continuity at a point” mean?

Intuitively, this means that in drawing the graph of a function, the point in

question will be traversed. We start by graphically illustrating what it means to

be continuity at a point. But before that, let us do the activity below:

Consider the graphs below and answer the questions:

(a) (b)

1. Are the two functions continuous at x = 1? Explain your answers.

We now have the definitions of a continuous function:

Definition
A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥→𝑎

A function is said to be continuous on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] if it is continuous at each

point in the interval.
 Definition
A function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 then,

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑥→𝑎−

The definition above implies that three conditions must be satisfied for a
function f to be continuous at a. These are the following:
(i ) f a  exists
(ii ) lim f  x  exists and
x a

(iii ) lim f  x   f a 
x a

If f is not able to satisfy at least one of these three conditions, we say that f
has a discontinuity at a or f is discontinuity at a.

TYPES OF DISCONTINUITY
 Type 1: If f is discontinuous at and condition (ii) is not satisfied, the
discontinuity is called ESSENTIAL.
 Type 2: If f satisfies condition (ii), but fails to satisfy conditions (i) and (ii),
the discontinuity is called REMOVABLE. A function that has removable
discontinuity at a point can be redefined or manipulated straightforwardly
so that it will no longer be discontinuous at that point.

Illustration 1: Given the graph of 𝑓(𝑥), shown below, determine if 𝑓(𝑥) is

continuous at 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 0, and 𝑥 = 3.
𝒙 = −𝟐
𝑓(−2) = 2 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2

𝒙=𝟎
𝑓(0) = 1 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
𝑥→2

𝒙=𝟑
𝑓(3) = −1 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→3
 ℎ
3 + 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 1
ℎ(𝑥) = {
3 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 1 < 𝑥
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
ℎ(1) = 4,
lim− ℎ(𝑥) = lim− 3 + 𝑥 = 4
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

lim ℎ(𝑥) = lim+ 3 − 𝑥 = 2

𝑥→1+ 𝑥→1

lim ℎ(𝑥) ≠ lim+ ℎ(𝑥) , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim ℎ(𝑥)

𝑥→1− 𝑥→1 𝑥→1

ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 1.
 x2  4
g x  
x2

Solution:

(2) 2  4 0
g 2   ,
22 0
x2  4
lim g x   lim
x 2 x 2 x  2

lim
x  2x  2  lim x2  22  4
x 2 x2 x 2

 x2  4
 , if x  2
g x    x  2
4, if x  2

 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓
𝑥 = −8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 10.

2𝑥 ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 6
𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑥 − 1 ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 6
𝑡 2 ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 < −2
𝑔(𝑡) = { 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −2
𝑡 + 6 ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 ≥ −2

x 2  3x  4
g x   , at x  4
x4
x 9
H x   , at x  9
x 3
 SECTION 1.8: L IMITS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

In this section, we would look into

the limits of trigonometric functions in

At the end of the lesion, you should be able to:
tabular, graphical and analytical
 Evaluate limits of trigonometric
functions.
methods. However, the main focus

would be on finding the limits in an

easier and accurate manner which is by

way of using established results or theorems. We would also take advantage on

the concept that basic trigonometric functions are continuous on their respective

domains. Students are tasked to answer the following assignment problems and

present their different and novel solutions in the class. The assignment problem

was shown below:

Find the limit of the following:

2 sin x 2x
1.) lim 2.) lim
x 6 3 sec x  cot 2 x x 0 sin 3 x

1  cos 8 x 3x 2
lim lim
3.) x  0 3 sin 3 x 4.) x 0 1  cos 2 1
x
2
 Evaluating limits of trigonometric functions is simply finding the

trigonometric function values at x=a. But there are two important limits involving

trigonometric functions that cannot be evaluated directly using the same

0 sin x
technique because the limit is indeterminate, that is, . These are lim
x0
and
0 x

1  cos x
lim . The values of these limits are stated in the next theorem.
x0 x

sin x 1  cos x
lim 1 and (b) lim  0.
x 0 x x 0 x

sin 3 x
Illustration 1: Find the limit, if it exists: lim
x  0 sin 5 x

sin 3x
Solution: To find the limit of the function, we wish to write the quotient
sin 5 x
in such a way that the above theorem will be applied since by direct substitution

the limit is indeterminate. Hence if x  0,

 sin 3x 
3 
sin 3x
  3x 
sin 5 x  sin 5 x 
5 
 5x 
  sin 3x  sin 3x
2  3 lim
lim
sin 3x
 lim 
3x 

x 0 3x  3  1  3
x 0 sin 5 x x 0  sin 5 x  sin 5 x 5 1 5
5  5 lim
 5x  x 0 5x
2 tan 2 x
Illustration 2: Find the limit if it exists: lim
x0 x2
Solution: In order to solve the limit, we first apply trigonometric identity, that is,

sin x
tan x 
cos x .
2 tan 2 x sin 2 x sin x sin x 1
 lim  2 lim  2 lim  lim  lim
x 0 x2 x 0 x 2  cos2 x x 0 x x 0 x x 0 cos2 x
 2 1 1 1
2
2 tan 2 x
lim 2.
x 0 x2
1  cos x
Illustration 3: Find the limit if it exists: lim
x 0 sin x

Solution: lim 1  cos x  0 lim sin x  0

x 0 x 0

1  cos x
sin x

x0
1  cos x 1  cos x
lim
1  cos x x x 0 x 0
lim  lim   0
x 0 sin x x 0 sin x sin x 1 .
lim
x x 0 x
 sin 3 x tan 4 2 x
lim lim
x 0 5x x0 4 x4

1  cos2 x sin x
lim lim
x 0 2 x2 x 0 3x 2  2 x