Ala Mardawi
Ala Mardawi
Ala Mardawi
By
Ala'a Mardawi
Supervisor
Dedication
Acknowledgment
I would like to thank Almighty God for making this work a reality and
had the privilege of being his student, and I hope to have learned enough to
succeed in my future career.
Dr. Moien Omar, for supporting me in so many different ways
اﻹﻗﺮار
أﻧﺎ اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ أدﻧﺎه ﻣﻘﺪم اﻟﺮﺳﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﻤﻞ اﻟﻌﻨﻮان
Declaration
researcher's own work, and has not been submitted elsewhere for any other
degrees or qualifications.
Signature :اﻟﺘﻮﻗﯿﻊ
Table of Contents
Dedication ................................................................................................... III
Acknowledgment ........................................................................................IV
Declaration ................................................................................................... V
Table of Contents ........................................................................................VI
List of Tables...............................................................................................IX
List of Figure............................................................................................. XII
Abstract ..................................................................................................... XV
Literature Review:...................................................................................... 1
Chapter One................................................................................................... 4
Fundamentals of power system harmonics ................................................... 4
1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 4
1.2 Nonlinear loads .................................................................................... 5
1.3 Distorted waveforms ............................................................................ 6
1.5 Harmonics phase sequence ................................................................ 11
1.6 Electric quantities under non-sinusoidal ( harmonics) conditions.... 14
1.6.1 The R.M.S value .......................................................................... 14
1.6.3 Overall power factor .................................................................... 16
1.7 Measurement of harmonics distortion ............................................... 18
1.7.1 Total harmonics distortion THD.................................................. 18
1.7.2 Individual harmonics distortion (IHD) ........................................ 19
1.7.3 Total demand distortion (TDD) ................................................... 20
1.7.4 K-factor ........................................................................................ 21
1.8 Skin effects and proximity effect....................................................... 22
1.9 Point of common coupling (PCC) ..................................................... 24
Chapter Two................................................................................................ 25
Effects of harmonics ................................................................................... 25
2.1 Effect of harmonics on network components .................................... 25
VII
2.1.1 Cables........................................................................................... 25
2.1.2 Transformer.................................................................................. 27
2.1.3 Induction motor............................................................................ 30
2.1.4 Capacitors .................................................................................... 31
2.2 Resonance .......................................................................................... 32
2.2.1 Parallel resonance ........................................................................ 32
2.2.2 Series resonance........................................................................... 34
2.3 Power factor ....................................................................................... 35
2.4 Other effects of harmonics................................................................. 37
Chapter Three.............................................................................................. 39
Sources of harmonics .................................................................................. 39
3.1 Power converters................................................................................ 39
3.2 Electric arc furnaces........................................................................... 43
3.3 Fluorescent lamp lighting .................................................................. 44
3.4 Transformer........................................................................................ 46
3.5 Household appliances ........................................................................ 48
Chapter Four................................................................................................ 50
Harmonics standards ................................................................................... 50
Chapter Five ................................................................................................ 56
Network components modeling for harmonics analysis............................. 56
5.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 56
5.2 Overhead transmission lines and cables ............................................ 56
5.4 Rotating machines.............................................................................. 64
5.5 Loads .................................................................................................. 66
5.6 Capacitors........................................................................................... 68
5.7 Reactors.............................................................................................. 69
5.8 Connection point ................................................................................ 69
Chapter Six.................................................................................................. 70
VIII
Harmonics study of balanced distribution networks in frequency domain70
6.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 70
6.2 Electric grid overview........................................................................ 71
6.3 Harmonics modeling of system component....................................... 73
6.4 Harmonics modeling of nonlinear load (harmonics source).............. 83
6.5 Calculation of harmonics distortion................................................... 85
6.6 Software simulation of harmonics analysis ....................................... 92
6.7 Comparison between the results ...................................................... 100
6.8 Calculation of efficiency.................................................................. 103
Chapter Seven ........................................................................................... 112
Harmonics Mitigation Techniques............................................................ 112
7.1 Introduction...................................................................................... 112
7.2 Phase shift transformer .................................................................... 112
7.2.1 Results and simulation ............................................................... 115
7.3 Passive filter..................................................................................... 121
7.3.1 Passive filter design procedure .................................................. 124
7.3.2 Results and simulation ............................................................... 127
7.4 In-line reactor placement ................................................................. 132
7.5 Detuning........................................................................................... 133
7.6 Basic solutions in distribution system ............................................. 136
Chapter Eight............................................................................................. 137
Conclusions and future work .................................................................... 137
8.1 Conclusions...................................................................................... 137
8.2 Future work ...................................................................................... 138
APPENDICES........................................................................................... 142
اﻟﻤﻠﺨﺺ........................................................................................................... ب
IX
List of Tables
Table 1.1: Phase sequence of harmonics in a balanced three phase system
............................................................................................... 13
Table 1.2: Commercial category k-type transformer.................................. 22
Table 3.1: Firing pattern of the 6-pulse converter ...................................... 40
Table 3.2: Input current value of a 6-pulse converter................................. 41
Table 3.3: Theoretical and typical values of a 6-pulse converter ............... 42
Table 3.4: The harmonics content of the current of the arc furnace........... 44
Table 3.5: The harmonics content of the current of the florescent lamp with
electronic ballast ................................................................... 46
Table 3.6: Typical harmonics spectrum magnitude of the transformer
magnetizing current .............................................................. 48
Table 4.1: Current distortion values for general distribution networks (120V-
69kV) .................................................................................... 50
Table 4.2: Current distortion values for general distribution networks (69kV-
161kV) .................................................................................. 50
Table 4.3: Current distortion values for general distribution networks ( >
161ܸ݇).................................................................................. 51
Table 4.4: Voltage distortion value for general distribution networks ....... 52
Table 4.5: Maximum permissible harmonics current for devices .............. 53
Table 4.6: Weighting factors for the famous loads..................................... 55
Table 5.1: Resistance values of cables according to cross-sectional area and
type........................................................................................ 57
Table 5.2: Reactance values of cables according to cross-sectional area... 58
Table 5.3: Multiplication factor for transformer’s resistance adjustment with
frequency change .................................................................. 63
Table 6.1: The per unit values of bus regions............................................. 74
Table 6.2: Bus voltages percentage values ................................................. 75
X
Table 6.3: Per unit harmonics impedance values of the grid for each
harmonic order...................................................................... 77
Table 6.4: Per unit harmonics impedance values of T1 for each harmonics
order ...................................................................................... 78
Table 6.5: Per unit harmonics impedance values of T2 for each harmonics
order ...................................................................................... 79
Table 6.6: Per unit harmonics impedance values of load for each harmonics
order ...................................................................................... 80
Table 6.7: Per unit harmonics impedance values of C1 for each harmonics
order ...................................................................................... 81
Table 6.8: Per unit harmonics impedance values of C2 for each harmonics
order ...................................................................................... 82
Table 6.9: Per unit harmonics impedance values of IM for each harmonics
order ...................................................................................... 83
Table 6.10: 6-pulse converter current as a percentage value of fundamental
current for each harmonics order.......................................... 84
Table 6.11: Per unit value of the 6-pulse converter current for each
harmonics order .................................................................... 85
Table 6.12: Total harmonics distortion value of the buses ......................... 93
Table 6.13: Voltage values of the buses for 5ݐℎ harmonics order ............ 94
Table 6.14: Voltage values of the buses for 7ݐℎ harmonics order ............ 95
Table 6.15: Voltage values of the buses for 11ݐℎ harmonics order .......... 96
Table 6.16: Voltage values of the buses for 13ݐℎ harmonics order .......... 97
Table 6.17: Total harmonics distortion results comparison..................... 101
Table 6.18: Voltage values results comparison ....................................... 102
Table 6.19: Per unit values of current which flows from bus(1) to bus(2)
............................................................................................. 105
XI
Table 6.20: Per unit values of current which flows from bus(2) to bus(3)
............................................................................................. 105
Table 6.21: Per unit values of current which flows in the passive load .. 105
Table 6.22: Real power values of load flow at the selected points.......... 106
Table 6.23: Real power values for different harmonics at the selected points
............................................................................................. 107
Table 6.24: Efficiency values results comparison ................................... 111
Table 7.1: The phase shift required to eliminate different harmonics orders
............................................................................................. 114
Table 7.2: Comparison of the voltage distortion values ........................... 119
Table 7.3: Current value of the passive filter associated to each harmonics
order .................................................................................... 126
XII
List of Figure
Fig 1.1: Distorted current wave..................................................................... 7
Fig 1.2: Fourier series representation of a complex wave ........................... 8
Fig 1.3: Construction of a wave from the fundamental and second
harmonics ........................................................................................ 9
Fig 1.4: The effect of harmonics on the shape of the fundamental wave... 10
Fig 1.5: Decreasing of power factor with increasing current distortion ..... 17
Fig 1.6: Amplitude harmonics spectrum..................................................... 20
Fig 1.7: Rac/Rdc as a function of frequency curve..................................... 23
Fig 1.8: Point of common coupling illustration .......................................... 24
Fig 2.1: Parallel resonance .......................................................................... 33
Fig 2.2: Series resonance............................................................................. 35
Fig 2.3: Power factor components in system with linear load.................... 35
Fig 2.4: Power factor components in system with nonlinear load ............. 36
Fig 3.2: Input current shape of a 6-pulse converter .................................... 41
Fig 3.3: Melting current in one-phase supply of an arc furnace ................. 43
Fig 3.4: Current waveform shape of the fluorescent lamp with magnetic
ballast ............................................................................................ 45
Fig 3.5: Current waveform shape of the fluorescent lamp with electronic
ballast ........................................................................................... 45
Fig 3.6: Principal of harmonics generating in the transformer ................... 47
Fig 3.7: Typical TV current waveform ...................................................... 48
Fig 5.1: A plot relates Ac resistance of lines with frequency ..................... 59
Fig 5.2: Transformer model (A) for harmonics analysis ............................ 61
Fig 5.3: Transformer model (B) for harmonics analysis ............................ 62
Fig 5.4: Increase in transformer resistance with frequency ........................ 62
Fig 5.5: X/R value with the capacity of transformer curve......................... 64
Fig 5.6: X/R value with the capacity of machine curve ............................. 66
XIII
Fig 5.7: Load model (A) for harmonics analysis ........................................ 67
Fig 5.8: Load model (B) for harmonics analysis ........................................ 67
Fig 5.9: Load model (C) for harmonics analysis ........................................ 68
Fig 6.1: Schematic diagram of the distribution network ............................ 72
Fig 6.2: Load flow study results obtained by ETAP 12.6........................... 75
Fig 6.3: The harmonics per unit impedance diagram of the whole network
....................................................................................................... 83
Fig 6.4: Output report of harmonics load flow analysis ............................. 93
Fig 6.5: Bus voltages of 5ݐℎ harmonics order ........................................... 94
Fig 6.6: Bus voltages of 7ݐℎ harmonics order ........................................... 95
Fig 6.7: Bus voltages of 11ݐℎ harmonics order......................................... 96
Fig 6.8: Bus voltages of 13ݐℎ harmonics order......................................... 97
Fig 6.11: Voltage wave and spectrum of bus#3.......................................... 99
Fig 6.12: Total voltage value of buses ...................................................... 100
Fig 6.13: Total harmonics distortion of voltage comparison.................... 101
Fig 6.14: Voltage of bus (1) comparison for each harmonics order ......... 102
Fig 6.15: Voltage of bus(2) comparison for each harmonics order .......... 103
Fig 6.16: Voltage of bus(3) comparison for each harmonics order .......... 103
Fig 6.17: Selected points for power flow study ........................................ 104
Fig 6.18: Fundamental power flow result in load flow study................... 106
Fig 6.19: Current flow direction of linear and non-linear load................. 107
Fig 7.1: A schematic of harmonics mitigation by the phase shift
transformer .................................................................................. 113
Fig 7.2: Schematic diagram of the modified network with two nonlinear
loads ............................................................................................ 115
Fig 7.3: Output report of no phase shift case ............................................ 116
Fig 7.4: Voltage shape of bus#2 for the first case..................................... 116
Fig 7.5: Harmonics spectrum of bus#2 for the first case .......................... 117
XIV
Fig 7.6: Output report for the second case ................................................ 117
Fig 7.7: Voltage shape of bus#2 for the second case................................ 118
Fig 7.8: Harmonics spectrum of bus#2 for the second case ..................... 118
Fig 7.9: Current shape of the two nonlinear load..................................... 120
Fig 7.10: Current harmonics spectrum of the two nonlinear load ............ 120
Fig 7.11: Current shape of the resultant of the two nonlinear loads......... 120
Fig 7.12: Current harmonics spectrum of the resultant of the two nonlinear
loads ............................................................................................ 121
Fig 7.13: The operation mechanism of the passive filter.......................... 122
Fig 7.14: Output report of the original network........................................ 127
Fig 7.15: Voltage shape of bus#2 of the original network........................ 128
Fig 7.16: Harmonics spectrum of bus#2 of the original network ............. 128
Fig 7.17: Impedance magnitude of the original network.......................... 129
Fig 7.19: Output report of the network after adding a passive filter ........ 130
Fig 7.20: Voltage shape of bus#2 of the network after adding a passive
filter............................................................................................. 130
Fig 7.21: Harmonics spectrum of bus#2 of the network after adding a
passive filter ................................................................................ 131
Fig 7.22: Impedance magnitude of the network after adding a passive filter
..................................................................................................... 131
Fig 7.23: Impedance magnitude of the network after adding a detuning
reactor.......................................................................................... 135
XV
Power System Harmonics Analysis Using Frequency-Domain
Impedance Model of Network and Methods of Disposal
By
Ala'a Mardawi
Supervisor
Dr. Maher Khammash
Abstract
Power grids can be described as low power quality if they contain distorted
currents which are known as harmonics. Harmonics mean that the alternating
current (AC) wave contains multiple integers of the fundamental frequency.
In the past, this distortion was caused by the elements of the network itself,
such as transformers, when they enter the saturation area in periods of high
demand for energy. The generators themselves produce waves with a slight
commercial use. Several small devices spread through the whole network are
participating in the distortion.
Distortion due to harmonics has become very important in the field of power
network must be carried out in the presence of the sources of harmonics. The
main goal of this analysis is to find different values of the distortion and to
XVI
compare them with the standards set to the normal level. Also, such studies
enable us to study the effectiveness of different procedures followed in
Problem statement
The spread of nonlinear loads in the electric power systems will result in
distortions in the current wave and thus distortion on the voltage, which
is called the harmonics. These distorted currents will be injected back into
the power supply to cause a negative effect on the power quality that is to
increase the losses and reduce the power factor. The network equipment
itself will also be subject to damage and downtime due to harmonics. This
has necessitated worldwide interest in harmonics studies, including
harmonics estimation, elimination and a variety of related areas.
Objectives
To learn how to form a frequency-dependent model for network
elements depending on the nature of each element and how it
Methodology
A mathematical model for the whole electric network is developed in
order to carry out harmonics power flow analysis by hand calculation.
Later, the analysis is carried out to evaluate the developing method
Thesis layout
The thesis is organized as follows: Chapter 1 provides a basic theory
pass through the various network equipment. It also looks at the effects
on the entire network such as resonance. Chapter 3 covers the sources of
harmonics in the electric network with a description of the nature of the
with the passage of harmonics in it. Each element will be dealt with
separately to get a frequency dependent impedance. Chapter 6
represents building a complete harmonics model for a distribution
calculate the bus voltages and then calculate the distortion measurements.
This is accompanied by simulations of the same network to determine the
Literature Review:
Shehab Ali, (2011), Provided an easily obtained and simple model for
distribution networks without knowing the configuration of the network.
This model was known as Norton model. It was found that the model is very
useful for analysis even if there is a change in the operating conditions of the
supply-side of the system, which in turn changes the nature and value of
percentage of the total load and not as a source of harmonics with its own
nature in the generation of harmonics. This makes the accuracy of the
analysis mainly dependent on the accuracy of the nonlinear load ratio
estimation [17].
2
include actual calculations of harmonics voltages or currents and did not rely
on impedances at different frequencies [14].
Ankit Vashi, (2006), studied harmonics in distribution networks. The study
filters only and did not address other methods. Also, it did not address how
to model the network components for the purposes of the study [19].
Hussein et al, (2010), analyzed the propagation of harmonics waves in power
system networks and they investigated the effect of harmonics on both utility
components and pieces of equipment. They introduced effective procedures
which can be used in harmonics mitigation. The study found that the
harmonics have a great effect on the system performance and that the
procedures which are used in harmonics mitigation have a noticeable
feasibility. One of the shortcomings of the study was that it was limited to
3
simulations in the analysis using software and did not address the analysis
by accurate calculations [21].
iteration method and he entered the frequency effect of the harmonics on the
calculations. However, the analysis was not carried out on a real distribution
network and the results of the analysis were not very accurate [26].
with variable ones in an industrial plant and what the benefit was from such
replacement. The way he applied was to take real measurements from the
grid and compare them with the simulation results of the modified grid.
Recommended criteria for the conversion process are suggested. The results
of the study found that the process of replacement did not completely
eliminate harmonics problems and the author did not address how to solve
Chapter One
1.1 Introduction
This distortion is always presented in electric power grids and is not harmful
as long as it does not exceed normal standard levels. However, due to the
steady increase in the use of nonlinear loads in electrical distribution
networks, the distortion levels on currents and voltages have reached levels
that have exceeded normal conditions. As a result, this distortion has become
a major source of low power quality and has been accompanied by troubles
the occurrence of the harmonics problem is the nonlinear loads, which now
account for 50% of household loads and a larger proportion of industrial
loads.
These harmonics not only affect the distortion of the wave shape. If this were
the case, there would not be a problem. Harmonics will cause several
produces a wave current similar to the wave of applied voltage in shape and
frequency, i.e. The relationship between current and voltage is a straight line.
Pure resistance, inductance, and capacitance are all linear elements and any
load formed from these elements is considered as a linear load. Examples of
linear loads are the incandescent light bulbs, heating loads, transformers as
sinusoidal current, but a distorted current or pulses. This current is very rich
in harmonics.
Changes which occurred in the current shape are reflected as distortion in the
nonlinear loads are adjustable speed drives, electric arc furnaces and
fluorescent lamps.
Nonlinear loads are constantly increasing, with a forecast of up to 65% of
loads in electric grids and they affect the electric power systems by
generating harmonic currents and as a result harmonic voltage.
The distorted wave that is formed in the electric power systems because of
the harmonics existence no longer maintains the sinusoidal waveform
because it contains frequencies other than the basic frequency (50Hz).
7
Fig 1.1, for example, shows a distorted current wave due to the presence of
harmonics.
where:
As shown by the above Fourier series, any periodic complex wave can be
decomposed by:
The fundamental wave is called the first harmonic and the second wave is
called the second harmonic and the third wave is called the third harmonic
and so on. Fig 1.2 shows Fourier series representation of a complex wave
In the opposite direction of what has been mentioned, any complex wave can
Fig 1.3: Construction of a wave from the fundamental and second harmonics [11]
Waves with frequencies 2f ,4f ,6f... are called even harmonics, while waves
with frequencies f,3f,5f... are called odd harmonics. To see the effect of the
Fig 1.4: The effect of harmonics on the shape of the fundamental wave [11]
Let us add odd harmonics and again even harmonics with the fundamental
as in Fig 1.4.
Fig 1.4 (a) shows the fundamental and third harmonic with phase shift =
180° . While Fig 1.4(b) shows the fundamental and third harmonic with phase
shift = 90° . Fig 1.4(c) shows the fundamental with second harmonic with
phase shift= 0° .While Fig 1.4(d) shows the fundamental with second
harmonic with phase shift = 90° .
Adding odd harmonics leads to make the positive half cycle of the
complex wave symmetrical with negative half cycle regardless of
From the above analysis, it can be said that a balanced three-phase system
does not have even harmonics because all electrical loads (except half wave
rectifier) produce a symmetrical current i.e. the positive half cycle is similar
to the negative half cycle (half wave symmetry), also, the three-phase
as follows:
From the above, noting the harmonics of the current in the three phases, it is
possible to record the following Table 1.1
13
as follows:
3h+1 : positive sequence leads to heating effect
3h+2 : negative sequence leads to motor torque problems
that bear these harmonics are called zero sequences and this applies to the
multiples of the third harmonics (6f, 9f, 12f…….).
Positive and negative sequence harmonics circulate between phases while,
zero sequence harmonics do not produce rotating field and are summed
together in the neutral line, as a result, circulate between the phase and
neutral.
14
In brief, harmonics have different frequencies and also have different phase
sequence.
݅(ܫ = )ݐଵ sin(ݐݓ+ ߠଵ) + ܫଶ sin(2ݐݓ+ ߠଶ) + ܫଷ sin(3ݐݓ+ ߠଷ)
+ ܫସ sin(4ݐݓ+ ߠସ) … … … … + ܫ sin(݇ݐݓ+ ߠ) (1.3)
Where the k is the highest harmonics order of interest and typically a value
of k = 50 is sufficient in power systems analysis [9].
்
ଵ
ܫோெ ௌ = ඩ ் න ݅ଶ(ݐ݀)ݐ (1.5)
Using trigonometric properties for the square of the current under the square
ܫଶ
ܫோெ ௌ = ඩ (1.6)
2
ୀଵ
ଶ
= ඩ ܫோெ ௌ
ୀଵ
Hence, the R.M.S value of a complex wave is equal to the square root for the
sum of the square of individual harmonics. If the complex wave contains a
DC value (it is neglected here for its small value) it is combined with the sum
as follows:
ଶ ଶ
ܫோெ ௌ = ඩ ܫ + ܫோெ ௌ (1.7)
ୀଵ
The R.M.S value is a very important value and should be taken into account
in heating effects of the current on the network components such as
transformers, motors and capacitor banks.
16
ܲ௩ଶ , ܲ௩ଷ , ܲ௩ସ … … are losses usually caused by nonlinear loads and
After finding the R.M.S values of voltage and current beside the average
power value, the overall power factor value can be found using the equation
1.10[11]:
ݏݐݐܽݓ݈ܽݐݐ
. ݂ =
ݏ݁ݎ݁ ݉ܽݐ݈ݒ݈ܽݐݐ
ܸଵோெ ௌܫଵோெ ௌ cos(∅ଵ − ߠଵ) + ܸଶோெ ௌܫଶோெ ௌ cos(∅ଶ − ߠଶ) + ⋯
= (1.10)
ܸோெ ௌܫோெ ௌ
17
Where:
ܸଶோெ ௌ: R.M.S value of the second order harmonic voltage wave and so
on……….
The following Fig 1.5 shows how the power factor is affected by the
increased total harmonics distortion in currentܶܦܪ (explained in the
following section)
It is clear that with the increase of harmonic distortion the value of the power
factor decreases.
18
The most commonly used index for quantifying the amount of distortion in
a voltage wave (or current) is called total harmonics distortion THD [5]. This
index determines the harmonics level content of the wave and the associated
deformation. It is used for all levels of voltages: low, medium and high.
ඥ∑ஶୀଶ ܸோெ
ଶ
ௌ
%ܶܦܪ௩ = 100% (1.11)
ܸଵோெ ௌ
ඥ∑ஶୀଶ ܫோெ
ଶ
ௌ
%ܶܦܪ = 100% (1.12)
ܫଵோெ ௌ
For a pure sine wave with only 50 Hz, the THD value = 0. The current THD
in loads usually ranges from a few percent to 100 %. While the voltage THD
is often less than 5% [5]. The voltage THD if exceeds the normal levels,
19
causes problems for the network and its equipment so IEEE ST.519
recommends standard levels for THD related to voltage and current
ஶ
ଶ
= ඩ ܸோெ ௌ
ୀଵ
ܸோெ ௌ ଶ
ܶܦܪ௩ = ඨ ൬ ൰ −1
ܸଵோெ ௌ
This index helps us to plot what is called harmonics magnitude spectrum for
Many times The THD index is misleading, as in the case of light loads. When
the fundamental current approaches to zero as in light loads case; The
resulting THD value will be high, however this THD value is not necessarily
of great interest because the associated harmonic currents value is small,
even if these harmonics value is a large value according to the fundamental
current [5,8].
In order for the index to be more real, its value is referred to a real value
instead of a variable value which changes with the change in load. Hence,
engineers will not find a better value than the rated current that the electrical
networks are designed to carry.
Due to the above explanation, TDD index is found and defined as [3,5,9]:
21
ටσ ୀ
ୀଶ
௫ ଶ
ܫ
ܶ= ܦܦ (1.15)
ܫ
Where ܫ: R.M.S value of the peak or maximum demand load current at
fundamental frequency measured at PCC point (see section 1.9).
If the load does not exist, ܫ can be expected based on design experience. If
the load is present, the maximum (15-25 minutes) readings for the previous
1.7.4 K-factor
The presence of harmonics in the network increases the R.M.S value of the
current and thus increases the losses and heating effect. In a transformer, the
heating effect is more severe because eddy current losses which are produced
by harmonics current are proportional to square root of frequencies of these
harmonics. Hence high levels of harmonics result in overheating the
ଶ ܫ ଶ
∑ୀଵ ℎ ቀ ቁ
ܫଵ
=ܭ (1.16)
ܫ ଶ
∑ୀଵ ቀ ቁ
ܫଵ
22
The range of the K is from 1 to 50. A more K value means there is a need
for a transformer that can handle more heat. In most cases k ≤ 10 [4].
Skin effect is an AC phenomenon in which the current tends to pass near the
outer surface and is not distributed equally in the conductor.
In 2008, Baggin proved that skin effect may be effective even for low
frequencies. His work was based on a copper conductor with a diameter of
20mm.The results were as follows:
ଽ௧ ଷௗ
ܴ ܴ
= 2.07 , = 1.35
ܴ ܴ
Chapter Two
Effects of harmonics
2.1.1 Cables
Harmonics lead to increase conductor losses in the form of heat for three
reasons: the first reason is that the R.M.S value of the current increases due
to harmonics, which means additional load and additional losses. The R.M.S
value is known as:
is equal to ܫோெ ௌ = ܫଵ√1 + 0.38ଶ. Neglecting other factors that increase the
ଶ
ଶ ூభ√ଵା.ଷ଼మ
losses, ܴ ܫwill increase by∶ ൬ ൰ 100% =14.4% compared to the
ூభ
equation 2.1[3]:
1
(2.1)
∑ୀ ௫ ଶ ܴ
1+ ܫ
ୀଵ ܴௗ
26
For example, if the 6-pulse harmonics pass in the conductor, derating will be
typically by 3-6% [3].
From the above discussion it can be said that harmonics lead to reduced
power transmission capacity because of increased losses and increased
The third reason is that harmonics increase the dielectric losses due to the
increased stress on the cable, the side effects of this is extra heat which
reduces the life of the cable. Dielectric losses are equal to [12]:
ୀ ௫
Where:
C: capacitance
ݓ : 2ߨ݂
ோ
tan ߜ: the loss factor( భ ).
ቀೢ ቁ
The neutral line in the three phase 4-wire systems is worthy of special
attention because of the zero sequence currents which are summed
algebraically - not vector sum - in the neutral unlike positive and negative
sequence harmonics which are eliminated in the neutral line. This is also an
undesirable effect of the harmonics for cables causing overload to the
conductor.
27
that neutral cross section area in a system that feeds nonlinear loads is not
less than 173% of the same value for each phase [12].
Suppose that the third harmonics current is : ܫଷௗ = 70% of fundamental
current. Hence, R.M.S phase of the current = ඥܫଵଶ + ܫଷଶ = √1ଶ + 0.7ଶ =
1.22, while neutral current is equal to: ܫଷ + ܫଷ + ܫଷ = 0.7 + 0.7 + 0.7 = 2.1
. Hence,
ܫே 2.1
= = 1.72
ܫு 1.22
From the above example, the cross-sectional area of the neutral conductor
has to be 1.72 of the phase conductor.
2.1.2 Transformer
heat of the transformer. Heat causes degradation of the insulation and then
the entire fail of the transformer.
28
The transformer losses include the no-load losses which depend on magnetic
flux value required for magnetizing the transformer core and the load losses,
which depend on the frequency and include the copper losses and the stray
flux losses.
The no-load losses (core losses) are divided into:
Eddy current losses: the increase in eddy losses can be seen from the
following equation [3,11]:
Where:
f: frequency
Where:
f: frequency
With the presence of harmonics, copper losses are also increasing. The
R.M.S value of the current is higher and the thermal effect is getting worse.
The skin effect has a big role in heating and is more severe than in the case
of cables because the conductors are very close to each other in the
ଶ
ܲ௨ = ܫோெ ௌܴ (2.5)
Another effect comes from the third harmonics and its multiples. It is known
that the transformers which are used in the distribution 4-wire systems comes
in ∆ − ܻ configuration and this makes the ∆ of the transformer as a trap for
in the same mechanism that occurs in the transformer. It was found that every
10 degrees increase in motor temperature continuously above the rated
temperature reduces the motor life by 50% [12]. The effect of heat depends
heavily on the type of the motor if it is squirrel- cage or slip ring, where the
first type is more heat tolerant.
There is a more serious effect than thermal effect which is represented in
harmonics sequence. It is known that the basis of the work of the induction
motor depends on producing a rotating magnetic field in the air gap due to
three phase currents. Positive sequence harmonics of the three phases
explosions) about the outer perimeter [12]. This design has been adopted
based on the existence of a pure sinusoidal wave and thus will not become
effective in the presence of harmonics because the excess heat of the rotor
31
2.1.4 Capacitors
Capacitors are often present in industrial and commercial systems for the
purpose of power factor improving, such as installing capacitors in
The higher the frequency of the harmonics, the lower the capacitive
impedance value (inverse relationship). This means increasing the value
of the current which will be drawn by the capacitor and burning it, i.e.
Hz).
32
2.2 Resonance
One of the most negative effects associated with harmonics is the occurrence
of what is known as resonance. Resonance occurs when capacitive reactance
ଵ
(ܺ = ) equals with the inductive reactance (ܺ = 2ߨ݂ )ܮat a certain
ଶగ
and this makes the denominator value equals to zero. In other words, the
impedance is a very large value (∞) that creates a very large voltage.
ଵ ଵ
At resonance, ʹ ߨ݂ ܮെ = 0 or ݂ = (2.7)
ଶగ ଶగ√
Where∶
At resonance,
ଵ ଵ
2ߨ݂ ܮ− =0 or ݂ =
ଶగ ଶగ√
35
The power factor expresses the ratio of the actual power consumption to the
total power transmitted. In power systems that contain only linear loads, the
vector relationship between power components is as follows:
Here,
This power factor for pure sinusoidal wave called displacement power factor.
factor includes the both is called true power factor (TPF). Fig 2.4 shows the
new relationship between power components:
Fig 2.4: Power factor components in system with nonlinear load [12]
37
ܲ ܹ݇
. ݂ = ≠
ܵ ܸ݇ܣ
ஶ ஶ
ܵ = ܸோெ ௌܫோெ ௌ = ඩ ܸଶ ඩ ܫଶ = ܸଵோெ ௌඥ1 + ܶܦܪ௩ଶ ܫଵோெ ௌට1 + ܶܦܪଶ
ୀଵ ୀଵ
ܲ ܲଵ
. ݂௧௨ = = (2.13)
ܵ
ܵଵඥ1 + ܶܦܪ௩ଶට1 + ܶܦܪଶ
In equation 2.13, we assume that ܲ = ܲଵ. This is true since in most cases,
the average power associated with harmonics(h>2) is small portion of the
Chapter Three
Sources of harmonics
When talking about the problem of harmonics in electric power systems, the
harmonic currents have the great influence because different loads generate
harmonic currents during their operation.
The reason for the emergence of harmonics is to pull the current in a non-
sinusoidal shape in the grid of electricity, that is, the device pulls a current
which is not similar to the voltage shape which is applied to it.
In the past, equipment with an iron core was the main reason for the
production of harmonics but with the need to use energy-saving devices,
power electronic devices became the main source of harmonics generation.
Each device has its own signature in terms of the nature of harmonics
(spectrum and order) and in sum all devices share the problem of harmonics.
The harmonics generating sources include one phase devices like the
fluorescent lamp and three phase devices like the variable speed drives.
These types of equipment which produce harmonics also are adversely
affected by harmonics voltages and currents. The most common sources of
Power electronics have spread widely and rapidly due to the tremendous
progress that has been made in improving its specifications and operating
mechanism.
40
The 6-pulse converter is the most frequent and it is used in control of motors,
fuel cells and batteries. Whether the operation of the 6-pulse converter is
It can be seen with reference to Fig 3.1, the converter comprises six thyristors
in a full wave bridge configuration. In the circuit two thyristors are fired at
the same time and remain fired until are reversed biased by the circuit itself.
The input current wave which is produced by this sequence has the following
This distorted wave can be analyzed using Fourier series as follows [3]:
2√3 1 1 1 1
ܫ = ܫௗ ൬ ߠ െ ͷߠ ߠ െ ͳͳߠ ͳ͵ ߠ
ߨ 5 7 11 13
+ ⋯൰ (3.1)
ߠ ൌ ʹ ߨ݂ଵݐሺ͵ Ǥʹ ሻ
A note of great significance can be deduced from the previous series; the
harmonics in the current wave follow this pattern
݄ ൌ ܲ݊ േ ͳሺ͵ Ǥ͵ ሻ
42
wave symmetry. While the absence of the triple order and its multiples is due
to the fact that the converter is connected to a ∆ − ܻ ∆ ݎ− ∆ transformer,
which makes ∆ as a trap for triple order.
The second observation is that the value of the harmonics current decreases
inversely by increasing the order as the following pattern:
1
ܫ = ܫଵ (3.4)
ℎ
The Table 3.3 shows theoretical and typical values of 6-pulse converter
harmonics
These devices are used in scrap smelting and during their work produce the
worst harmonics of the network. Arc furnaces are considered loads with a
low power factor. The operation of the arc furnaces includes two stages
which are called smelting and refining stages and there are a large number
converter due to the change of arc feed material. The resulting harmonics
take a non-continuous pattern which includes integer and non-integer orders.
Fig 3.3 shows a current wave in one of phases:
Table 3.4: The harmonics content of the current of the arc furnace [1]
h
2 3 4 5 7
Initial melting stage 7.7 5.8 2.5 4.2 3.1
Refining stage 0 2 0 2.1 0
It is possible that these values vary for other types of arc furnaces, but the
values of Table 3.4 remain useful for studies in the case that measurements
cannot be made. Arc furnaces are ranging from small equipment with small
capacity (2-4MVA) to huge units with large capacity (100MVA) that deal
with tens of tons.
Fig 3.4 and 3.5 show a typical fluorescent lamp current waveform shape with
magnetic ballast and electronic ballast respectively.
45
Fig 3.4: Current waveform shape of the fluorescent lamp with magnetic ballast [8]
Fig 3.5: Current waveform shape of the fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast [8]
As seen from the figures, the nature of harmonics and the amount of
distortion depend on the type of the ballast which is used. There are two types
of fluorescent lamps [12]:
With electronic ballast: ܶܦܪ =16.3%, 3ௗ order harmonics and it’s
multiples are equal to 8%-25% of the fundamental.
Table 3.5: The harmonics content of the current of the florescent lamp
with electronic ballast
Harmonics order Magnitude(%) Harmonics order Magnitude(%)
fundamental 100 9 2.4
2 0.2 11 1.8
3 19.9 13 0.8
5 7.4 15 0.4
7 3.2 17 0.1
Note from Table 3.5 that the third and fifth order harmonics are dominant
also the table reveals that the harmonics pattern of the fluorescent lamp
3.4 Transformer
region and did not enter into the saturation. If the transformer became
saturated, then it is considered as a source of harmonics, especially the third
and fifth order harmonics.
47
the input voltage may cause the transformer to enter the saturation area and
consequently generate harmonics. For example, in the morning the loads are
low and the voltage is high and this causes the formation of harmonics. Also,
Although the rotating machines (motors and generators) are similar to the
Chapter Four
Harmonics standards
Most standards provide the allowed limits for harmonics to protect electrical
network equipment and components from the effects which are resulted from
these voltage and current harmonics.
Standard IEEE 519 _1992 is the most famous specification for harmonics
distortion. This standard sets maximum limits for the allowable harmonics
distortion to appear in the current and voltage waves at the point of
(69kV-161kV) [6,9]
ܫௌ /ܫ ℎ < 11 11 ≤ ℎ < 17 17 ≤ ℎ < 23 23 ≤ ℎ < 35 35 ≤ ℎ TDD
< 20 2 1 0.75 0.3 0.15 2.5
20-50 3.5 1.75 1.25 0.5 0.25 4
50-100 5 2.25 2 0.75 0.35 6
100-1000 6 2.75 2.5 1 0.5 7.5
> 1000 7.5 3.5 3 1.25 0.7 10
51
Here,
These two values may need short circuit and load flow calculations to find
them.
Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonics limits shown
above.
Current distortions that result in a dc offset like half wave rectifiers are
not allowed.
All power generation equipment are limited to these values of current
It is clear from the tables that in the case of strong networks with high S.C
According to the voltage distortion, Table 4.4 shows the distortion ratios
(%ܦܪܫ௩, %ܶܦܪ௩) under normal operating conditions that last for more than
hour. Knowing that these values are allowed to exceed 50% increase in
transit periods such as starting motors and starting operation of transformers.
The above specification is concerned with the network as a whole and the
point of connection with the subscribers, but there are other specifications
concerned with the same device in the sense of whether the harmonics
emitted by this device are allowed or not without looking at the network.
IEC 61000-3-2 has been developed to address this issue. This standard deals
with most household and commercial appliances with a current of less than
16 A and this specification does not consider THD but looks at the individual
distortion [2,8].
53
exceeded at all. It does not force the user to use a certain type of converters
or devices with certain harmonics ratios, but to instruct the user to take
certain procedures for processing, for example, using a filter.
In IEEE 519_1992, Both the user and the utility are responsible for the
harmonics. The user has to determine the harmonics of the current by
54
choosing the appropriate device type or other actions while the utility must
control the harmonics of voltages.
followed provided that the short circuit capacity (S.C) of the network is much
greater than kVA demand of all nonlinear loads connected to the network.
The method is done in the following steps [9]:
்ܵ = ܹܵ (4.1)
ୀଵ
Chapter Five
5.1 Introduction
were reached.
This chapter will discuss how the main elements of the network are
represented for use in frequency analysis studies.
shunt admittance divided into two equal halves on the beginning and end of
the line.
In the case of short lines, the shunt admittance is ignored and reduced to only
resistance and inductance in series, while in the long line the shunt
admittance is considered. Overhead line considered long if it exceeds 150/h
57
While The fundamental frequency reactance values of the cable are also
shown in the Table 5.2
58
The effect of the length of the line is not to neglect the value of shunt
admittance in case that the line is long and hence, there is a chance of
occurrence of resonance between the shunt admittance and the inductance of
the network.
The effect of frequency of harmonics is to increase the value of the reactance
(2ߨfL) of the line. Also to increase resistance value due to skin effect and
proximity effect.
The resistance with the skin effect is modified as in the following
relationships:
For example, for (240 mm2) copper cables the fundamental resistance (RDC)
= 0.074 Ω/Km. At fifth harmonics order (f = 5*50=250 Hz), ට = 58.12.
ோ ವ
ோಲ
From the plot =1.2. This givesܴ = 0.089 Ω/Km.
ோವ
ܺ ൌ ݄ܺሺͷǤ͵ ሻ
5.3 Transformers
The transformer can provide ±30° phase shift for the harmonics currents
and voltages, this phase shift is related to the way in which the windings
Here, the most accurate two models of transformer according [9,13] to are
shown. The first one is model (A) shown in Fig 5.2
61
Where:
ܴ௦ ൌ ்ܴ (5.5)
ܺ ൌ ்݄ܺ (5.6)
ܴ ൌ ͺ Ͳ்ܺ (5.7)
ܺ ൌ ்݄ܺ (5.9)
to Fig 5.4
The initial values of resistance and inductance are obtained from the open-
்ܼ%
்ܴ = (5.10)
ଶ
ටܺ − 1
ܴ
ܺ
்ܺ = ்ܴ ൬ ൰ (5.11)
ܴ
64
Fig 5.5: X/R value with the capacity of transformer curve [1]
In harmonics flow studies, both the generator and the motor are represented
as passive load shunted between the bus they are connected to and ground.
This is true because they do not contribute in harmonics generation.
ܺ ൌ ݄ܺହு௭ (5.12)
While the resistance is adjusted to include losses which are caused by skin
effect and eddy currents as follows [3]:
65
ℎ ଵ.ହ
ܴ = ܴହு௭ ቆ1 + 0.1 ൬ ൰ ቇ (5.13)
݂
ܼ = ܴ + ϳܺ (5.14)
In the case of induction machines, the locked rotor impedance ܼோ is taken
follows [3,5]:
ܺ = ℎܺோ (5.15)
The resistance is modified to include eddy currents and skin effect losses as
follows [5]:
ܼ = ܴ + ϳܺ (5.17)
Fig 5.6: X/R value with the capacity of machine curve [1]
Finally, in the case of a salient pole synchronous machines type, the negative
sequences currents generate a second order harmonics currents in the
magnetic field, which in turn generate a third order harmonics currents in the
5.5 Loads
In the case that the load is not a source of harmonics and does not participate
in their generation, then it can be represented by linear elements to form an
impedance depending on frequency.
Load are classified to three types: passive load (typically domestic), motive
load and power electronics load [2]. The first two types can be represented
by a linear model for harmonics analysis, but the last type is different since
Model (B)[2]:
In each model, resistance slightly changes with frequency change since there
are no skin effect nor eddy currents like in transformers and other
components.
5.6 Capacitors
ܸ݇ଶ
ܺହு௭ = (5.25)
ܴܣܸ ܯ
5.7 Reactors
ܺ = ℎܺହு௭ (5.27)
Where:
Chapter Six
6.1 Introduction
In order to identify the impact of harmonics on the power grid, especially the
filters.
The calculation will be done using per unit quantities. ܵ௦ = 10 ܣܸ ܯis
Bus#1 region:
ܸ = 66ܸ݇
ܵ 10ܣܸ ܯ
ܫ = = = 87.477ܣ
√3ܸ √3(66ܸ݇)
ܸଶ (66ܸ݇)ଶ
ܼ = = = 435.6Ω
ܵ 10ܣܸ ܯ
Bus#2 region:
ܸ = 11ܸ݇
ܵ 10ܣܸ ܯ
ܫ = = = 524.86ܣ
√3ܸ √3(11ܸ݇)
ܸଶ (11ܸ݇)ଶ
ܼ = = = 12.1Ω
ܵ 10ܣܸ ܯ
Bus#3 region:
ܸ = 4.16ܸ݇
ܵ 10ܣܸ ܯ
ܫ = = = 1387.86ܣ
√3ܸ √3(4.16ܸ݇)
ܸଶ (4.16ܸ݇)ଶ
ܼ = = = 1.731Ω
ܵ 10ܣܸ ܯ
74
Bus#2
Base voltage 11kV
Base current 524.86A
Base impedance 12.1 Ω
Bus#3
Base voltage 4.16kV
Base current 1387.86A
Base impedance 1.731 Ω
The buses fundamental voltage values and associated phase angles. The
voltage values are important in calculating THD, while phase angles are
important in the case when more than one source of harmonics exist.
Since in this case study only one source of harmonics is present, phase
value of the harmonics source for each harmonics order (As we shall
see later).
75
The fundamental load flow study is carried out by ETAP 12.6 software.
Voltage, current values and phase angle are shown in Fig 6.2.
fundamental load flow study. This means that it consumes power from the
grid and do not inject harmonics to the grid.
76
Connection point:
The per unit values of resistance and reactance for each harmonics frequency
order is tabulated in Table 6.3
77
Table 6.3: Per unit harmonics impedance values of the grid for each
harmonic order
harmonic order(h) ܴ (. )ݑ ܺ (. )ݑ
h=5 0.001 0.05
h=7 0.001 0.07
h = 11 0.001 0.11
h = 13 0.001 0.13
Transformers:
Transformers are represented by using model (A) as shown in Fig 5.2. In this
The first step is to find the per unit value of the fundamental impedance
of the transformer on the new base values.
The second step is using the equations 5.4,5.5,5.6 and 5.7 to find
Transformer T1:
The per unit values of resistance and reactance of the equivalent impedance
for each harmonic frequency order are calculated and tabulated as follows:
Transformer T2:
The per unit values of resistance and reactance of the equivalent impedance
for each harmonic frequency order are calculated and tabulated as follows:
Passive load:
The passive load will be represented by the model (A) shown in Fig 5.7. In
this model, the load is represented by a resistance and a reactance in parallel
between the bus and the ground.
ܵ 3
ܵ.௨ = = = 0.3. ݑ
ܵ 10
ଶ
ܸି .௨ (1)ଶ
ܴ.௨ = = = 3.7037. ݑ
ܲ.௨ 0.3(0.9)
ଶ
ܸି .௨ (1)ଶ
ܺ.௨ = = = 7.6472. ݑ
ܳ.௨ 0.3(0.436)
The per unit values of resistance and reactance for each harmonics frequency
Table 6.6: Per unit harmonics impedance values of load for each
harmonics order
Frequency order(h) ܴ(. )ݑ ܺ(. )ݑ
h=5 3.6693 0.3554
h=7 3.686 0.255
h = 11 3.697 0.163
h = 13 3.699 0.138
81
Capacitors:
Hence, the per unit values of reactance for each harmonics frequency order
are as follows:
Hence, the per unit values of reactance for each harmonics frequency order
is are as follows:
Induction motor:
The locked rotor impedance ܼோ is taken in the harmonics flow analysis.
First step is to calculate the locked rotor impedance at new base values
ܲ௨௧ 2000(ܲܪ0.746)
ܵெ ି = = = 1714.06ܸ݇ܣ
ܲ. ∗ ܨη 0.9266 ∗ 0.9394
ܺ ᇱᇱܵ 0.15257(10)
ܺ.௨ = = = 0.9. ݑ
ܵெ ି 1.71406
ܺ ᇱᇱ 0.9
ܴ.௨ = = = 0.03. ݑ
ܺ 30.8
( )
ܴ
Hence, the per unit values of resistance and reactance for each harmonics
frequency order as follows(∝= 1, is taken):
83
The harmonics per unit impedance diagram of the whole network is shown
in Fig 6.3
Fig 6.3: The harmonics per unit impedance diagram of the whole network
are small. References mention that in cases of voltage distortion (ܶܦܪ௩) that
exceeds 10%, this hypothesis gives less accurate results[9]. Actually, the
distortion on the current is more severe than voltages. This makes the
nonlinear load representation as a current source often is true and accurate.
In the network that was adopted, the nonlinear load was a 6-pulse converter
drive which is used to control an induction motor. This type of nonlinear load
generates harmonics characteristics based on the number of pulses and
determined by:
ℎ = ܲ݊ ± 1
Hence, we find the per unit values of harmonics current using both
fundamental current and base current. As an example ,the per unit value for
Table 6.11: Per unit value of the 6-pulse converter current for each
harmonics order
h 1 5 7 11 13
ܿ(ݐ݊݁ݎݎݑ. )ݑ 0.78726 0.15745 0.11258 0.071640 0.06062
In harmonics analysis, the only current source which is exists in the network
is the nonlinear load (harmonics source) and the grid itself does not produce
currents into the network. Hence, the number of current sources is equal to
Where [ܻ ] is the bus admittance matrix of the system for the harmonics
order of interest. This linear equation can be written in details like the
following
ܫ,௨௦ଵ ܻ(ଵ,ଵ) ܻ(ଵ,ଶ) ܻ(ଵ,) ܸ௨௦ଵ
⎡ ⋯ ⎤
ܫ ܻ ܻ ܻ(ଶ,) ܸ
൦ ,௨௦ଶ൪= ⎢ (ଶ,ଵ) (ଶ,ଶ) ⎥ ൦ ௨௦ଶ൪
⋮ ⎢ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⎥ ⋮
ܫ,௨௦ ⎣ܻ(,ଵ) ܻ(,ଶ) ⋯ ܻ(,) ⎦ ܸ௨௦
Here, the admittance matrix and current vector will be formed for every
harmonic order separately. Also, it is formed according to the network
configuration (topology).
Our goal is to calculate the harmonics voltages of the buses, so equation 6.1
has to be rearranged to the following form:
[ ܸ ] = [ ܼ ][ ܫ ] (6.2)
87
[ ܼ ] = [ ܻିଵ ] (6.3)
Solving
[ ܸହ ] = [ ܼହ ][ ܫହ ]
MAT LAB software and the per unit bus voltages associated to h=5 are:
ܸହ,௨௦ଵ 1.23%
ܸହ,௨௦ଶ= 4.93% ൩
ܸହ,௨௦ଷ 5.17%
88
Solving
[ ܸ ] = [ ܼ ][ ] ܫ
Solving
[ ܸଵଵ ] = [ ܼଵଵ ][ ܫଵଵ ]
From MATLAB results, the per unit bus voltages associated to h=11 are:
ܸଵଵ,௨௦ଵ 0.5%
ܸଵଵ,௨௦ଶ= 1.98% ൩
ܸଵଵ,௨௦ଷ 6.62%
base values
ܸଵଵ,௨௦ଵ 0.5% ∗ 66ܸ݇ 0.33ܸ݇
ܸଵଵ,௨௦ଶ= 1.98% ∗ 11ܸ݇ ൩= 0.218ܸ݇൩
ܸଵଵ,௨௦ଷ 6.62% ∗ 4.16ܸ݇ 0.275ܸ݇
Solving
[ ܸଵଷ ] = [ ܼଵଷ ][ ܫଵଷ ]
From MATLAB results, the per unit bus voltages associated to h=13 are:
ܸଵଷ,௨௦ଵ 0.35%
ܸଵଷ,௨௦ଶ= 1.38% ൩
ܸଵଷ,௨௦ଷ 7.29%
From the bus voltages all other values such as current distortion(ܶܦܪ),
Bus#1:
Bus#2:
Bus#3:
calculations, we will compare them with the results of the same network
given by ETAP 12.6 software. The one-line diagram of the network will be
drawn in order to exploit ETAP 12.6 capabilities in harmonics analysis.
In the program library, there are several harmonics sources with different
Also, the program has the possibility to insert a harmonics source with any
wanted data spectrum. A source with desired harmonics spectrum has been
entered into the program library named An-Najah Univ.
93
After adding the harmonics source with wanted data, and executing the
As seen, the ܶܦܪ௩ results of simulation of each bus are shown in Table 6.12:
Also, the bus voltages for each harmonics order are obtained in the following
Fig 6.5,6.6,6.7 and 6.8
Table 6.13: Voltage values of the buses for ࢚ࢎ harmonics order
Bus number Bus voltage(kV)
Bus#1 0.81kV
Bus#2 0.54kV
Bus#3 0.21kV
95
Table 6.14: Voltage values of the buses for ૠ࢚ࢎ harmonics order
Bus number Bus voltage(kV)
Bus#1 2.05kV
Bus#2 1.37kV
Bus#3 0.651kV
96
Table 6.15: Voltage values of the buses for ࢚ࢎ harmonics order
Bus number Bus voltage(kV)
Bus#1 0.33kV
Bus#2 0.22kV
Bus#3 0.27kV
97
Table 6.16: Voltage values of the buses for ࢚ࢎ harmonics order
Bus number Bus voltage(kV)
Bus#1 0.27kV
Bus#2 0.18kV
Bus#3 0.27kV
The simulated waves with their spectrum for each bus were taken from all
buses as shown in Fig 6.9,6.10, and 6.11:
98
Bus#1:
bus#2:
99
bus#3:
According to the simulation results, the values of the total voltage of the
buses - which are the resultant of the fundamental and the harmonics- were
Table 6.17 and Fig 6.13 summarize the results obtained from calculations
and simulations. It is found that there is an almost exact match between the
calculated results and simulated results. This reveals that the adopted method
calculated simulated
Bus#1 3.354% 3.4%
Bus#2 13.5% 13.75%
Bus#3 19.3% 19.16%
The calculated results are clearly close to the results of ETAP 12.6.
It is also important to note that the distortion of the buses (2 and 3) exceeds
As for the voltage values of the buses, the values were very close to each
Fig 6.14: Voltage of bus (1) comparison for each harmonics order
103
In this section, the efficiency of some selected network elements and the
whole network efficiency in the presence of harmonics will be calculated
taking into account the power flow direction. For comparison purposes, the
efficiency of the fundamental frequency without harmonics will be
calculated.
104
At the beginning, the points at which the power will be calculated have to be
selected as in Fig 6.17. No capacitor-related points were selected because the
Power values which are needed for efficiency calculation can be calculated
from the voltage and current values. Previously, the voltage values were
found for each harmonics order. Current values can then be calculated using
the voltage and impedance values at each harmonics order. Using the ohm’s
105
law, the current values of each harmonics order were calculated and
presented in Tables 6.19,6.20 and 6.21.
Table 6.19: Per unit values of current which flows from bus(1) to bus(2)
Harmonics ࢂࢇ࢚࢈࢛࢙() ࢂࢇ࢚࢈࢛࢙() ࢆࢀ ࡵ࢈࢛࢙()→࢈࢛ࢋ()
order
h=5 0.0123∠1.494 0.0493∠1.389 0.01084+j0.15 0.24612∠3.02
h=7 0.0306∠0.987 0.122∠0.927 0.0197+j0.208 0.43781∠2.57
h=11 0.005∠ − 1.13 -1.23∠0.0198 0.046+j0.324 0.04532∠0.45
h=13 0.0035∠ − 0.28 0.0138∠ − 0.4 0.0635+j0.38 0.02681∠1.3
Table 6.20: Per unit values of current which flows from bus(2) to bus(3)
Harmonics ࢂࢇ࢚࢈࢛࢙() ࢂࢇ࢚࢈࢛࢙() ࢆࢀ ࡵ࢈࢛࢙()→࢈࢛ࢋ()
order
h=5 0.0493∠1.389 0.0517∠1.381 0.04716+j0.6 0.00404∠2.87
h=7 0.122∠0.927 0.1557∠0.894 0.08296+j0.83 0.04072∠2.44
h=11 0.0198∠ − 1.2 0.0662∠ − 1.6 0.18746+j1.3 0.037∠ − 0.04
h=13 0.0138∠ − 0.4 0.0729∠ − 2.25 0.256+j1.515 0.0506∠ − 0.7
Table 6.21: Per unit values of current which flows in the passive load
Harmonics ࢂࢇ࢚࢈࢛࢙() ࢆࡸ ࡵࡸ
order
h=5 0.0493∠1.39 3.6693+j0.3554 0.01337∠1.3
h=7 0.122∠0.927 3.686+j0.255 0.03302∠0.858
h=11 0.0198∠ − 1.23 3.697+j0.163 0.00535∠ − 1.274
h=13 0.0138∠ − 0.404 3.699+j0.138 0.00373∠ − 0.441
Power values can now be calculated at the selected points. Initially the power
at fundamental frequency will be found. For the fundamental frequency,
power values can be obtained from the load flow study in ETAP 12.6. The
results were as in the following Fig 6.18
106
From the results of the load flow study, the power values at the selected
points are found and shown in Table 6.22. According to point (2), the power is
Table 6.22: Real power values of load flow at the selected points
Selected point ࡼ (kW)
Point(1) 11320
Point(2) 11301
Point(3) 1590
Point(4) 1588
Point(5) 2668
Point(6) 7043
Using the relationship ܲ ൌ ܸ ܫ cos൫ߠ௩ǡ െ ߠǡ ൯the power values
associated with harmonics are calculated at each point. The results were
shown in Table 6.23.
107
Table 6.23: Real power values for different harmonics at the selected
points
Test point ࡼ(kW) ࡼૠ(kW) ࡼ(kW) ࡼ(kW)
Point(1) -0.61153 -1.64828 -0.022668 -0.014735
Point(2) -7.21575 -38.6391 -0.9753 -0.49173
Point(3) 0.17861 2.85971 2.70862 6.7227
Point(4) 0.17128 1.57195 0.18983 0.02201
Point(5) 6.56491 40.1891 1.05826 0.5144
Point(6) 13.981 82.463 4.7451 7.69177
fundamental frequency shall be from the grid to all loads including non-
linear loads. But the situation becomes completely different at the harmonics
frequencies where the direction of the current flow will reverse to be from
the non-linear load to all parts of the network [8]. see Fig 6.19.
Now, two individual elements are selected for efficiency calculations, they
are transformers T1and T2; also the whole network efficiency at fundamental
T1:
ܲଵ,௧௧(ଶ) 11301
ߞ= 100% = 100% = 99.83%
ܲଵ,௧௧(ଵ) 11320
T2:
ܲଵ,௧௧(ସ) 1588
ߞ= 100% = 100% = 99.87%
ܲଵ,௧௧(ଷ) 1590
● ܲଵ, = 11320ܹ݇ .
● ܲଵ,௨௧ = ܲଵ,ି௨௦ + ܲଵ,ூெ + ܲଵ,
On the other hand, the efficiency of the individual elements and the whole
network efficiency in the presence of harmonics can be calculated as follows:
T1:
The flow of the fundamental power in T1 is from the grid to the rest of the
network elements (point(1) → point(2)). But the flow of the harmonics power
is from the nonlinear load to the grid (point(2) → point(1)).
்ܲ,௧௧(ଶ)
ߞ= 100%
்ܲ,௧௧(ଵ)
109
(1) This value is the same as the drive efficiency which was entered in the load flow analysis
T2:
The flow of the fundamental power in T2 is from the grid to the rest of the
network elements (point(3) → point(4)). Also the flow of the harmonics
power is from the nonlinear load to the rest of network (point(3) → point(4)).
்ܲ,௧௧(ସ)
ߞ= 100%
்ܲ,௧௧(ଷ)
Where:
● ்ܲ, = ்ܲ,௧௧(ଵ)
= ܲଵ,௧௧(ଵ) + ܲହ,௧௧(ଵ) + ܲ,௧௧(ଵ) + ܲଵଵ,௧௧(ଵ)
+ ܲଵଷ,௧௧(ଵ)
10117.3
ߞ= 100% = 89.39%
11317.7
frequency and with harmonics for T1, T2, and the whole network. It is clear
that harmonics decrease the efficiency with harmonics and this decrease is
because of the losses associated with harmonics
Chapter Seven
7.1 Introduction
in the network feeding the consumer or to reduce their impact, the most
important are listed below.
One of the new and distinctive ways to reduce the effect of harmonics in the
network is to let those harmonics cancel each other. The idea of this method
is that each harmonics order frequency has a value and angle of its own. If
we can combine the harmonics in a way that their vector sum is equal to zero
(as in three phase balanced systems), we prevent harmonics from crossing to
the rest of the network.
113
In this method, we make a shift for one of harmonic sources by 180 degrees
compared to the other harmonics sources and then merge the waves of the
two sources together. As a result, harmonics cancel each other at the primary
side of the transformer before entering to the rest of the network. The fact
that harmonics eliminate each other is proven in AppendixB.
in both cases.
In this way, harmonics of order 5 and 7 are disposed of. They are the
harmonics that cause the most distortion in power systems. The concept of
Fig 7.1: A schematic of harmonics mitigation by the phase shift transformer [8]
114
orders
orders
Phase shift in two outputs Eliminated harmonics order
15° 11,13
30° 5,7
60° 3
For example, consider fifth order harmonics. Each half cycle in this
ଵ଼°
harmonics occupies = = 36° . Hence, if a phase shift equals 30° is done
ହ
to one harmonics and to Leave the second without phase shift , the result is
that the two harmonics cancel each other.
To prove the effectiveness of this method in the elimination of certain
Najah Uni) to the type (IEEE) which already existed in the program library.
Two simulations are taken for the modified network in Fig 7.2. In the first
simulation, both transformers ∆ − Y are connected, while in the second
Fig 7.2: Schematic diagram of the modified network with two nonlinear loads
waveform shape and harmonics spectrum were as in the Fig 7.3,7.4 and
7.5 respectively
116
From the simulated results; the following observations are very clear:
The phase shift by transformer led to the elimination of the fifth and
seventh harmonics as seen in Fig 7.8. Also, other harmonics
(h=17,19…….) were eliminated as shown in the same Fig.
119
The amount of distortion on the voltage wave with phase shift (Fig7.7)
is less as it has become closer to the sinusoidal wave despite the
The simulated current waveforms of the two separate nonlinear loads after
phase shift and their resultant current waveform are as shown in Fig
7.9,7.10,7.11and 7.12. Fig 7.9 and 7.10 show the current wave shape and
harmonic spectrum of the two nonlinear loads respectively. The wave of the
∆ − ܻ transformer was shifted by 30° . Fig 7.11 and 7.12 show the current
wave and harmonic spectrum at bus#2 which are resulted from the summing
of the two nonlinear loads waves. It is clear that the resultant current wave is
closer to the sinusoidal shape than the wave for each nonlinear load.
120
Fig 7.11: Current shape of the resultant of the two nonlinear loads
121
Fig 7.12: Current harmonics spectrum of the resultant of the two nonlinear loads
Passive fillers are a cheap and simple tool compared to other procedures used
to eliminate certain network harmonics. This type of filter consists of passive
elements and its principle of operation based on the resonance phenomenon.
This type of filter comes in many sizes, shapes, and the most widespread and
applied type is the single tuned filter " notch filter", which consists of
inductance, capacitance and sometimes resistance. This filter is tuned to get
filter type is connected in parallel with the non-linear load. This type is used
122
a lot to get rid of fifth and seventh harmonics which are the most harmful
harmonics in power systems.
The filter is usually tuned at a frequency slightly lower than the frequency of
harmonics to be filtered out for the following reasons [10]:
is required.
This filter forms a parallel resonance with the inductance of the
network at a frequency lower than the targeted harmonics frequency.
Typical values for tuning this filter are: 4.7௧ (for 5௧ ), 6.7௧ (for7௧ ),
10.5௧(for11௧ ).These values offer sufficient filtering and avoid the above
risk.
The filter is placed in the system starting from the lowest harmonics
frequency to be filtered out. For example, if we want to tune the filter to get
rid of the seventh harmonics, there are fears that the parallel resonance
associated to the filter applies to the least harmonics frequency which may
be the fifth. Because of this, before installing the filter of seventh harmonics
correction. and thus improving voltage level in case of heavy loads. Power
factor capacitors are often converted to a filter by adding a suitable reactor.
Despite all the advantages of this type of filters, it has some disadvantages
which are:
The harmonics for which the filter is designed, do not disappear totally
from the system. Instead, harmonics flow between the nonlinear load
and the filter itself (less path than before). Hence, the need to adjust
the neutral conductor and other necessary procedures is still required.
It does not absorb harmonics other than those that it is tuned at.
tuned ones.
124
The filter is designed according to the existed network. For any change
in the network such as adding a new motor, the filter should be
replaced.
Initially, the required power to improve the power factor is determined. This
power is called an effective kVAR(ܳ). This effective kVAR is derived
from LC combination (filter bank). For this goal we can follow IEE std 1036-
1992 to get a multiplying factor for each load kilowatts as
In our network, capacitors are installed for power factor correction at each
bus. The 3600 kVAR capacitor will be exploited as a filter. Hence the
effective kVAR value (ܳ) =3600 kVAR.
Then , the effective reactance (ܺ) can be calculated from effective kVAR
as follows:
ଶ
ܸ
ܺ = (7.2)
ܳ
11ܸ݇ଶ
ܺ = = 33.61Ω
3.6ܴܣܸ ܯ
fine. From ܺ and h values, the capacitive reactance (ܺ ) and inductive
reactance (ܺ) of the filter are calculated using the following formulas
The final step is to determine the filter component ratings. First the ratings
of the capacitor are determined which include voltage and kVAR. The rated
ܸ = ܫ ܺ (7.5)
ୀଵ
For our network, the harmonics currents were as shown in Table 7.3 (see
Appendix C)
126
As seen here the required rated voltage for the capacitor is 7.2549 kV which
is more than the line voltage (ܸ=6.351kV) of bus#2 to which the filter is
connected. The reason behind that is that the harmonics currents will increase
the voltage to a value larger than the rated bus value. Also, the reactor of the
filter will develop a voltage which rises the voltage across the capacitor.
The kVAR rated value calculated from the found rated voltage is:
ଶ
ܸ, 157.9ܸ ܯ
ܳ = = = 4.4858ܴܣܸ ܯ
ܺ 35.2
Which is greater than the effective kVAR (ܳ) needed for power factor
correction. This is true, since the calculated rated voltage of the capacitor is
greater than the nominal voltage of the bus to which the filter is connected.
127
For comparison purpose and to observe the effect of adding the filter in
reducing the harmonics which exist in the network, the network was
analyzed first without adding a filter and then the same network was
analyzed after adding a filter with the same values previously calculated in
section 7.3.1.
First, the simulated results which are taken from bus#2 of the original
network were as in the following Fig 7.14,7.15,7.16 and 7.17. These values
include the voltage distortion (Ψ ܶܦܪ௩ܽ݊݀Ψ ܦܪܫ௩), voltage waveform
shape , harmonics spectrum and impedance magnitude as in Fig
After adding the filter as shown in Fig 7.18, the previous values were as
shown in Fig 7.19,7.20.7.21 and 7.22.
Fig 7.18: The network after adding the suitable passive filter
130
Fig 7.19: Output report of the network after adding a passive filter
Fig 7.20: Voltage shape of bus#2 of the network after adding a passive filter
131
Fig 7.21: Harmonics spectrum of bus#2 of the network after adding a passive filter
Fig 7.22: Impedance magnitude of the network after adding a passive filter
132
The following points about the effect of adding the filter can be observed:
Adding the filter leads to reducing the distortion values especially for
the fifth harmonics. This is clear from absence of the fifth harmonics
from output report of harmonics analysis because its distortion value
install a reactor in the line of the nonlinear load. It is known that the current
in a reactor is slowly changing due to the induced voltage between the reactor
terminals which resists the change of current. As a result, charging the dc
bus capacitor becomes slower and then pulling the current becomes over a
longer time. This leads to reducing the harmonics amplitude.
A standard range reactor values includes 2%, 3%, 5% and 7.5%. Where 3%
The lower the size of the drive compared to supply transformer, the better
the reduction of distortion would be.
reactor should be performed. This method could not be used in this study.
7.5 Detuning
Power factor capacitor banks can interact with the network inductance at one
of the harmonics frequencies and may cause resonance. This, in turn, causes
amplification of harmonics. There are destructive effects of network
elements due to the mentioned scenario if it occurs.
spectrum range falls outside the resonance frequency. This reactor called
detuning reactor.
Usually, the detuning reactor selected as its reactance is 5.7 %, 7% or 14%
of the reactance of the capacitor. This ratio called tuning factor (P).
The tuning ratio can be calculated as:
ಽ ଶ ଶ
ଶ
ܲ= = ൫2ߨ݂௦௬ ൯ ( = )ܥܮ൫2ߨ√ܥܮ൯ ݂௦௬ (7.7)
134
Resonance will occur when the reactance of the detuning reactor (ܺ) equals
the reactance of the capacitor(ܺ ). For the reactor-capacitor combination, the
We can exploit the detuning process to provide filtering for the third
harmonics order. This will be accomplished by choosing a tuning factor of
11%. Here the resonance frequency equal
50ݖܪ
݂ = = 150ݖܪ
√0.11
As seen for 11% tuning factor, a series resonance occurred at the third
harmonics order frequency which offer an almost zero path for third
harmonics.
Finally, the rated values written on the reactor-capacitor combination are the
network. The simulated response was as shown in Fig 7.23. which reveals
that resonance will occur at h=3.78? Hence, the harmonics order of circuit
resonance now falls outside of harmonics orders (5,7,11,13) which are
generated by the nonlinear load which was considered in the study. This
mode prevents amplification of harmonics currents to harmful values.
Fig 7.23: Impedance magnitude of the network after adding a detuning reactor
136
There are simple measures taken during design to minimize the negative
effects of the harmonics problem. These procedures do not cost too much
when applied and are remarkably effective.
Separation of linear loads from nonlinear loads so that the position of the
single neutral is used to feed the outlets. Rather than, the neutral line can be
divided into several neutral lines each of them feeds single outlet.
Using k-factor transformers which are designed with extra steel in their core
and their neutral conductors are twice the phase conductors. All of these
modifications are made to help the transformer to withstand overheating.
Oversizing cables especially the neutral to withstand heating which is
resulted from the pass of third harmonics. Motors also can be chosen with
more rated capacity.
137
Chapter Eight
8.1 Conclusions
Finally, the procedures for the mitigation of harmonics were examined and
the effectiveness of these procedures was determined through simulation.
These procedures were found to be effective in treating the harmonics
problem. In this study, harmonics were taken into consideration in
determining the filter rated values as an important contribution to the field
of harmonics analysis.
References
[1] Das, J. C. (2017). Power system analysis: short-circuit load flow and
[3] Das, J. C. (2015). Power system harmonics and passive filter designs.
Hoboken, NJ: IEEE Press/Wiley.
[4] Grady, M. (2012). Understanding power system harmonics. Austin, TX:
University of Texas.
[5] Expósito, A. G. (2009). Electric energy systems analysis and operation.
Boca Raton: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis.
technology
[12] Ali, S. A. (2011). A Norton model of a distribution network for
harmonic evaluation. Energy Science and Technology, 2(1), 11-17.
[13] Sunaryati, W. A. (2011). Harmonics propagation and distortion
Sacramento.
141
6(10),173-183.
[22] Efe, S. B. (2015). Analysis and Elimination of Harmonics by Using
doi:10.1109/61.484130.
[26] Heidt, D. C. (1994). A detailed derivation of a Newton-Raphson
based Harmonic Power Flow (Unpublished master's thesis).
142
Appendices
Appendix A
clc;clear;
t=1;l=2;m=3;c=4;g=5;ol=6;gl=7;
zdata=input('please enter impedance values zdata= ');
h=input('please enter the harmonics order h=');
i=input('please enter the harmonics current vector i=');
sp=zdata(:,1);
fp=zdata(:,2);
r=zdata(:,3);
x=zdata(:,4);
type=zdata(:,5);
nbr=length(zdata(:,1));
nbus=max(max(sp),max(fp));%number of buses
z=zeros(length(type),1);
end
end
y=ones(nbr,1)./z; %branch admittance vector
Y=zeros(nbus,nbus); %initial Y to zero value
for k=1:nbr; %formation of off diagonal elements of admittance matrix
if sp(k)>0 & fp(k)>0
Y(sp(k),fp(k))=Y(sp(k),fp(k))-y(k);
Y(fp(k),sp(k))=Y(sp(k),fp(k));
end
end
for n=1:nbus %formation of diagonal elements of admittance matrix
for k=1:nbr
if sp(k)==n | fp(k)==n
Y(n,n)=Y(n,n)+y(k);
143
else, end
end
end
znew=inv(Y);
v=znew*i;
rho=abs(v);
theta=angle(v);
result=[rho,theta]
bar(rho)
xlabel('the number of the bus');
ylabel('voltage (per unit)');
title(['voltage of buses at harmonics order = ',num2str(h)]);
144
Appendix B
Phase Shift for Harmonics Cancelation (∆/∆ ࢚ ∆/
ࢅ ࢋࢉ࢚)
ܫ = ܫଵ sin( )ݐݓ+ ܫହ sin(5 )ݐݓ+ ܫsin(7 )ݐݓ+ ܫଵଵ sin(11 )ݐݓ+
ܫଵଷ sin(13)ݐݓ.
This ∆ secondary line current will be the same in ∆ primary line. Assuming
1:1 winding ratio between both winding for simplicity.
This secondary line current will be shifted by +30° ݎ− 30° depending on
the sequence of each harmonics order . The primary line current becomes
When both currents are added in the primary line, the total primary current
As seen the harmonics order 5 and 7 had been vanished in the line primary
current. The new harmonics order pattern will be as follows:
ℎ = 12 ∓ 1
146
Appendix C
The aim is to represent the circuit so that the impedance which is seen by
the harmonics source is the filter impedance in parallel with the equivalent
impedance of all the elements of the network at the same point (PCC) as in
Fig C.1. This representation is required at the frequency of each harmonics
order. Then the current division rule is applied to obtain the harmonics
current values in the filter.
Fig C.1: Simple circuit representation for harmonics currents estimation of the filter
The resultant impedance of the induction motor (IM) with the capacitor (C1)
in parallel are shown in Table C.1
147
h=5 0.85635-j11.14582
h=7 0.06756-j3.7108
h=11 0.0098-j1.7723
h=13 0.0054-j1.4307
h=5 0.9035-j10.546
h=7 0.1505-j2.88
h=11 0.19725-j0.4723
h=13 0.26140-j0.0843
passive load (L) impedance in parallel to get new impedances shown in Table
C.3
h=5 3.3935-j0.83
h=7 1.5375-j1.7213
h=11 0.24-j0.421
h=13 0.2454-j0.074
148
The resultant impedances of grid (G) and transformer (T1) is in series are
shown in Table C.4
h=5 0.01184-j10.2
h=7 0.0207-j0.278
h=11 0.047-j0.434
h=13 0.0645-j0.51
h=5 0.02341-j0.20075
h=7 0.051-j0.3
h=11 0.687-j0.263
h=13 0.158-j0.1214
h=5 j0.08
h=7 j0.51
h=11 j1.2
h=13 j1.5
Applying current division rule will give us the harmonics currents values
which flow in the filter as shown in Table C.7
h=5 0.113
h=7 0.0418
h=11 0.0326
h=13 0.00741
150
Appendix D
There are many devices for measuring and analyzing harmonics. In fact,
these devices are considered three phase power quality devices because they
carry simultaneous measurements such as energy (kVAh, kWh, kVARh),
transients, flicker, harmonics, power factor and voltage sags.
These devices vary in terms of voltage and current ratings values which they
deal with safely. The most famous of these devices are:
FLUK 434/435
AEMC 3945
Hioki 3196
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