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Smith KJ Student Mathematics Handbook and Integral Table For
Smith KJ Student Mathematics Handbook and Integral Table For
AND
INTEGRAL TABLE
FOR
KARL J. SMITH
STUDENT MATHEMATICS
HANDBOOK
AND
INTEGRAL TABLE
FOR
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN 0-13-092021-5
Printed in the United States of America
iv
CONTENTS
v
vi Contents
APPENDICES: 272
A. Mathematical Symbols 272
B. Greek Alphabet 272
C. Answers 273
INDEX: 307
PREFACE
ix
x Preface
1.1 Polygons
CLASSIFICATION
Type Number of sides
triangle 3
quadrilateral 4
pentagon 5
hexagon 6
heptagon 7
octagon 8
nonagon 9
decagon 10
undecagon 11
dodecagon 12
TRIANGLES
A D 12 bh The sum of the measures of the
angles of a triangle is 180° .
PDaCbCc
45° –45° –90° triangle theorem: For any right triangle with acute
angles measuring 45° ,pthe legs are the same length, and the hypotenuse
has a length equal to 2 times the length of one of those legs.
1
2 Chapter 1
30° –60° –90° triangle theorem: For any right triangle with acute
angles measuring 30° and 60° ,
1. The hypotenuse is twice as long as the leg opposite the 30° angle
(the shorter leg).
2. The leg opposite the 30° angle (the shorter leg) is 12 as long as the
hypotenuse.
3. The leg opposite the 60° angle p (the longer leg) equals the length
of the other (shorter) leg times 3.
4. The leg opposite
p the 30° angle equals the length of the other leg
divided by 3.
QUADRILATERALS
Rectangle Square
A D w A D s2
P D 2 C 2wp P D 4s p
Diagonal D 2 C w2 Diagonal D s 2
Parallelogram Trapezoid
A D bh D ab sin A D 12 ha C b
P D 2a C 2b PDaCb
Chcsc C csc
Chapter 1 3
2
central angle:
n
A D 14 na2 cot
n
P D an
1.2 Circles
TERMINOLOGY
Definition: In a plane, a circle is the set of all points a given distance,
called the radius, from a given point, called the center.
Circumference: distance around a circle.
Chord: a line joining two points of a circle.
Diameter: a chord through the center: AB in Figure 1.1.
Arc: part of a circle: BC, AC, or ACB in Figure 1.1. The length s of an
arc of a circle of radius r with central angle (measured in radians)
is s D r.
To intercept an arc is to cut off the arc; in Figure 1.1, 6 COB intercepts
BC.
A tangent of a circle is a line that intersects the circle at one and only
one point.
A secant of a circle is a line that intersects the circle at exactly two
points.
FIGURE 1.1
4 Chapter 1
Circle
2
A D r
C D 2r D d
Sector
1 2
AD 2
r
s D r
Prism
V D Bh
B is area of the base
Pyramid
V D 13 Bh
B is area of the base
This formula is derived in Example 2, Section 6.2, of the text.
6 Chapter 1
Tetrahedron
(a pyramid
p with a triangular base)
V D 13 h ss as bs c
where s D 12 a C b C c
Frustum of a p
pyramid
V D 13 hB1 C B1 B2 C B2
Note: h D h1 h2
Torus
S D 42 Rr
This formula is derived in Problem 55 of Problem Set 12.6.
V D 22 Rr 2
This formula is derived in Example 7 of Section 6.5.
Spherical segment
S D 2rh, with radius r
V D 16 h3r1 2 C 3r2 2 C h2 , with cross sections of radii r1 and r2
Quadric Surfaces
Sphere
x 2 C y 2 C z2 D r 2
V D 43 r 3
S D 4r 2
Ellipsoid
x2 y 2 z2
C C D1
a2 4b2 c2
V D 3 abc
Elliptic Paraboloid
x2 y 2
C 2 Dz
a2 b
Hyperbolic paraboloid
y 2 x2
2 Dz
a2 b
4
V D a2 b
3
2 b2 1C!
S D 2a C ln
! 1!
4
V D ab2
3
ab 1
S D 2b2 C sin !
!
Chapter 1 11
We say that two figures are congruent if they have the same size
and shape. For congruent triangles ABC and DEF, denoted by
ABC ' DEF, we may conclude that all six corresponding parts
(three angles and three sides) are congruent.
Solution
0 0
a. AB corresponds to A B b. RS corresponds to US
0 0
AC corresponds to A C RT corresponds to UT
0 0
BC corresponds to B C ST corresponds to ST
6 A corresponds to 6 A0 6 R corresponds to 6 U
6 B corresponds to 6 B0 6 RTS corresponds to 6 UTS
6 C corresponds to 6 C0 6 RST corresponds to 6 UST
Two angles are equal if they have the same measure. For the
triangles in Example 1.1, we see that 6 A corresponds to 6 A0 . This
means that these angles are the same size, or have the same measure.
We write m6 A D m6 A0 to mean that the angles have the same measure,
or in other words, the same size and shape.
Line segments, angles, triangles, or other geometric figures are
congruent if they have the same size and shape. In Example 1.1, since
m6 A D m6 A0 , we say that angles A and A0 are congruent, and we write
6 A ' 6 A0 .
In this section, we focus on triangles.
12 Chapter 1
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES
To prove that two triangles are congruent, you must show that they
have the same size and shape. It is not necessary to show that all six
parts (three sides and three angles) are congruent; if certain of these
six parts are congruent, it necessarily follows that the other parts are
congruent. Three important properties are used to show congruence
of triangles:
CONGRUENT-TRIANGLE PROPERTIES
SIDE–SIDE–SIDE (SSS)
If three sides of one triangle are congruent to three sides of
another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
SIDE–ANGLE–SIDE (SAS)
If two sides of one triangle and the angle between those
sides are congruent to the corresponding sides and angle of
another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
ANGLE–SIDE–ANGLE (ASA)
If two angles and the side that connects them on one
triangle are congruent to the corresponding angles and side
of another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
Solution
a. b.
c. d.
CONGRUENT-TRIANGLE PROPERTY
See Sections 3.7 and 4.6 of the text for examples in which we use
these ideas in calculus.
It is possible for two figures to have the same shape, but not necessarily
the same size. These figures are called similar figures. We will now
focus on similar triangles. If ABC is similar to DEF, we write
ABC ¾ DEF
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
FIGURE 1.3
a0 b0 a a0
D D
a b c c0
4 b0 8 4
D D 0
8 12 14.4 c
412 14.44
b0 D c0 D
8 8
D6 D 7.2
16 Chapter 1
FIGURE 1.4
Chapter 1 17
Solution Since 6 G and 6 G0 are right angles, and since S and S0 are the
same size, we see that SGT ¾ S0 G0 T0 . Therefore, corresponding
sides are proportional. Hence,
1 h
D
3 12
112
hD
3
D4
A regular pyramid has a square base of side L, and its apex is located H
units above the center of its base. The pyramid is shown in Figure 1.5.
Suppose a cut is made h units from the bottom, thus forming two
triangles, as shown at the right in Figure 1.5. Use similar triangles to
find the length of the cut.
are proportional.
Hh
D Note that the height of DEC is H h
L H
h
D 1 L Multiply both sides by L.
H
3. 4.
Chapter 1 19
5. 6.
7. 8.
9. 10.
12.
20 Chapter 1
13.
14.
15.
16.
Given the two similar triangles shown, find the unknown lengths in
Problems 17–22.
17. a D 4, b D 8, a0 D 2; find b0 .
18. b D 5, c D 15, b0 D 2; find c0 .
19. c D 6, a D 4, c0 D 8; find a0 .
20. a0 D 7, b0 D 8, a D 5; find b.
21. b0 D 8, c0 D 12, c D 4; find b.
22. c0 D 9, a0 D 2, c D 5; find a.
23. How far from the base of a building must a 26-ft ladder be
placed so that it reaches 10 ft up the wall?
24. How high up a wall does a 26-ft ladder reach if the bottom of
the ladder is placed 6 ft from the building?
Chapter 1 21
31. In the figure shown below, AB and DE are parallel. What is the
length of AB?
34. Use similar triangles and a proportion to find the height of the
house shown in the following figure:
22 Chapter 1
38. A bag is tied to the top of a 5-m ladder resting against a vertical
wall. Suppose the ladder begins sliding down the wall in such a
way that the foot of the ladder is moving away from the wall.
How high is the bag at the instant when the base of the ladder is
4 m from the base of the wall?
The text assumes that you know these sets of numbers. You are asked to
characterize each set in Problem 1 of Chapter 1 review.
24
Chapter 2 25
Third, carry out all additions and subtractions as they occur, left
to right.
For example,
and
m 1
m p m p
x n D x n Dnx whenever n
x is defined
Factorial numbers:
n! D nn 1 n 2 Ð Ð Ð 3 Ð 2 Ð 1 0! D 1 for n a nonnegative
integer
28 Chapter 2
ROOTS
Recall that for any positive even integer n (called the index of the
radical) and any positive number x (called the radicand),
p
yD n
x if and only if y > 0 and y n D x
LAWS OF EXPONENTS
If r and s are real numbers, then
x r Ð x s D x rCs
x r s
D x rs whenever x r is meaningful
xy r D x r y r whenever x r and y r are meaningful
r
x xr
D r whenever x r and y r are meaningful and y r 6D 0
y y
xr
D x rs whenever x r and x s are meaningful and x s 6D 0
xs
Difference of squares: a2 b2 D a b a C b
Perfect square: a C b 2 D a2 C 2ab C b2
Difference of cubes: a3 b3 D a b a2 C ab C b2
Sum of cubes: a3 C b3 D a C b a2 ab C b2
Perfect cube: a C b 3 D a3 C3a2 b C 3ab 2
C b3
n n
Binomial theorem: a C b n D an b0 C an1 b C
0 1
n n2 2 n
a b C ÐÐÐ C a0 bn
2 n
Chapter 2 29
where
n n n n nn 1
D 1, D , D ,ÐÐÐ,
0 1 1 2 1Ð2
n n! n
D ,ÐÐÐ, D1
r r!n r ! n
Solution
a. The common factor is a2 b:
Solution
1
D 3a ab 3b2 3a C ab C 3b2
b2
d. Treat this as a difference of squares.
x 6 1 D x 3 2
13 2
D x 3 1 x 3 C 1
D x 1 x 2 C x C 1 x C 1 x 2 x C 1
Solution
a. x 2 8x C 15 D x 5 x 3
b. 6w2 9w 15 D 32w2 3w 5 Common factor first
D 32w 5 w C 1
d. 4x 4 13x 2 y 2 C 9y 4 D x 2 y 2 4x 2 9y 2
D x y x C y 2x 3y 2x C 3y
1 1 1 1 1 1 yx
x 2 y 2 x 2 y 2 D x 2 y 2 y x D p
xy
RADICALS
An algebraic expression containing radicals is simplified if all four of
the following conditions are satisfied:
32 Chapter 2
LOGARITHMS
In y D logb x, y is called a logarithm and b is called the base. The
logarithm (y) is defined as the exponent on a base b that equals the
number x.
Properties of logarithms Special bases:
logMN D log M C log N log x D log10 x; this is called a
common logarithm
logM/N D log M log N ln x D loge x, where
e ³ 2.71828182845905;
log Mn D n log M is called the natural logarithm
p 1
log n M D log M
n
logb b D 1
logn 1 D 0
a. 2x 2 y 3 4
D 24 x 2Ð4 y 3Ð4 D 16x 8 y 12
b. 2x 2 C y 3 4
D 2x 2 4
C 42x 2 3 y 3 C 62x 2 2 y 3 2
C 42x 2 y 3 3
C y 3 4
1/3 p
3 x6 y 7 x6y 7 x 61/3 y 71/3 x 2 y 7/3 x2 y 2 3 y
D D D D
z9 z9 z91/3 z3 z3
p
Note that y 7/3 D y 6/3C1/3 D y 2C1/3 D y 2 y 1/3 D y 2 3 y
Chapter 2 33
Expand 2x 3y 5 .
5 5Ð4
2x 3y D 1 2x 5 3y 0 C 52x 4 3y 1 C 2x 3 3y 2
2
5Ð4Ð3 5Ð4Ð3Ð2
C 2x 2 3y 3 C 2x 1 3y 4
2Ð3 2Ð3Ð4
C 1 2x 0 3y 5
an D a1 C n 1 d
gn D g1 r n1 for n ½ 1
34 Chapter 2
g1 1 r n
Gn D , r 6D 1
1r
n
1Dn
kD1
n
nn C 1
k D 1 C 2 C 3 C ÐÐÐ C n D
kD1
2
n
nn C 1 2n C 1
k 2 D 12 C 22 C 32 C Ð Ð Ð C n2 D
kD1
6
n
n2 n C 1 2
k 3 D 13 C 23 C 33 C Ð Ð Ð C n3 D
kD1
4
n
nn C 1 2n C 1 3n2 C 3n 1
k 4 D 14 C24 C34 C Ð Ð Ð C n4 D
kD1
30
xC3D4Cx
2 C x D 15
are true for some replacements of the variable and false for other
replacements. These are called conditional equations. Generally, when
we speak of equations, we mean conditional equations. Our concern in
solving equations is to find the numbers that satisfy a given equation,
so we look for things to do to equations to make the solutions or
roots more obvious. Two equations with the same solutions are called
equivalent equations. An equivalent equation may be easier to solve
than the original equation, so we try to get successively simpler
equivalent equations until the solution is obvious. There are certain
procedures you can use to create equivalent equations. In this section,
we will discuss solving the two most common types of equations you
will encounter: linear and quadratic.
Linear equations : ax C b D 0 a 6D 0
Quadratic equations : ax 2 C bx C c D 0 a 6D 0
Linear Equations
To solve the first-degree (or linear) equation, isolate the variable on
one side. That is, the solution of ax C b D 0 is
b
x D , where a 6D 0
a
36 Chapter 2
Step 2: Add the same number to both sides of the equality to obtain
an equation in which all of the terms involving the variable are on one
side and all of the other terms are on the other side.
Step 3: Multiply (or divide) both sides of the equation by the same
nonzero number to isolate the variable on one side.
Solution
4x 3 C 5x D 58 C x
4x 12 C 5x D 40 C 5x
9x 12 D 40 C 5x
4x 12 D 40
4x D 52
x D 13
xC1 xC2
Solve D .
x2 x2
Solution
x C 1 x 2 D x C 2 x 2
x 2 2x C x 2 D x 2 4
x 2 D 4
Chapter 2 37
x D 2
xD2
Solution
4x C 5xy D 10 3y 2
4 C 5y x D 10 3y 2
10 3y 2 4
xD , y 6D
4 C 5y 5
Solve 2x 2 x 3 D 0.
Solve 5x 2 3x 4 D 0.
38 Chapter 2
D y š 4 2y 2
5x C 2 D 12 5x C 2 D 12
5x D 10 5x D 14
14
xD2 xD
5
14
The solution is x D 2, .
5
Exponential Equations: See Examples 4, 7, and 9 of Section 2.4
of the text.
Logarithmic Equations: See Examples 5 and 8 of Section 2.4 of
the text.
Higher Degree Equations: See Examples 2.36, 2.37, and 2.38 on
pp. 40–41.
Trigonometric Equations: See Section 4.7, pp. 71–74.
Chapter 2 39
Solution
a. Use property 7 of Table 1.1 in the text to write two equations:
5x C 2 D 12 5x C 2 D 12
5x D 10 5x D 14
14
xD2 xD
5
14
The solution is x D 2, .
5
b. Use property 1 of Table 1.1 of the text, jaj ½ a, to see that there
are no real values for w that make this equation true.
Ax 2 C Bx D C
B C
x2 C xD
A A
40 Chapter 2
B 2
Step 3: Add to both sides. That is, take one-half of the
2A
coefficient of the first-degree term, square it, and add it to both sides:
2
2 B B B2 C
x C xC D 2
A 2A 4A A
Step 4: The expression on the left is now a perfect square and can
be factored:
B 2 B2 C
xC D 2
2A 4A A
Solution
x 2 C 2x 5 D 0
x 2 C 2x D 5
x 2 C 2x C 1 D 5 C 1
x C 1 2
D6
Solution
3x 2 C 5x 4 D 0
3x 2 C 5x D 4
5 4
x2 C x D
3 3
2
5 5 4 25
x2 C x C D C
3 6 3 36
2
5 73
xC D
6 36
Chapter 2 41
2x 3 2 3y 1 2
D8
Linear Inequalities
The first-degree inequality is solved following the steps outlined in the
previous section for solving first-degree equations. The only difference
is that, when we multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by
42 Chapter 2
a b
[a, b]
a b
a, b
a
a, 1
a b
a, b]
a b
[a, b
a
1, a]
To denote two intervals that are not connected, we use the notation
for the union of two sets:
a b c d
[a, b [ c, d]
a b c
[a, b [ b, c]
Solution
2x C 3 < 15
2x < 18
x < 9
Solution
2x 2 9x 5 2x 2 C x 6
9x 5 x 6
10x 1
1
x½
10
The solution set is [0.1, 1).
The word between is often used with a double inequality. We say
that x is between a and b if a < x < b and that x is between a and b,
inclusive if a x b.
Solve 5 x C 4 5.
Solution
5 x C 4 5
5 4 x C 4 4 5 4
9 x 1
Step 3: Set each factor equal to zero. These values are not necessarily
the solution of the inequality. If the inequality is not factorable, we
treat the entire expression as a single factor and solve by the quadratic
formula. Values for which the factors are zero are called the critical
values of x. Plot these values on a number line. The points determine
one or more intervals on the line.
Solve x 2 < 6 x.
Solution
x2 C x 6 < 0
x 2 x C 3 < 0
Factors
x − 2: x<2 x>2
x − 2 is neg ← → x − 2 is pos
Write: − − − − − ++++++
−3 2
x+3=0
x = −3 This is a critical value.
←
x + 3: x < −3 x > −3
x + 3 is neg ← → x + 3 is pos
Write: − − − +++++++
−3 2
Chapter 2 45
We see from the number line that the segment labeled negative
is 3, 2 ; this is the solution (except for a consideration of the
endpoints). In this example, the endpoints are not included, so the
solution is an open interval. These steps are summarized as
− − − + + + ← signs of factors
a b
pos neg pos ← sign of product (negative because of <)
Solve 2 x x C 3 x 1 ½ 0.
Solution Plotting critical values and checking the signs of the factors,
we have
+ − − + + − + + + −+ +
−3 1 2
Endpoints included because of ≥
pos neg pos neg
xC3
Solve < 0.
x2
Solution Be careful not to multiply both sides by x 2 , since
we do not know whether x 2 is positive or negative. We could
consider separate cases, but instead we solve the inequality as if it were
quadratic. We set the numerator and denominator each equal to zero
to obtain the critical values x D 3, x D 2. We then plot these values
on a number line and check a value in each interval to determine the
solution.
−− +− ++
−3 2
The solution is 3, 2 .
46 Chapter 2
x3
Solve > 1.
x
Solution
x3
1>0
x
x3x
>0
x
3
>0
x
3
Since 3 < 0 for , we have
x
x<0 x>0
neg ÷ neg neg ÷ pos
− − − +
0
pos neg
xC2
Solve ½ 5.
2x
Solution
xC2
5½0
2x
x C 2 10x
½0
2x
2 9x
½0
2x
0 2
neg pos 9 neg
Solve x 2 C 2x 4 < 0.
p p
The solution is 1 5, 1 C 5 .
2.8 Determinants
DETERMINANT
a b
If A is the 2 ð 2 matrix , then the determinant of A
c d
is defined to be the number ad bc.
a b
Some notations for this determinant are det A, , and jAj. We
c d
will generally use jAj.
Note that determinants always have the same number of rows
WARNING
Solution
a1 b1 a2 b2
D a1 d1 b1 c1 a2 d2 b2 c2
c1 d 1 c2 d2
D a1 a2 d1 d2 b1 c1 a2 d2 a1 d1 b2 c2 C b1 b2 c1 c2
D a1 a2 C b1 c2 c1 b2 C d1 d2 a1 b2 C b1 d2 c1 a2 C d1 c2
a1 a2 C b1 c2 a1 b2 C b1 d2
D
c1 a2 C d1 c2 c1 b2 C d1 d2
2.9 Functions
Definition: A function f is a rule that assigns, to each element x of a
set X, a unique element y of a set Y. (See Section 1.3 of the text.)
In this handbook, we will simply list and categorize some of the
more common types of functions you will encounter in calculus.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS:
Definition: An algebraic function is a function that satisfies an
equation of the form
an x y n C an1 x y n1 C Ð Ð Ð C a0 x D 0
Polynomial Functions
Definition: fx D an x n C an1 x n1 C an2 x n2 C Ð Ð Ð C a2 x 2 C
a1 x C a0 , an 6D 0
Px
Rational function: fx D , where Px and Dx are two
Dx
polynomial functions, with Dx 6D 0.
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS:
Definition: Functions that are not algebraic are called transcen-
dental.
2.10 Polynomials
THEOREMS Let Px and Qx be polynomial functions.
Divide x 4 C 3x 3 12x 2 C 5x 2 by x 2.
1 5 2 1 0
" "
— Add "
Remainder
Bring down leading coefficient
Ł
The numbers in this row are found as follows:
The degree of the result is one less than the degree of the given
polynomial and has coefficients given by the last row (1, 5, 2, and 1
for this example; the last entry is the remainder). Thus,
x 4 C 3x 3 12x 2 C 5x 2
D x 3 C 5x 2 2x C 1
x2
Divide x 5 3x 2 C 1 by x 2.
54 Chapter 2
Solution Note: x 5 3x 2 C 1 D x 5 C 0x 4 C 0x 3 3x 2 C 0x C 1.
1 0 0 3 0 1
2j 2 4 8 10 20
1 2 4 5 10 21 R
x 5 3x 2 C 1 4 3 2
21
D x C 2x C 4x C 5x C 10 C
x2 x2
EXAMPLE 2.36 Solving a polynomial equation
Solution Using the rational root theorem, p D š1, š2, š3, š6, š9,
š18 and q D 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12. There are many possible rational roots of
p
the form . We try these values using synthetic division, until we find
q
a root that, in turn, allows us to write a factorization of polynomials
of a degree lower than that of the original polynomial. We obtain
12 6 24 18
1 12 6 18 0
12x 3 6x 2 24x C 18 D 0
x 1 12x 2 C 6x 18 D 0
6x 1 2x 2 C x 3 D 0
6x 1 2x C 3 x 1 D 0
Solve r 4 5r 3 C 6r 2 C 4r 8 D 0.
Solution The possible rational roots are š1, š2, š4, and š8.
1 5 6 4 8 Coefficients of
1j 1 6 12 8 given polynomial
1 6 12 8 0
2j 2 8 8
1 4 4 0
Chapter 2 55
x 2 4x C 4 D 0
2
x 2 D0
xD2
Solve x 4 3x 2 6x 2 D 0.
p
Solution p: š1, š2 and q: 1, so : š1, š2. We try these values,
q
using synthetic division:
1 0 3 6 2
1 1 1 2 8 10
2 1 2 1 4 10
1 1 1 2 4 2
2 1 2 1 8 14 Lower bound
There are no rational roots. (We have tried all the numbers on our
list.) Next, we verify the type of roots by using Descartes’s rule of
signs. First,
fx D x 4 3x 2 6x 2
fx D x 4 3x 2 C 6x 2
There are three sign changes, so we have three negative roots or one
negative root.
Using synthetic division to find some additional points yields
1 0 3 6 2
0.5 1 0.5 2.75 4.625 0.3125
0.4 1 0.4 2.84 4.864 0.0544
0.41 1 0.41 2.8319 4.8389 0.0161
0.42 1 0.42 2.8236 4.8141 0.0219
Remember that there is a root between 0.41 and 0.42, since the
remainder is positive for 0.42 and negative for 0.41. We continue
in this fashion to approximate the root to any degree of accuracy
desired. This is a good problem for a calculator or a computer. We
repeat the procedure for the other roots to find (correct to the nearest
tenth) 0.4, 2.4. The graph can be used to verify that these are the
only real roots.
77. x 3 x 2 4x C 4 D 0
78. 2x 3 x 2 18x C 9 D 0
79. x 3 2x 2 9x C 18 D 0
80. x 3 C 2x 2 5x 6 D 0
81. x 3 C 3x 2 4x 12 D 0
82. 2x 3 C x 2 13x C 6 D 0
83. 2x 3 3x 2 32x 15 D 0
84. x 4 12x 3 C 54x 2 108x C 81 D 0
85. x 4 C 3x 3 19x 2 3x C 18 D 0
86. x 4 13x 2 C 36 D 0
87. x 3 C 15x 2 C 71x C 105 D 0
88. x 5 C 6x 4 C x 3 48x 2 92x 48 D 0
89. x 6 3x 4 C 3x 2 1 D 0
90. x 7 C 3x 6 4x 5 16x 4 13x 3 3x 2 D 0
91. Evaluate the determinant
sin * cos ' + sin * sin ' + cos * cos '
sin * sin ' + sin * cos ' + cos * sin '
cos * 0 + sin *
This problem is from Example 6 of Section 12.8
CHAPTER 3
Systems of Equations
GRAPHING METHOD
The graph of each equation in a system of linear equations in two
variables is a line; in the Cartesian plane, two lines must be related to
each other in one of three ways:
In other words, we graph the equations and check for the intersection
point. If the graphs do not intersect, then the equations represent
an inconsistent system. If the graphs coincide, then the equations
represent a dependent system. When we solve a system by graphing
the equations and then looking for points of intersection, we call the
technique the graphing method.
59
60 Chapter 3
Solution
a. Graph the line 2x 3y D 8:
3y D 2x C 8
y D 23 x C 8
3
y D x C 6
2x 3y D 8
Figure 3.1 Graph of
xCyD6
2x 3y D 8
Figure 3.2 Graph of
4x 6y D 0
Chapter 3 61
2x 3y D 8
Figure 3.3 Graph of
y D 23 x C 83
SUBSTITUTION METHOD
2p C 3q D 5
Solve: .
q D 2p C 7
2p C 3q D 5
2p C 32p C 7 D 5
2p 6p C 21 D 5
4p D 16
pD4
q D 2p C 7
D 24 C 7
D 1
The solution is p, q D 4, 1. If the variables are not x and y, then
you must also show the variables along with the ordered pair. This
establishes which variable is associated with which number — here,
p D 4 and q D 1.
Solution Multiply both sides of the first equation by 2 and both sides
of the second equation by 3. This procedure forces the coefficients
of x to be opposites:
2 3x C 5y D 2
3 2x C 3y D 0
2x D 1
1
xD 2
DEFINITION OF A MATRIX
Consider a system with unknowns x1 and x2 . We use subscripts 1 and
2 to denote the unknowns, instead of using variables x and y, because
we want to be able to handle n unknowns, which we can easily denote
as x1 , x2 , x3 , Ð Ð Ð , xn ; if we continued by using x, y, z, Ð Ð Ð for systems
Chapter 3 65
in general, we would soon run out of letters. Here is the way we will
write a general system of two equations with two unknowns.
a11 x1 C a12 x2 D b1
a21 x1 C a22 x2 D b2
GAUSS–JORDAN ELIMINATION
Gauss–Jordan elimination is a general method for solving all these
types of systems. We write the system in augmented matrix form and
then carry out a process that transforms the matrix until the solution
is obvious.
For the discussion that follows, we call this matrix A and denote it by
[A].
In this example, we interchanged the first and the second rows of the
matrix. If we denote the original matrix as [A], then we indicate the
operation of interchanging the first and second rows of matrix A by
RowSwap([A], 1, 2).
Chapter 3 67
Notice that only row 3 changes; we call the row being added to
(i.e., the row that is being changed) the target row. We indicate this
operation by Row C [A], 1, 3 .
"
targetrow
Once again, multiply the second row, this time by 3, and add it to
the third row. Wait! Why 3? Where did that come from? The idea
is the same one we used in the linear combination method: We use a
number that will give a zero coefficient to the x in the third equation:
Note that the multiplied row is not changed; instead, the changed row
is the one to which the multiplied row is added. We call the original
row the pivot row. Note also that we worked, not with the original
matrix [A], but rather with the previous answer, so we indicate this by
There you have it! You can carry out these four elementary
operations until you have a system for which the solution is obvious,
as illustrated by the next example.
Solution
As you study Example 3.5, first look at how the elementary row
operations led to a system equivalent to the first — but one for which
the solution is obvious. The steps chosen in that example illustrate
a very efficient method of using the elementary row operations to
determine a system whose solution is obvious. Let us restate the
elementary row operations and the operation called pivoting.
PIVOTING
You are now ready to see the method worked out by Gauss and
Jordan, known as Gauss–Jordan elimination. It efficiently uses the
elementary row operations to diagonalize the matrix. That is, the first
pivot is the first entry in the first row, first column; the second is the
entry in the second row, second column; and so on, until the solution
is obvious. A pivot element is an element that is used to eliminate
Chapter 3 71
GAUSS-JORDAN ELIMINATION
The solution 2, 3, 4 is found by inspection, since the last matrix
represents the system
1x C 0y C 0z D 2
0x C 1y C 0z D 3
0x C 0y C 1z D 4
INVERSE MATRICES
The availability of computer software and calculators that can carry
out matrix operations has considerably increased the importance of a
matrix solution of systems of equations, which involves the inverse of
a matrix. If [A] is a square matrix and if there exists a matrix [A]1
such that
[A]1 [A] D [A][A]1 D [I]
where [I] is the identity matrix for multiplication, then [A]1 is called
the inverse of [A] for multiplication.
If we let [A] be the matrix of coefficients of a system of equations,
[X] the matrix of unknowns, and [B] the matrix of constants, we can
then represent the system of equations by the matrix equation
[A][X] D [B]
1
Note that [A]1 does not mean [A ]
, but rather means the inverse of
matrix [A].
If we can define an inverse matrix, denoted by [A]1 , we should be
able to solve the system by finding
MATRIX OPERATIONS
Equality:
[M] D [N] if and only if matrices [M] and [N] are the same
order and their corresponding entries are the same.
Addition:
[M] C [N] D [S] if and only if [M] and [N] are the same
order and the entries of [S] are found by adding the
corresponding entries of [M] and [N].
Multiplication by a scalar:
c[M] D [M]c is the matrix in which each entry of [M] is
multiplied by the scalar (real number) c.
Subtraction:
[M] [N] D [D] if and only if [M] and [N] are the same
order and the entries of [D] are found by subtracting the
entries of [N] from the corresponding entries of [M].
Multiplication:
Let [M] be an m ð r matrix and [N] an r ð n matrix. Then
the product matrix [M][N] D [P] is an m ð n matrix. The
entry in the ith row and jth column of [M][N] is the sum
of the products formed by multiplying each entry of the ith
row of [M] by the corresponding element in the jth column
of [N].
g. [E][D] h. [D]1
Solution
a. [A] C [B] D [5 2 1] C [4 8 5]
D [5 C 4 2 C 8 1 C 5]
D [9 10 4]
b. [A] C [C] is not defined, because [A] and [C] are nonconformable.
0 1 2 3 4 1
c. [D] C [E] D 2 1 1 C 2 0 5
1 1 0 4 2 3
3 5 1
D 4 1 6
5 3 3
D [ 10 4 2 ] C [ 12 24 15 ]
D [ 2 20 17 ]
0 1 2 3 4 1
f. [D][E] D 2 1 1 2 0 5
1 1 0 4 2 3
0C28 0C0C4 0C5C6
D 624 8 C 0 C 2 2 C 5 C 0
3 C 2 C 0 4 C 0 C 0 1 C 5 C 0
Chapter 3 75
6 4 11
D 0 10 3
1 4 6
3 4 1 0 1 2
g. [E][D] D 2 0 5 2 1 1
4 2 3 1 1 0
0C8C1 341 6C4C0
D 0C05 2C0C5 4C0C0
0 C 4 3 4 2 C 3 8 C 2 C 0
9 2 10
D 5 7 4
1 3 6
A D 3, B D 5, C D 2, D D 0, and E D 1
Solution
3x 3 x D A1 x 3 C A1 x C B1 x 2 C B1 C A2 x C B2
D A1 x 3 C B1 x 2 C A1 C A2 x C B1 C B2
We substitute the values from the first two equations into the second
two equations to obtain
1 D 3 C A2 or A2 D 1
0 D 0 C B2 or B2 D 0
xCy D7 xy D8
1. 2.
x y D 1 xCy D2
x C 2y D 2 x 6y D 3
3. 4.
4x 7y D 5 2x C 3y D 9
y D 3x C 1 2x C 3y D 9
5. 6.
x 2y D 8 x D 5y 2
xCy D4 3x C 4y D 8
7. 8.
2x C 3y D 9 x C 2y D 2
2x y D 6 6x C 9y D 4
9. 10.
4x C y D 3 9x C 3y D 1
5x 2y D 1 5x C 4y D 9
11. 12.
3x C y D 17 9x C 3y D 12
78 Chapter 3
100x y D 0 x D 34 y 2
13. 14.
50x C y D 300 3y 4x D 5
q C d D 147 x C y D 10
15. 16.
0.25q C 0.10d D 24.15 0.4x C 0.9y D 0.510
12x 5y D 39 y D 2x 1
17. 18.
y D 2x C 9 y D 3x 9
x y D 1 xCy D2
19. xCz D1 20. xz D1
yz D1 y C z D 1
x C 5z D 9 x C 2z D 13
21. y C 2z D 2 22. 2x C y D 8
2x C 3z D 4 2y C 9z D 41
4x C y D 2 5x C z D 9
23. 3x C 2z D 9 24. x 5z D 7
2y C 3z D 5 xCyz D0
x C y D 2 x C y D 1
25. yCz D2 26. y C z D 1
x y z D 1 xCyCz D1
x C 2z D 9 x C 2z D 0
27. 2x C y D 13 28. 3x y C 2z D 0
2y C z D 8 4x C y D 6
4x D
2y D 2A1 D 2
29. 30. 2A1 2A2 D 4
2z D
2A1 C A2 2A3 D 0
xCyCz D1
4x 7y D 2 4x 7y D 65
31. a. b.
x C 2y D 1 x C 2y D 18
4x 7y D 48 4x 7y D 2
c. d.
x C 2y D 13 x C 2y D 3
8x C 6y D 12 8x C 6y D 16
32. a. b.
2x C 4y D 14 2x C 4y D 18
Chapter 3 79
8x C 6y D 6 8x C 6y D 28
c. d.
2x C 4y D 26 2x C 4y D 18
2x C 3y D 9 2x C 3y D 2
33. a. b.
x 6y D 3 x 6y D 16
2x C 3y D 2 2x C 3y D 9
c. d.
x 6y D 14 x 6y D 42
x C 2z D 7 x C 2z D 4
34. a. 2x C y D 16 b. 2x C y D 0
2y C 9z D 3 2y C 9z D 19
x C 2z D 4 x C 2z D 7
c. 2x C y D 0 d. 2x C y D 1
2y C 9z D 31 2y C 9z D 28
6x C y C 20z D 27 6x C y C 20z D 14
35. a. xy D0 b. xy D1
y C 3z D 4 y C 3z D 1
6x C y C 20z D 12 6x C y C 20z D 57
c. xy D6 d. xy D1
y C 3z D 7 y C 3z D 5
80
Chapter 4 81
is not defined.
From the given definitions of the trigonometric func-
tions, f is not defined, since tan x is not defined for x D or
2 2
for any odd multiple of .
2
REDUCTION PRINCIPLE
If t represents any of the six
trigonometric functions, then
t D št 0 , where the sign
depends on the quadrant and
0 is the reference angle of . Quadrant I Quadrant II
82 Chapter 4
BY CALCULATOR
BY TABLE
Angle 3 Knowledge
0
6 4 3 2 2 of these exact
p p
3 2 1 values is
cos 1 2
0 1 0 assumed in
2 2
p p calculus.
1 2 3
sin 0 2
1 0 1
2 2
p
3 p
tan 0 1 3 undefined 0 undefined
3
2 2
sec 1 p p 2 undefined 1 undefined
3 2
2 2
csc undefined 2 p p 1 undefined 1
2 3
p 1
cot undefined 3 1 p 0 undefined 0
3
Chapter 4 83
y − k = a tan b(x − h)
Cofunction identities
9. cos D sin 10. sin D cos
2 2
11. tan D cot
2
Opposite-angle identities
12. cos D cos 13. sin D sin
14. tan D tan
Addition laws
15. cos˛ C ˇ D cos ˛ cos ˇ sin ˛ sin ˇ
16. cos˛ ˇ D cos ˛ cos ˇ C sin ˛ sin ˇ
17. sin˛ C ˇ D sin ˛ cos ˇ C cos ˛ sin ˇ
18. sin˛ ˇ D sin ˛ cos ˇ cos ˛ sin ˇ
tan ˛ C tan ˇ
19. tan˛ C ˇ D
1 tan ˛ tan ˇ
tan ˛ tan ˇ
20. tan˛ ˇ D
1 C tan ˛ tan ˇ
Double-angle identities
21. cos 2 D cos2 sin2 22. sin 2 D 2 sin cos
D 2 cos2 1
D 1 2 sin2
2 tan
23. tan 2 D
1 tan2
Chapter 4 87
Half-angle identities
1 C cos 1 cos
24. cos 12 D š 25. sin 12 D š
2 2
1 cos
26. tan 12 D
sin
sin
D
1 C cos
Product-to-sum identities
27. 2 cos ˛ cos ˇ D cos˛ ˇ C cos˛ C ˇ
28. 2 sin ˛ sin ˇ D cos˛ ˇ cos˛ C ˇ
29. 2 sin ˛ cos ˇ D sin˛ C ˇ C sin˛ ˇ
30. 2 cos ˛ sin ˇ D sin˛ C ˇ sin˛ ˇ
Sum-to-product identities
˛Cˇ ˛ˇ
31. cos ˛ C cos ˇ D 2 cos cos
2 2
˛Cˇ ˛ˇ
32. cos ˛ cos ˇ D 2 sin sin
2 2
˛Cˇ ˛ˇ
33. sin ˛ C sin ˇ D 2 sin cos
2 2
˛ˇ ˛Cˇ
34. sin ˛ sin ˇ D 2 sin cos
2 2
Hyperbolic identities
1 1
35. sech x D 36. csch x D
cosh x sinh x
1 sinh x
37. coth x D 38. tanh x D
tanh x cosh x
cosh x
39. coth x D 40. cosh2 x sinh2 x D 1
sinh x
41. 1 tanh2 x D sech2 x 42. coth2 x 1 D csch2 x
43. sinhx D sinh x 44. coshx D cosh x
45. tanhx D tanh x
46. sinhx š y D sinh x cosh y š cosh x sinh y
47. coshx š y D cosh x cosh y š sinh x sinh y
tanh x š tanh y
48. tanhx š y D
1 š tanh x tanh y
88 Chapter 4
36 25
D
36 36
p
11
D
6
Pythagorean theorem
In a right triangle with right angle at C, ∆ ABC
c 2 D a2 C b2
Law of cosines
a2 D b2 C c2 2bc cos ˛ b2 D a2 C c2 2ac cos ˇ
b2 C c 2 a2 a2 C c 2 b2
cos ˛ D cos ˇ D
2bc 2ac
2 2 2
c D a C b 2ab cos
a2 C b2 c 2
cos D
2ab
Law of sines
sin ˛ sin ˇ sin
D D
a b c
Law of tangents
aCb tan 12 ˛ C ˇ
D
ab tan 12 ˛ ˇ
AREA FORMULAS
Two sides and the included angle are known:
Area of a sector
1. AAA No solution
PRINCIPAL VALUES
EXAMPLE 4.3 Linear trigonometric equation
Solve the equations for the principal value of . Compare the solutions
of these similar problems.
1 1
a. 5 sin C 1 D 2
b. sin 5 C 1 D 2
Solution
a. 5 sin C 1 D 12
1
sin C 1 D Solve for the function
10
C 1 D sin1 0.1 Solve for the angle
1
D 1 C sin 0.1 Solve for the unknown
³ 0.8998326 We use radians (real
numbers) unless otherwise
specified
92 Chapter 4
Solution
15 cos2 2 cos 8 D 0
3 cos C 25 cos 4 D 0 Factor if possible
The last equation is solved by setting each factor equal to zero (factor
theorem):
3 cos C 2 D 0 5 cos 4 D 0
2 4
cos D cos D
3 5
2 1 4
D cos1 D cos
3 5
³ 2.300524 ³ 0.6435011
Solution
GENERAL SOLUTION
The procedure for finding the general solution of a trigonometric
equation is to first find the reference angle, by using the table of exact
values or a calculator. Then find two values less than one revolution
apart, using the reference angle:
For y D arccos x or y D arcsec x,
if y is positive, then the inverse function is in Quadrants I and IV
if y is negative, then the inverse function is in Quadrants II and III
For y D arcsin x or y D arccsc x,
if y is positive, then the inverse function is in Quadrants I and II
if y is negative, then the inverse function is in Quadrants III and IV
For y D arctan x or y D arccot x,
if y is positive, then the inverse function is in Quadrants I and III
if y is negative, then the inverse function is in Quadrants II and IV
The foregoing information is summarized in Figure 4.1.
After you have found the two values less than one revolution apart,
the entire solution is found by using the period of the function:
For cosine, sine, secant and cosecant: add multiples of 2
For tangent and cotangent: add multiples of
S ine and A ll
cosecant positive
positive
Solution
a. Reference angle 0 D Arccos 12 D ; angles less than one revo-
3
lution apart with a reference angle of are (Quadrant I) and
3 3
5
(Quadrant IV). The solution is infinite, so to find all solutions,
3
5
add multiples of 2 to these values: D C 2k, C 2k, for
3 3
any integral value of k.
b. 0 D Arccos 12 D . Reference angle is in Quadrants II and
3
2 4
III: D C 2k, C 2k.
3 3
Solution
12 cos 2t D 2 sin t
cos 2t D 4 sin t
1 2 sin2 t D 4 sin t
2 sin2 t C 4 sin t 1 D 0
4 š 42 421
sin t D
22
p
4 š 2 6
D
4
p
2 š 6
D
2
Chapter 4 95
³ 0.2247448714, 2 .224744871
"
Reject sin t½1
t ³ Arcsin0.227448714
³ 0.2266812, 2.914911452
97
98 Chapter 5
3
I 5, , J 5, , and H 5, all represent the same point.
2 2 2
x D r cos y D r sin
Solution
p
5 3 p
x D 2 cos D 2 D 3
6 2
5 1
y D 2 sin D 2 D 1
6 2
p
The rectangular coordinates are 3, 1.
Solution
5 2 5 2 25 25 5p
rD C D C D 2
2 2 4 4 2
Show that each of the following points lies on the polar graph whose
equation is
2
rD
1 cos
3
a. 2, b. 2, c. 1, 2
2 2
?
2 D 2 2
a. D D 2;
1 cos 2 10
2, is on the curve, because it satisfies the equation.
2
102 Chapter 5
?
2 D 2
b. 3
Although the equation is not satis-
1 cos 2 fied, we cannot say that the point
2
D D2 is not on the curve. Indeed, we see
10 from parta that it is
on thecurve,
3
because 2, and 2,
2 2
name the same point!
? 2 2
c. For 1, 2 , 1 D , which is undefined.
D
1 cos 2 11
Next, check the equivalent representation 1, :
?
1 D 2 2
D D1
1 cos 1 1
Solution
a. r D 3 cos Given equation
r 2 D 3r cos Multiply by r.
x 2 C y 2 D 3x Because x D r cos and
r 2 D x2 C y 2
3 2
x 2 3x C 2
C y 2 D 94 Complete the square.
2
x 32 C y 2 D 94
3
We see that this is the equation of a circle with center at 2, 0
and radius 32 . The graph is shown in Figure 5.2a.
Chapter 5 103
2r sin C r cos D 6
2y C x D 6 Because x D r cos , y D r sin
6
5.2c. Graph of r D
2 sin C cos
Figure 5.2 Polar-form graphs
Graph r D for ½ 0.
5.5 Cardioids
Next, we examine a class of polar curves called cardioids because of
their heartlike shape.
Graph r D 1 cos .
r
0 0
1 0.4597
2 1.4161
3 1.9900
4 1.6536
5 0.7164
6 0.3983
Note that if D , then r D 1, and if D , then r D 2. The points
2
are connected as shown in Figure 5.4.
STANDARD-POSITION CARDIOID
r D a1 cos
These four points are all that you need to graph other standard-position
cardioids, because all cardioids have the same shape as the one shown
in Figure 5.4.
r D 3 3 cos Standard cardioid with 90°
2
rotation cos˛ ˇ D
D 3 3 cos cos C sin sin cos ˛ cos ˇ C sin ˛ sin ˇ
2 2
D 3 3 [cos 0 C sin 1]
D 3 3 sin
Compare this equation with that of Example 5.8, and you will see that
the only difference is a 90° rotation instead of a 30° rotation. This
means that the graph of an equation of the form
r D a1 sin
Figure 5.5 Graph of r D 3 3 cos
6
108 Chapter 5
5.7 Limaçons
We will illustrate symmetry in polar-form curves by graphing a curve
called a limaçon.
Graph r D 3 C 2 cos .
f D 3 C 2 cos
D 3 C 2[cos cos C sin sin ]
D 3 2 cos
The graph is shown in Figure 5.7; note that we sketch the top half
of the graph (for 0 by plotting points and then complete the
sketch by reflecting the graph in the x-axis. Because cos decreases
steadily from its largest value of 1 at D 0 to its smallest value of 1
at D , the radial distance r D 3 C 2 cos will also steadily decrease
as increases from 0 to . The largest value of r is r D 3 C 21 D 5
at D 0, and the smallest value of r is r D 3 C 21 D 1 at D .
r D b š a cos or r D b š a sin
is called a limaçon (derived from the Latin word limax, which means
‘‘slug’’; in French, it is the word for ‘‘snail’’). The special case
where a D b is the cardioid. Figure 5.8 shows four different kinds
of limaçons that can occur. Note how the appearance of the graph
depends on the ratio a/b. We have discussed cases II and III in
Examples 5.8 and 5.9. Case I (the ‘‘inner loop’’ case) and case IV (the
‘‘convex’’) case are examined in the problem set.
Just as with the cardioid, we designate a standard-form limaçon and
consider the others as rotations thereof:
STANDARD-POSITION LIMAÇON
r D b a cos
In general, r D a cos n is the equation of a rose curve in which
each petal has length a. If n is an even number, the rose has 2n petals;
if n is odd, the number of petals is n. The tips of the petals are equally
spaced on a circle of radius a. Equations of the form r D a sin n are
handled as rotations.
r D a cos n
r D 5 sin 4
D 5 cos 4 Cofunctions of complementary angles
2
D 5 cos 4 Remember, cos D cos .
2
D 5 cos 4
8
which means the primary criterion for symmetry with respect to the
x-axis fails. However,
f D 5 sin 4
D 5[sin 4 cos4 C cos 4 sin4]
D 5 sin 4
D f
5.9 Lemniscates
The last general type of polar-form curve we will consider is called a
lemniscate.
STANDARD-POSITION LEMNISCATE
r 2 D a2 cos 2
Chapter 5 115
Solution As before, when graphing a curve for the first time, begin
by checking symmetry and plotting points. For this example, note that
you obtain two values for r when solving the quadratic equation. For
example, if D 0, then cos 2 D 1 and r 2 D 9, so r D 3 or 3.
Symmetry with respect to the x-axis
9 cos[2] D 9 cos 2, so r 2 D 9 cos 2 is not affected when is
replaced by ; yes, the curve is symmetric with respect to the x-axis.
Symmetry with respect to the y-axis
9 cos[2 ] D 9 cos2 2 D 9 cos2 D 9 cos 2;
yes, the curve is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
Symmetry with respect to the origin
r2 D r 2 so r 2 D 9 cos 2 is not affected when r is replaced by
r; yes, the curve is symmetric with respect to the origin.
Note that because r 2 ½ 0, the equation has a solution only when
cos 2 ½ 0; that is,
3 5
; ;....
4 4 4 4
116 Chapter 5
7. r D 4 sin 8. r D 16
In Problems 21–28, tell whether each of the given points lies on the
curve r D 21 cos .
21. 1, 22. 1,
3 3
23. 1, 24. 2,
3 2
p p
25. 2 C 2, 26. 2 2,
4 4
2
27. 0, 28. 0,
4 3
3 3
29. rD 30. r D ,0 2
2 2
p
31. r D 2, 0 2 32. rD4
50. Show that the graph of the polar equation r D a sin C b cos
is a circle. Find its center and radius.
CHAPTER 6
Conic Sections: The Parabola
Ax 2 C Bxy C Cy 2 C Dx C Ey C F D 0
The text assumes that you are familiar with the parabola, circle,
ellipse, and hyperbola in standard position, as well as those
translated to (h, k). In other words, you need to be familiar with
the conic sections in this chapter.
PARABOLA
119
120 Chapter 6
The line through the focus perpendicular to the directrix is called the
principal axis of the parabola, and the point where the axis intersects
the parabola is called the vertex. The line segment that passes through
the focus perpendicular to the axis and with endpoints on the parabola
is called the focal chord. This terminology is shown in Figure 6.2.
To obtain the equation of a parabola, first consider a special case:
a parabola with focus F 0, c and directrix y D c, where c is any
positive number. This parabola must have its vertex at the origin (the
vertex is halfway between the focus and the directrix) and must open
upward, as shown in Figure 6.3.
Let (x, y) be any point on the parabola. Then, from the definition of
a parabola,
DISTANCE FROM (x, y) to 0, c D DISTANCE FROM (x, y) TO
THE DIRECTRIX
x0 2C yc 2 DyCc
x 2 D 4cy
This is the equation of the parabola with vertex (0, 0) and directrix
y D c.
You can repeat the preceding argument (see Problems 56–58) for
parabolas that have their vertex at the origin and open downward, to
the left, and to the right to obtain the results summarized next.
Graph 2y 2 5x D 0.
Solution This is the curve drawn in Figure 6.5. We see that the curve
is a parabola which opens downward with vertex at the origin. By
inspection, c D 2. The form of the equation is x 2 D 4cy, so the
desired equation is
x 2 D 8y
EFFECT OF A TRANSLATION
This means that the equations for parabolas with vertex (h, k) are as
follows:
2
xh D 4c y k , X2 D 4cY
2
xh D 4c y k , X2 D 4cY
2
yk D 4c x h , Y2 D 4cX
2
yk D 4c x h , Y2 D 4cX
y D x 2 C 2x C 3
124 Chapter 6
y 3 + 1 D x 2 C 2x + 1
y2D xC1 2
Next, plot the vertex 1, 2 . If we replace y 2 by Y and x C 1 by
X, we have Y D X2 , which tells us that the parabola opens upward.
Also, 4c D 1, so c D 14 . Thus, plot the focus by counting up 14 unit,
and then draw the focal chord with length 1. Because these points are
fairly close on the chosen scale, we plot an additional point, say, the
y-intercept: If x D 0, then y D 02 C 2 0 C 3 D 3. (See Figure 6.7.)
Notice that we do not need to know the coordinates of the focus or
the directrix to draw the graph. We needed to know only the vertex,
the distance c, and the length of the focal chord, 4c. If c is small
relative to the vertex, it may be necessary to plot an additional point.
However, we may need to know the coordinates of the focus and
directrix for further analysis. To find these numbers, we can use the
reverse translation x D X C h, y D Y C k:
XY-coordinates xy-coordinates
Vertex 0, 0 1, 2
1
focus 0, 4 1, 94
directrix Y D 14 yD 7
4
Figure 6.8 Graph of a parabola with focus (4, 3) and directrix x C 2 D 0.
opens to the right, namely y 2 D 4cx, and then translate to the point (h,
k) to obtain the equation
2
yk D 4c x h
yC3 2
D 12 x 1
DISTANCE P TO F D DISTANCE P TO L
jrj D jp C r cos j
r D š p C r cos
p p
rD r D
1 cos 1 C cos
It can be shown that these two equations represent the same graph, so
we shall use the one on the left to represent the given parabola. We
can similarly derive equations for parabolas that open downward, left,
or to the right. These graphs are shown in Figure 6.10.
p
Figure 6.10 Standard position polar-form parabolas 0 < <1
2
Chapter 6 127
Directrix Vertex,
Parabola Focus Rectangular-formŁ Polar-form
p p 3
Upward: rD (0, 0) y D p ,
1 sin 2 2
p p
Downward: rD (0, 0) yDp ,
1 C sin 2 2
p p
Right: rD (0, 0) x D p ,
1 cos 2
p p
Left: rD (0, 0) xDp ,0
1 C cos 2
4
rD
3 3 cos
Solution
1 4
4 3 3
rD Ð 1
D
3 3 cos 3
1 cos
4
Figure 6.11 Graph of r D
3 3 cos
Ł We could, of course, state these equations of lines in polar form. For example, y D p is
r sin D p, but we prefer writing the equation of the directrix in rectangular form.
128 Chapter 6
By inspection, you can now see (Figure 6.11) that the parabola opens
to the right and that p D 43 . Thus, the vertex is
p
2
, D ,
2 3
Plot the vertex and the line x D 43 , as shown in the margin. You can
plot other points that are easy to calculate, such as the points where
3
D and D or D .
2 2
Find a polar-form equation for the parabola with focus at the origin
and vertex at the polar-form point 3, .
Solution The vertex 3, is on the x-axis and to the left of the focus
(the pole). Thus, the parabola opens to the right and has a polar-form
equation
p
rD
1 cos
where p is the distance from the focus to the directrix. Because the
vertex 3, is halfway between the focus and the directrix, we must
have p D 6, so that the required equation is
6
rD
1 cos
Ł Since
these reflectors are three dimensional, the precise word is paraboloidal, but the most
common usage refers to the cross-sectional shape, which is parabolic.
130 Chapter 6
In Problems 43–46, find a polar equation for the parabola with the
given Cartesian equation given.
43. y 2 D 4x 44. x 2 D 2y
52. Find an equation for a parabola that opens to the right with focal
chord length 6 if it is known that the parabola has focus 4, 2 .
53. A parabolic archway has the dimensions shown in Figure 6.13.
Find the equation of the parabolic portion.
54. Beams of light parallel to the axis of the parabolic mirror
shown in Figure 6.14 strike the mirror and are reflected. Find
the distance from the vertex to the point where the beams
concentrate if the radius at the top of the dish is 4 ft.
55. A radar antenna is constructed so that a cross section along
its axis is a parabola with the receiver at the focus. Find the
focus if the antenna is 12 m across and its depth is 4 m. (See
Figure 6.15.)
x1 C x2 C x3 C x4 D 0.
x2
yD
4c
7.1 ELLIPSES
In this chapter, we consider two more conic sections: the ellipse and
the hyperbola.
ELLIPSE
The fixed points are called the foci (plural of focus). To see what an
ellipse looks like, we will use the special type of graph paper shown
in Figure 7.1a, where F1 and F2 are the foci.
Let the constant distance be 12. Plot all the points in the plane so
that the sum of their distances from the foci is 12. If a point is 8 units
from F1 , for example, then it is 4 units from F2 , and you can plot
the points P1 and P2 . The completed graph of this ellipse is shown in
Figure 7.1b.
135
136 Chapter 7
The line passing through F1 and F2 is called the major axis. The
center is the midpoint of the segment F1 F2 . The semimajor axis is
the distance from the center to a point of intersection of the ellipse with
its major axis. The line passing through the center and perpendicular
to the major axis is called the minor axis. The semiminor axis is the
distance from the center to a point of intersection of the minor axis
with the ellipse. The ellipse is symmetric with respect to the major and
minor axes. The intercepts on the major axis are called the vertices of
the ellipse.
To find the equation of an ellipse, first consider a special case where
the center is at the origin. Let the distance from the center to a focus be
the positive number c; that is, let F1 c, 0 and F2 c, 0 be the foci,
and let the constant sum of distances be 2a (that is, d1 C d2 D 2a), as
shown in Figure 7.2.
If P(x, y) is any point on the ellipse, then, by definition,
jPF1 j C jPF2 j D 2a
x C c2 C y 02 C x c2 C y 02 D 2a
x2 y2
C D1
a2 a2 c 2
x2 y 2
Let b2 D a2 c2 to obtain C 2 D 1. The graph of this equation
a2 b
is shown in Figure 7.3. Notice that the foci are on the major axis and
that the intercepts on the minor axis are (0, b) and 0, b. Notice also
that a > c and a > b.
A similar derivation applies to the ellipse in standard position with
foci on the y-axis.
Chapter 7 137
x2 y 2
Horizontal C 2 D 1 c, 0, (c, 0) 2a (0, 0)
a2 b
y 2 x2
Vertical C 2 D 1 (0, c), 0, c 2a (0, 0)
a2 b
where b2 D a2 c2 or c2 D a2 b2 with a > b > 0
2x 2 C 5y 2 D 10
2x 2 5y 2
C D1
10 10
x2 y 2
C D1
5 2
x 2 y 2
p C p D1
5 2
x y
We know that if cos D p and sin D p , then cos2 C sin2 D
5 2
1. There are, of course, otherpchoices we could p make, but this
observation leads us to let x D 5 cos and y D 2 sin . You can
set up a table of values or use a calculator to obtain the graph shown in
Chapter 7 139
p p
Figure 7.5 Graph of x D 5 cos , y D 2 sin
Figure 7.5. If you use a table of values, you need only consider values
of between 0 and , because we know that the ellipse is symmetric
2
with respect to both the major and minor axes:
The parameterization we obtained p for the ellipse
p in Example 7.2
is not unique. For example, x D 5 sin , y D 2 cos is the same
ellipse, but if you sketch these parametric equations, you will note
that even though the ellipse is the same, the orientation has reversed.
Find an equation for the ellipse with foci 1, 0 and (1, 0) and
vertices 2, 0 and (2, 0).
x2 y 2
C D1
4 3
If an ellipse is not in standard position, but its axes are parallel to
the coordinate axes, complete the square to determine the translation.
Here is an example of this procedure.
9x 2 C 4y 2 18x C 16y 11 D 0
9x 2 2x C 4y 2 C 4y D 11
140 Chapter 7
Thus, the graph may be obtained by translating the graph of the ellipse
x2 y 2
C D 1 by 1 unit to the right and 2 units down. This process is
4 9
shown in Figure 7.6. First, plot the center h, k D 1, 2, and then
count out from that point a distance a D š3 (the vertices) on the
major axis and label those vertices. Finally, count out from the center
the distance b D š2 on the minor axis. Using those four points on the
ellipse, you can sketch the graph.
7.2 Hyperbolas
The last of the conic sections to be considered has a definition similar
to that of the ellipse.
HYPERBOLA
The fixed points are called the foci. A hyperbola with foci at F1
and F2 , where the given constant distance is 8, is shown in Figure 7.7.
The line passing through the foci is called the transverse axis. The
center is the midpoint of the segment connecting the foci. The line
Chapter 7 141
x2 y2
D1
a2 c 2 a2
If b2 D c2 a2 , then
x2 y 2
2 D1
a2 b
x2 y2
Horizontal: D 1 c, 0, c, 0 2a (0, 0)
a2 b2
y2 x2
Vertical: D 1 0, c, 0, c 2a (0, 0)
a2 b2
where b2 D c2 a2 or c2 D a2 C b2
x2 y 2
Sketch D 1.
4 9
x2 y2
Figure 7.8 Graph of D1
4 9
For the general hyperbola given by the equation
x2 y 2
2 D1
a2 b
the equations of the oblique asymptotes described are found by
replacing the constant term 1 by 0 and then factoring and solving:
b b
y D x and y D x
a a
To justify this result, you are asked in Problem 57 to show that the
b
branches of the hyperbola approach y D š x as jxj ! 1.
a
x 42 y C 12
D1
9 16
Find the set of points such that, for any point, the difference of its
distances from (6, 2) and 6, 5 is always 3.
49 9
D C b2 so that b2 D 10
4 4
The desired equation is
DISTANCE FROM P TO F
D1
DISTANCE FROM P TO L
ECCENTRICITY
DISTANCE FROM P TO F
D
DISTANCE FROM P TO L
is a conic section, and is a fixed number for each conic,
called the eccentricity of the conic. The conic is
an ellipse if < 1;
a parabola if D 1;
a hyperbola if > 1.
DISTANCE FROM P TO F r
D D
DISTANCE FROM P TO L p r cos
p
rD Because 0 < 1, cos 6D 1.
1 C cos
p
Similarly, if the directrix is x D p, the equation is r D ,
1 cos
and if the directrix is y D p or y D p, the corresponding equations
146 Chapter 7
are, respectively,
p p
rD and rD
1 C sin 1 sin
Figure 7.12 Forms for the equation of an ellipse < 1 in standard polar
form
2
Discuss the graph of the polar-form equation r D .
2 cos
2
Figure 7.13 Graph of r D
2 cos
we obtain D 3 and 5 4
3 . Then, solving for r, we get r D 3 , which gives
the vertices 3 , 3 and 3 , 3 . The graph is shown in Figure 7.13.
4 4 5
graph is a hyperbola. We also see that the transverse axis is the y-axis
and that because p D 53 we have p D 54 . Thus, the graph has one
focus F1 at the pole and directrix y D p D 54 .
The corresponding vertex occurs when D 2 :
5 5
rD D
3 C 4 sin 2 7
5
rD D 5
3 C 4 sin 3
2
5
Figure 7.15 Graph of r D
3 C 4 cos
x2 y2 x2 y2
1. C D1 2. C D1
4 16 16 4
x2 y2 x2 y 2
3. D1 4. D1
25 9 9 4
5. y 2 x2 D 1 6. x 2 y 2 D 8
7. x 12 C 4y 2 D 64 8. 2x 2 C 3y 2 D 12
9. x 2 2y 2 C 2 D 0 10. 5x 2 3y 2 C 15 D 0
x 12 y C 32 x 12 y C 32
11. C D1 12. C D1
4 16 16 4
13. 4x 32 9y C 12 D 36
14. 9x C 12 4y 32 D 36
15. 4x 2 9y 2 8x C 54y 41 D 0
16. x 2 4y 2 C 2x C 8y 7 D 0
17. 4x 2 C y 2 C 8x 2y C 4 D 0
18. x 2 C 4y 2 C 2x 8y C 4 D 0
19. 9x 2 C 4y 2 8y D 32
20. 4x 2 C 9y 2 8x D 32
Ax 2 C Cy 2 C Dx C Ey C F D 0
x2 y 2
C 2 D1
a2 b
x0 x y 0 y
C 2 D1
a2 b
b b
57. Prove that the lines y D x and y D x are asymptotes of the
a a
x2 y 2
hyperbola 2 2 D 1. Hint: Show that the vertical distance
a b
bp 2 b
D(x) between y D x a2 and the line y D x tends to zero
a a
as x ! 1, as shown in Figure 7.19.
CHAPTER 8
Curve Sketching
8.1 Symmetry
One of the most valuable tools in curve sketching is symmetry.
This section deals with recognizing when a curve is symmetric by
performing a simple test on its equation. In general, two points are
symmetric with respect to a line if that line is the perpendicular
bisector of the line segment containing the two points. In this book,
we will check for symmetry with respect to the coordinate axes and
the origin. (See Figure 8.1.)
Figure 8.2 shows an example of a curve that is symmetric with
respect to the x-axis: Whenever (x, y) is on the curve, so is x, y. This
gives us a simple algebraic test: If the equation remains unchanged
when y is replaced by y, then the curve is symmetric with respect to
the x-axis, because (x, y) and x, y must both satisfy the equation.
Figure 8.1 (a) Points P1 and P2 are symmetric with respect to L. (b) The
star is symmetric with respect to L.
157
158 Chapter 8
SYMMETRY
x 2 C 2xy2 C y2 D 4
is the same as the original equation. The curve is not symmetric with
respect to the y-axis or the origin.
y D cosx
is the same as the original equation. The curve is not symmetric with
respect to the x-axis or the origin.
x 2 C 5x 2 y2 D 5
is the same as the original equation. The curve is also symmetric with
respect to the y-axis, since
x2 C 5x2 y 2 D 5
8.2 Extent
By extent, we mean the domain and range of a curve. If certain values
of one or the other variable cause division by zero or imaginary values,
those values must be excluded.
Chapter 8 161
4
Find the domain and range of y D .
x
Solution The domain is the set of all real numbers except zero, since
that value causes division by zero. In such a case, we write ‘‘all reals,
x 6D 0.’’ For the range, solve for x:
4
xD
y
x 3x 2x 4
Find the domain of y D .
x C 2x 4
y 2 1 6D 0
y 6D 1, 1
8.3 Asymptotes
An asymptote is a line such that, as a point P on the curve moves farther
away from the origin, the distance between P and the asymptote tends
toward zero. In this section, we are concerned with finding horizontal,
vertical, and oblique asymptotes. The key to finding horizontal and
vertical asymptotes is to find values that cause division by zero.
Chapter 8 163
VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES
For easy reference, here are the examples of Section 8.2.
4
Example 8.1: y D
x
x 3x 2x 4
Example 8.2: y D
x C 2x 4
x
Example 8.3: y D
x1
Px
Solve the equation for y D , where the fraction is reduced. If
Dx
r is a value for which Dr D 0, then x D r is a vertical asymptote.
In Example 8.1 of Section 8.2, there is a vertical asymptote at x D 0,
and in Example 8.2 of Section 8.2, there are vertical asymptotes at
x D 2. The value x D 4 is a deleted point and not an asymptote. In
Example 8.3, the vertical asymptote has equation x D 1.
HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES
Qy
Solve the equation for x D if possible. If r is a value for which
Sy
Sr D 0, then y D r is a horizontal asymptote. In Example 8.1 of
Section 8.2, it is easy to solve for x to find a horizontal asymptote x D 0.
Sometimes it is not convenient (or possible) to solve an equation for
x, as you can see by looking at Examples 8.2 and 8.3 of Section 8.2.
Using calculus, one can show that if
Px
yD
Dx
OBLIQUE ASYMPTOTES
Notice that we included oblique (slanted) asymptotes in the box. A
curve will have an oblique asymptote whenever the degree of the
numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator. Once
again, consider Example 8.2 of Section 8.2:
x 2 5x C 6
yD , x 6D 4
xC2
164 Chapter 8
y D mx C b is an oblique asymptote if M D N C 1
6x 2 x 1
yD
4x 2 4x C 1
Chapter 8 165
6x 2 x 1
yD
4x 2 4x C 1
3x C 12x 1
D
2x 12
3x C 1
D
2x 1
1
Vertical asymptote: can be found when 2x 1 D 0; x D 2 is the
equation of a vertical asymptote.
Oblique asymptotes: do not exist for this curve, since the degree of
the numerator is not one more than the degree of the denominator.
3x 3 2x 2 4x C 6
yD
x2 3
Solution If you use long division
3x 2
2 3 2
x 33x 2x 4x C 6
3x 3 9x
2
2x C 5x C 6
2x 2 C6
5x
y D 3x 2
3x 3 2x 2 4x C 6
3x 2 D
x2 3
x 2 33x 2 D 3x 3 2x 2 4x C 6
0 D 5x
0Dx
The point where the curve crosses its asymptote is 0, 2.
8.4 Intercepts
The intercepts are the places where the curve crosses the coordinate
axes. When finding the intercepts, we are really plotting points on the
curve, but these are generally the easiest points to find.
x D 1; then 1y 2 D 2, so y D 4
5
x D 2; then 4y 2 D 2, so y D
2
Using the fact that x D 0 and y D 2 are asymptotes, we sketch
the part of the curve in the first quadrant, as shown in Figure 8.5(b).
By symmetry, we then sketch the rest of the curve, as shown in
Figure 8.6.
1 C y2
Sketch x 2 D .
1 y2
Solution
Symmetry: The curve is symmetric with respect to the x-axis, since
1 C y2
x2 D
1 y2
is the same as the original equation; the curve is also symmetric with
respect to the y-axis and the origin.
Extent: domain: Solve for y.
1 C y2
x2 D
1 y2
x2 x2 y 2 D 1 C y 2
x2 1 D y 2 C x2 y 2
x 2 1 D 1 C x 2 y 2
x2 1
y2 D
x2 C 1
x2 1
yDš
x2 C 1
We must now rule out values of x that cause division by zero, as well
as negative values under the square root radical. Solve
x2 1
½0
x2 C 1
x 1 or x ½ 1
1 y2 D 0
Chapter 8 169
FIGURE 8.7
1 C y2
½ 0, y 6D š1
1 y2
1 C y2
Figure 8.8 Graph of x 2 D
1 y2
170 Chapter 8
Asymptotes:
p vertical:
x2 1
y D šp No division by zero, so there are no vertical
x2 C 1
asymptotes.
horizontal:
1 C y2
x D š Division by zero when y D š1.
1 y2
Horizontal asymptotes are y D 1, y D 1; draw these as dashed lines
on the coordinate axes.
Plot points: Plot one or more relevant points, and make use of
the information you just obtained to sketch the curve, as shown in
Figure 8.8.
1. x2 y D 4
Symmetry: with respect to the y-axis
Domain: x 6D 0
Range: y > 0
Asymptotes: x D 0; y D 0
Intercepts: none
2. xy 2 y 2 1 D 0
Symmetry: with respect to the x-axis
Domain: x > 1
Range: y 6D 0
Asymptotes: x D 1; y D 0
Intercepts: none
3. x 2 y 4x C 2y D 0
Symmetry: with respect to the origin
Domain: all prealpnumbers
Range: 2, 2
Asymptotes: y D 0
Intercept: (0, 0)
Chapter 8 171
4. x 2 y 2 4xy 2 C 3y 2 4 D 0
Symmetry: with respect to the x-axis
Domain: 1, 1 [ 3, 1
Range: y 6D 0
Asymptotes: x D 1; x D 3; y D 0
2p 2p
Intercepts: 0, 3, 0, 3
3 3
Find the symmetry, extent, asymptotes, and intercepts for the curves
whose equations are given in problems 5–20.
5. xy D 2 6. xy D 6
xC1 xC1
7. yD 8. yD
x xC2
2x 2 C x 10 3x 2 C 5x 2
9. yD 10. yD
xC2 xC2
2x 3 3x 2 2x x 3 C 6x 2 C 15x C 14
11. yD 12. yD
2x C 1 xC2
2 2 2 2
13. 9x C 4y 36 D 0 14. 6x 2y C 10 D 0
15. 13x 2 10xy C 13y 2 72 D 0 16. y 2 x 2y 2 C 2 D 0
17. x 2 y 4xy C 3y 4 D 0 18. x 3 y 2 4y D 0
19. x 4 x 2 y 2 4x 2 C y 2 D 0 20. 2y 2 xy 2 C x 1 D 0
Graph the curves in Problems 21–36. Note that these curves are the
same curves that are given in Problems 5–20.
21. xy D 2 22. xy D 6
xC1 xC1
23. yD 24. yD
x xC2
2x 2 C x 10 3x 2 C 5x 2
25. yD 26. yD
xC2 xC2
2x 3x 2 2x
3
x C 6x 2 C 15x C 14
3
27. yD 28. yD
2x C 1 xC2
29. 9x 2 C 4y 2 36 D 0 30. 6x 2 2y 2 C 10 D 0
31. 13x 2 10xy C 13y 2 72 D 0 32. y 2 x 2y 2 C 2 D 0
33. x 2 y 4xy C 3y 4 D 0 34. x 3 y 2 4y D 0
35. x 4 x 2 y 2 4x 2 C y 2 D 0 36. 2y 2 xy 2 C x 1 D 0
18 1
37. Graph fx D 1 C 2x C . 38. Graph fx D 2 .
x x C3
x2 x 2 x3 C 1
39. Graph y D . 40. Graph y D 3 .
x3 x 8
CHAPTER 9
Catalog of Special Curves
Boldface curves are fundamental and are listed in Table 1.3 of the text.
For some of these curves, we give the area enclosed (A) and the are
length s. Rectangular curves can be translated to (h, k) by replacing x
by x 0 h and y by y 0 k. Polar-form curves can be rotated through
an angle ˛ by replacing D 0 ˛. The particular values for the
constants used for each graph are shown in parentheses.
Bifolium
y D ajxj a D 1
Archimedean spiral (see spiral of
Archimedes)
Arccosecant, arccosine, arccotan-
gent, arcsecant, arcsine, and arct-
angent functions (see inverse
functions) x 2 C y 2 2
D ax 2 y or
r D a sin cos2
Astroid a D 12
x3
yD a D 1
r D a1 cos a D 3 2a x
3
AD 2 a2 s D 8a This is a curve described by a
point P such that jOPj D jRSj.
This is the curve described by a The cissoid of Diocles is used in
point P of a circle of radius a as the problem of duplication of a
it rolls on the outside of a fixed cube (i.e., finding the side of a
circle of radius a. This curve is cube that is twice the volume of
also a special case of a limacon. a given cube).
Cassinian curves (see ovals of
Cassini) Cochleoid (or OuijaTM board
curve)
Catenary (see hyperbolic cosine)
Circle
ay y
tan D D a D 4
x C y2
2 x
x 2 C y 2 D r 2 r D 5 Conic section (see circle, ellipse,
A D r2 sD2 r hyperbola, and parabola)
174 Chapter 9
p
y D a3 x a D 1
y D a csc bx a D b D 1
Cubical parabola
Cosine function
y D ax 3 C bx 2 C cx C d
y D a cos bx a D b D 1
a D 1, b D 3, c D 1, d D 4
Cotangent function
Cubic function
y D a cot bx a D b D 1 y D ax 3 a D 1
Cycloid Ellipse
x D a b sin
y D a b cos a D b D 2 x2 y2
C D 1 a D 2, a D 3
1 a y a2 b2
x D a cos
a
a2 C b2
A D ab s³2
Ý 2ay y 2 2
Deltoid
x D a C b cos
aCb
b cos
x D 2a cos C a cos 2 b
y D 2a sin a sin 2
y D a C b sin
aCb
a D 2
b sin
b
a D 2, b D 1
1
n D x n1 ex dx n > 0
0
Hyperbola
y D eax a D 1
Folium of Descartes
x2 y 2
2 D 1 a D 2, b D 3
a2 b
x 3 C y 3 D 3axy a D 1
A D 32 a2
Chapter 9 177
y D csch x y D sech x
y D cosh x y D sinh x
y D coth x y D tanh x
178 Chapter 9
y D csc1 x
x D a b cos
Inverse cosine
ab
C b cos
b
y D a b sin
ab
b sin
b
Identity function
y D cot1 x
yDx
Chapter 9 179
y D sec1 x
Inverse sine
x D acos C sin
y D asin cos a D 1
y D sin1 x
Inverse tangent
x 2 Cy 2 2 D a2 x 2 y 2 a D 2
or r 2 D a2 cos 2
Limaçon of Pascal
y D tan1 x
r D b a cos a D 3, b D 2
180 Chapter 9
Lituus
b<k b D 2, k D 5
2 2 2 2
x C y C b 4b2 x 2 D k 2
r 2 D a2 a D 2 These curves are sections of a
torus on planes parallel to the
Logarithmix curve axis of the torus.
y D loga x a D 10
y D ax 2 a D 1
OuijaTM board curve (see cochleoid)
Probability curve
Ovals of Cassini
1 2
y D p ex /2
2
b>k b D 2, k D 1
Chapter 9 181
Secant function
by y D a sec bx a D b D 1
y D ax tan a D b D 1
2
a
yD a D 1
x y D ax 2/3 a D 1
Reciprocal-squared function
Serpentine curve
a
yD a D 1 a2 C x 2 y D abx a D b D 1
x2
182 Chapter 9
y D a sin bx a D b D 1 r D ea or ln r D a a D 1
Sinusoid curve (general sine func- Spiral, parabolic
tion) y D a sinbx C c
Spiral of Archimedes
2
r a D 4ak a D k D 1
r D a a D 1 Square-root function
Spiral, hyperbolic
p
yDa x a D 1
r D a a D 1
Chapter 9 183
Strophoid Tractrix
x D a b sin
y D a b cos a D b D 1
y D a tan bx a D b D 1 Two-leaved rose (see lemniscate)
a3
yD 2 2
a D 1
r D a cos 3 a D 4 x C a
x D a cot
or
y D a sin2
CHAPTER 10
Limit Formulas
The notation
lim fx D L
x!c
lim fx D L
x!c
184
Chapter 10 185
lim fx D C1
x!c
lim fx D 1
x!c
The notation
lim fx, y D L
x,y!x0 ,y0
continued
186 Chapter 10
lim fx, y D L
x,y!x0 ,y0
fx f0 x
lim D lim 0
x!c gx x!c g x
provided that the limit on the right side
exists.
TRIGONOMETRIC LIMITS
lim cos x D cos c lim sec x D sec c
x!c x!c
lim sin x D sin c lim csc x D csc c
x!c x!c
lim tan x D tan c lim cot x D cot c
x!c x!c
MISCELLANEOUS LIMITS
1 n
lim 1 C De lim 1 C n1/n D e
n!C1
n n!0
k n 1 nt
lim 1 C D ek lim p 1 C D pet
n!C1 n n!C1 n
lim n1/n D 1
n!C1
Da lim fx, y D aL
x,y!x0 ,y0
DLCM
Chapter 10 189
D LM
lim fx, y
f x,y!x0 ,y0 L
Quotient rule lim x, y D D
x,y!x0 ,y0 g lim gx, y M
x,y!x0 ,y0
if M 6D 0
Substitution rule
If f(x, y) is a polynomial or a rational function, limits may be found
by substituting for x and y (excluding values that cause division by
zero).
CHAPTER 11
Differentiation Formulas
p
Differentiate ft D t.
Solution
190
Chapter 11 191
DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVE
Rule Derivative
1. Constant-multiple rule cf0 D cf0
2. Sum rule f C g0 D f0 C g0
3. Difference rule f g0 D f0 g0
4. Linearity rule af C bg0 D af0 C bg0
5. Product rule fg0 D fg0 C f0 g
192 Chapter 11
0
f gf0 fg0
6. Quotient rule D
g g2
dy dy du
7. Chain rule D
dx du dx
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
d du d du
9. cos u D sin u 10. sin u D cos u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
11. tan u D sec2 u 12. cot u D csc2 u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
13. sec u D sec u tan u 14. csc u D csc u cot u
dx dx dx dx
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
d du d du
25. cosh u D sinh u 26. sinh u D cosh u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
27. tanh u D sech2 u 28. cothu D csch2 u
dx dx dx dx
d du
29. sech u D sech u tanh u
dx dx
d du
30. csch u D csch u coth u
dx dx
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
D C
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
and
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
D C
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
GRADIENT
Let f(x, y) have partial derivatives fx x, y and fy x, y. Then the
gradient of f, denoted by rf, is given by
n
I D lim fxkŁ xk
jPj!0
kD1
195
196 Chapter 12
INDEFINITE INTEGRAL
dy
If D fx, then y is the function whose derivative is
dx
f(x). y is called the antiderivative of f(x) or the indefinite
integral of f(x) and is denoted by
fx dx
DOUBLE INTEGRAL
TRIPLE INTEGRAL
Properties of integrals
Subdivision rules
If the region of integration, D, can be subdivided into two subregions
D1 and D2 , then
fx, y dA D fx, y dA C fx, y dA
D D1 D2
Trigonometric rules
5. sin u du D cos u 6. cos u du D sin u
7. tan u du D ln j cos uj 8. cot u du D ln j sin uj
9. sec u du D ln j sec u C tan uj 10. csc u du D
ln j csc u C cot uj
11. sec2 u du D tan u 12. csc2 u du D cot u
13. sec u tan u du D sec u 14. csc u cot u du D csc u
u3 du au C b3 3bau C b2
37. D
au C b 3a4 2a4
3b2 au C b b3
C 4 ln jau C bj
a4 a
du 1 u
38. D ln
uau C b b au C b
du 1 a au C b
39. D C 2 ln
u2 auC b bu b u
du 2au b a2 u
40. 3
D 2 2
C 3 ln
u au C b 2b u b au C b
du 1
41. 2
D
au C b aau C b
u du b 1
42. 2
D 2 C 2 ln jau C bj
au C b a au C b a
u2 du au C b b2 2b
43. 2
D 3
3
3 ln jau C bj
au C b a a au C b a
202 Chapter 12
u3 du au C b2 3bau C b
44. D
au C b2 2a4 a4
b3 3b2
C C ln jau C bj
a4 au C b a4
du 1 1 u
45. 2
D C 2 ln
uau C b bau C b b au C b
du a 1 2a au C b
46. 2 2
D 2 C 2 C 3 ln
u au C b b au C b b u b u
du au C b2 3aau C b
47. D C
u3 au C b2 2b4 u2 b4 u
a3 u 3a2 au C b
4
4
ln
b au C b b u
du 1
48. 3
D
au C b 2aau C b2
u du 1 b
49. 3
D 2 C 2
au C b a au C b 2a au C b2
u2 du 2b b2 1
50. 3
D 3
3 2
C 3 ln jau C bj
au C b a au C b 2a au C b a
u3 du u 3b2
51. D
au C b3 a3 a4 au C b
b3 3b
C 4 2
4 ln jau C bj
2a au C b a
du a2 u2 2au 1 au C b
52. 3
D 3 2
3 3 ln
uau C b 2b au C b b au C b b u
du a 2a
53. D 2 3
u2 au
C b 3 2b au C b 2 b au C b
1 3a au C b
C ln
b3 u b4 u
du a4 u2 4a3 u
54. D
u3 au C b3 2b5 au C b2 b5 au C b
au C b2 6a2 au C b
5 2
5 ln
2b u b u
Chapter 12 203
INTEGRALS INVOLVING u2 C a2
du 1 u
55. 2 2
D tan1
u Ca a a
u du 1
56. D lnu2 C a2
u2 C a2 2
2
u du u
57. 2 2
D u a tan1
u Ca a
u3 du u2 a2
58. D lnu2 C a2
u2 C a2 2 2
du 1 u2
59. D 2 ln 2
uu2 C a2 2a u C a2
du 1 1 u
60. 2 2 2
D 2 3 tan1
u u C a a u a a
du 1 1 u2
61. D 2 2 4 ln 2
u3 u2 C a2 2a u 2a u C a2
du u 1 u
62. 2 2 2
D 2 2 2
C 3 tan1
u C a 2a u C a 2a a
u du 1
63. D
u2 C a2 2 2u2 C a2
2
u du u 1 u
64. 2 2 2
D 2 2
C 3 tan1
u C a 2u C a 2a a
3 2
u du a 1
65. 2 2 2
D 2 2
C lnu2 C a2
u C a 2u C a 2
du 1 1 u2
66. D C ln
uu2 C a2 2 2a2 u2 C a2 2a4 u2 C a2
du 1 u 3 u
67. 2 2 2 2
D 4 4 2 2
5 tan1
u u C a a y 2a u C a 2a a
du 1 1
68. D
u3 u2 C a2 2 2a4 u2 2a4 u2 C a2
1 u2
6 ln 2
a u C a2
du u
69. 2 2
D
u C a n 2n 1a u2 C a2 n1
2
2n 3 du
C 2
2n 2a u C a2 n1
2
u du 1
70. 2 2
D
u C a n 2n 1u2 C a2 n1
204 Chapter 12
du 1
71. D
uu2
Ca 2 n 2n 1a u2 C a2 n1
2
1 du
C 2
a uu C a2 n1
2
m m2
u du u du 2 um2 du
72. D a
u 2 C a 2 n u2 C a2 n1 u2 C a2 n
du 1 du
73. 2 2
D 2
m
u u C a n a u u C a2 n1
m 2
1 du
2
a um2 u2 C a2 n
p
INTEGRALS INVOLVING au C b
p
du 2 au C b
135. p D
au C b a
u du 2au 2b p
136. p D au C b
au C b 3a2
u2 du 23a2 u2 4abu C 8b2 p
137. p D 3
au C b
au C b 15a
p p
1 au C b b
p ln p p
du b au C b C b
138. p D
u au C b
2 au C b
p tan 1
b b
p
du au C b a du
139. p D p
u2 au C b
bu 2b u au C b
p 3
2 au C b
140. au C b du D
p 3a
23au 2b
141. u au C b du D au C b3
15a2
p 215a2 u2 12abu C 8b2
142. u2 au C b du D 3
au C b3
105a
p p
au C b du
143. du D 2 au C b C b p
u u au C b
p p
au C b au C b a du
144. 2
du D C p
u u 2 u au C b
m m
p
u 2u au C b 2mb um1
145. p du D p du
au C b 2m C 1a 2m C 1a au C b
p
du au C b
146. p D
um au C b m 1bum1
2m 3a du
p
2m 2b u m1 au C b
Chapter 12 211
p 2um
147. um au C b du D au C b3/2
2m C 3a
p
2mb
um1 au C b du
2m C 3a
p p
au C b au C b
148. m
du D
u m 1um1
a du
C p
2m 1 um1 au C b
p
au C b au C b3/2
149. du D
um m 1bum1
p
2m 5a au C b
du
2m 2b um1
2au C bmC2/2
150. au C bm/2 du D
am C 2
2au C bmC4/2 2bau C bmC2/2
151. uau C bm/2 du D
a2 m C 4 a2 m C 2
2au C bmC6/2 4bau C bmC4/2
152. u2 au C bm/2 du D
a3 m C 6 a3 m C 4
2b2 au C bmC2/2
C
a3 m C 2
au C bm/2 2au C bm/2 au C bm2/2
153. du D Cb du
u m u
au C bm/2 au C bmC2/2
154. du D
u2 bu
ma au C bm/2
C du
2b u
du 2
155. m/2
D
uau C b m 2bau C bm2/2
1 du
C
b uau C bm2/2
p
INTEGRALS INVOLVING au C b AND pu C q
pu C q 2apu C 3aq 2bp p
156. p du D au C b
au C b 3a2
212 Chapter 12
du
157. p
pu C q au C b
p p
1 pau C b bp aq
p ln p p
bp aqpp pau C b C bp aq
D
2 pau C b
p p tan1
aq bp p aq bp
p
au C b
158. du
pu C q
p p p p
2 au C b bp aq pau C b bp aq
C p ln p p
p p p pau C b C bp aq
D p p
2 au C b 2 aq bp pau C b
p tan1
p p p aq bp
p
n
p 2pu C qnC1 au C b
159. pu C q au C b du D
2n C 3p
bp aq pu C qn
C p du
2n C 3p au C b
du
160. p
pu C qn au C b
p
au C b
D
n 1aq bppu C qn1
2n 3a du
C p
2n 1aq bp pu C qn1 au C b
p
pu C qn 2pu C qn au C b
161. p du D
au C b 2n C 1a
2naq bp pu C qn1 du
C p
2n C 1a au C b
p p
au C b au C b
162. du D
pu C qn n 1ppu C qn1
a du
C p
2n 1p pu C q n1 au C b
Chapter 12 213
p p
INTEGRALS INVOLVING au C b AND pu C q
du
163. p
au C bpu C q
2 p p
pap ln j apu C q C pau C bj
D
2 pau C b
p tan1
ap apu C q
p
du au C bpu C q
164. p D
au C bpu C q ap
bp C aq du
p
2ap au C bpu C q
165. au C bpu C q du
2apu C bp C aq p
D au C bpu C q
4ap
bp aq2 du
p
8ap au C bpu C q
p
pu C q au C bpu C q
166. du D
au C b a
aq bp du
C p
2a au Cpbpu C q
du 2 au C b
167. p D p
pu C q au C bpu C q aq bp pu C q
p
INTEGRALS INVOLVING u2 C a2
p
2 2
u u2 C a2 a2
168. u C a du D C lnu C u2 C a2
2 2
2 2 3/2
u C a
169. u u2 C a2 du D
3
p
2 2 2
uu2 C a2 3/2 a2 u u2 C a2
170. u u C a du D
4 8
a4 p
lnu C u2 C a2
8
u2 C a2 5/2 a2 u2 C a2 3/2
171. u3 u2 C a2 du D
5 3
214 Chapter 12
du u
172. p D lnu C u2 C a2 or sinh1
2
u Ca 2 a
u du
173. p D u2 C a2
u2 C a2
p
u2 du u u2 C a2 a2
174. p D lnu C u2 C a2
u2 C a2 2 2
u3 du u2 C a2 3/2
175. p D a2 u2 C a2
u2 C a2 3
p
du 1 a C u2 C a2
176. p D ln
u u2 C a2 a u
p
du u2 C a2
177. p D
u2 u2 C a2 a2 u
p p
du u2 C a2 1 a C u2 C a2
178. p D C 3 ln
u3 u2 C a2 2a2 u2 2a u
p 2
p
u C a2 a C u2 C a2
179. du D u2 C a2 a ln
u u
p p
u2 C a2 u2 C a2
180. du D C lnu C u2 C a2
u2 u
p 2 p p
u C a2 u2 C a2 1 a C u2 C a2
181. du D ln
u3 2u2 2a u
du u
182. 2 2 3/2
D p
u C a a2 u2 C a2
u du 1
183. 2 2 3/2
Dp
u C a u2 C a2
u2 du u
184. D p C ln u C u2 C a2
u2 C a2 3/2 u2 C a2
u3 du 2 C a2 C p
a2
185. D u
u2 C a2 3/2 u2 C a2
p
du 1 1 a C u2 C a2
186. D p ln
uu2 C a2 3/2 a2 u2 C a2 a3 u
Chapter 12 215
p
du u2 C a2 u
187. 2 2 2 3/2
D 4
p
u u C a a u a u2 C a2
4
du 1 3
188. D p p
u3 u2 C a2 3/2 2a2 u2 u2 C a2 2a4 u2 C a2
p
3 a C u2 C a2
C 5 ln
2a u
p
2 2 3/2 uu2 C a2 3/2 3a2 u u2 C a2
189. u C a du D C
4 8
3 p
C a4 ln u C u2 C a2
8
u2 C a2 5/2
190. uu2 C a2 3/2 du D
5
uu2 C a2 5/2 a2 uu2 C a2 3/2
191. u2 u2 C a2 3/2 du D
6 24
p
a4 u u2 C a2
16
a6 p
ln u C u2 C a2
16
u C a2 7/2 a2 u2 C a2 5/2
2
192. u3 u2 C a2 3/2 du D
7 5
u2 C a2 3/2 u2 C a2 3/2 p
193. du D C a2 u2 C a2
u 3
p
3 a C u2 C a2
a ln
u
u2 C a2 3/2 u2 C a2 3/2
194. du D
u2 u
p
3u u2 C a2 3 2
C C a lnu2 C a2
2 2
u2 C a2 3/2 u2 C a2 3/2 3 p 2
195. du D C u C a2
u3 2u2 2
p
3 a C u2 C a2
a ln
2 u
216 Chapter 12
p
INTEGRALS INVOLVING u2 a2
du
196. p D ln u C u2 a2
u2 a2
u du
197. p D u2 a2
u2 a2
p
u2 du u u2 a2 a2
198. p D C ln u C u2 a2
u2 a2 2 2
u3 du u2 a2 3/2
199. p D C a2 u2 a2
u2 a2 3
du 1 u
200. p D sec1
u u2 a2 a a
p
du u a2
2
201. p D
u2 u2 a2 a2 u
p
du u2 a2 1 u
202. p D 2 2
C 3 sec1
3
u u a 2 2 2a u 2a a
p
2 2 2
u u a a
203. u2 a2 du D ln u C u2 a2
2 2
2 2 3/2
u a
204. u u2 a2 du D
3
p
2 2 2
uu2 a2 3/2 a2 u u2 a2
205. u u a du D C
4 8
a4 p
ln u C u2 a2
8
u2 a2 5/2 a2 u2 a2 3/2
206. u3 u2 a2 du D C
5 3
p
u2 a2 u
207. du D u2 a2 a sec1
u a
p
2 2
p
2 2
u a u a
208. 2
du D C ln u C u2 a2
u u
p
u2 a2 u2 a2 1 1 u
209. du D C sec
u3 2u2 2a a
du u
210. D p
u2 a2 3/2 a2 u2 a2
u du 1
211. D p
u2 a2 3/2 u2 a2
2
u du u
212. D p C ln u C u2 a2
u2 a2 3/2 u2 a2
Chapter 12 217
u3 du 2 a2 p
a2
213. D u
u2 a2 3/2 u2 a2
du 1 1 u
214. 2 2 3/2
D p 3 sec1
uu a 2 2
a pu a 2 a a
2 2
du u a u
215. 2 2 2 3/2
D 4
p
u u a a u a u2 a2
4
du 1 3
216. D p p
u3 u2 a2 3/2 2a2 u2 u2 a2 2a4 u2 a2
3 u
5
sec1
2a a
p
2 2 3/2 uu2 a2 3/2 3a2 u u2 a2
217. u a du D
4 8
3 p
C a4 ln u C u2 a2
8
u2 C a2 5/2
218. uu2 a2 3/2 du D
5
uu2 a2 5/2 a2 uu2 a2 3/2
219. u2 u2 a2 3/2 du D C
6 24
p
a4 u u2 a2
16
a 6
C ln u C u2 a2
16
u2 a2 7/2 a2 u2 a2 5/2
220. u3 u2 a2 3/2 du D C
7 5
u2 a2 3/2 u2 a2 3/2
221. du D a2 u2 a2
u 3
u
C a3 sec1
a
p
u2 a2 3/2 u2 a2 3/2 3u x 2 a2
222. du D C
u2 u 2
3
a2 ln u C u2 a2
2
218 Chapter 12
p
u2 a2 3/2 u2 a2 3/2 3 x 2 a2
223. du D C
u3 2u2 2
3 u
a sec1
2 a
p
INTEGRALS INVOLVING a2 u2
du u
224. p D sin1
2
a u 2 a
u du
225. p D a2 u2
a 2 u2
p
u2 du u a2 u2 a2 1 u
226. p D C sin
a2 u2 2 2 a
u3 du a2 u2 3/2
227. p D a2 a2 u2
a2 u2 3
p
du 1 a C a2 u2 1 u
228. p D ln or sech1
u a u2 2 a u a a
p
2 2
du a u
229. p D 2
pa u
2
u a u 2 2
p
du a2 u2 1 a C a2 u2
230. p D 3 ln
u3 a2 u2 2a2 u2 2a u
p
2 2 2
u a u a u
231. a2 u2 du D C sin1
2 2 a
2 2 3/2
a u
232. u a2 u2 du D
3
2 2 3/2 2
p
2 ua u a u a2 u2
233. u a2 u2 du D C
4 8
a4 1 u
C sin
8 a
a2 u2 5/2 a2 a2 u2 3/2
234. u3 a2 u2 du D
5 p3
p
2 2
a u a C a2 u2
235. du D a2 u2 a ln
u u
p 2 p
a u2 a2 u2 u
236. 2
du D sin1
u p u a
p 2 p
a u2 a2 u2 1 a C a2 u2
237. du D C ln
u3 2u2 2a u
Chapter 12 219
du u
238. D p
a2u 2 3/2
a a2 u2
2
u du 1
239. 2 2 3/2
Dp
a u a2 u2
2
u du u u
240. 2 2 3/2
Dp sin1
a u 2
a u 2 a
3 2
u du a
241. 2 2 3/2
D a2 u2 C p
a u a u2
2
p
du 1 1 a C a2 u2
242. D p ln
ua2 u2 3/2 a2 a2 u2 a3 u
p
du a2 u2 u
243. 2 2 2 3/2
D 4
C p
u a u a u a a2 u2
4
du 1 3
244. D p C p
u3 a2 u2 3/2 2 2
2a u a u 2 2 2a a2 u2
4
p
3 a C a2 u2
5 ln
2a u
p
2 2 3/2 ua2 u2 3/2 3a2 u a2 u2
245. a u du D C
4 8
3 u
C a4 sin1
8 a
a2 u2 5/2
246. ua2 u2 3/2 du D
5
ua2 u2 5/2 a2 ua2 u2 3/2
247. u2 a2 u2 3/2 du D C
6 24
p
a4 u a2 u2 a6 u
C C sin1
16 16 a
a2 u2 7/2 a2 a2 u2 5/2
248. u3 a2 u2 3/2 du D
7 5
a2 u2 3/2 a2 u2 3/2
249. du D C a2 a2 u2
u 3
p
3 a C a2 u2
a ln
u
220 Chapter 12
p
a2 u2 3/2 a2 u2 3/2 3u a2 x 2
250. du D
u2 u 2
3 u
a2 sin1
2 a
p
a2 u2 3/2 a2 u2 3/2 3 a2 x 2
251. du D
u3 2u2 2
p
3 a C a2 u2
C a ln
2 u
p
INTEGRALS INVOLVING au2 C bu C c
252. au2 C bu C c du
p
2au C b au2 C bu C c 4ac b2 du
D C p
4a 8a 2
au C bu C c
253. 2
u au C bu C c du
du 22au C b
264. D p
au2
C bu C c 3/2
4ac b2 au2 C bu C c
u du 2bu C 2c
265. 2 3/2
D p
au C bu C c b 4ac au2 C bu C c
2
u2 du 2b2 4ac u C 2bc
266. D p
au2 C bu C c3/2 a4ac b2 au2 C bu C c
1 du
C p
a au2 C bu C c
du
267.
uau2 C bu C c3/2
1 1 du
D p C p
c au C bu C c c
2 2
u au C bu C c
b du
2c au2 C bu C c3/2
du
268. D
u au C bu C c3/2
2 2
au2 C 2bu C c b2 2ac du
p C
c2 u au2 C bu C c 2c2 au2 C bu C c3/2
3b du
2 p
2c 2
u au C bu C c
du
269. 2
D
au C bu C cnC1/2
22au C b
2n 14ac b2 au2 C bu C cn1/2
8an 1 du
C 2 2
2n 14ac b au C bu C cn1/2
Chapter 12 223
du 1
270. D
uau2 C bu C c nC1/2 2
2n 1cau C bu C cn1/2
1 du
C 2
c uau C bu C cn1/2
b du
2
2c au C bu C cnC1/2
INTEGRALS INVOLVING u3 C a3
du 1 u C a2 1 2u a
271. 3 3
D 2
ln 2 2
C p tan1 p
u Ca 6a u au C a 2
a 3 a 3
u du 1 u2 au C a2 1 2u a
272. 3 3
D ln 2
C p tan1 p
u Ca 6a u C a a 3 a 3
2
u du 1
273. 3 3
D ln ju3 C a3 j
u Ca 3
du 1 u3
274. D ln
uu3 C a3 3a3 u3 C a3
du 1 1 u2 au C a2
275. D ln
u2 u3 C a3 a3 u 6a4 u C a2
1 2u a
p tan1 p
a4 3 a 3
du u 1 u C a2
276. D C ln
u3 C a3 2 3a3 u3 C a3 9a5 u2 au C a2
2 2u a
C p tan1 p
3a5 3 a 3
u du u2 1 u2 au C a2
277. D C ln
u3 C a3 2 3a3 u3 C a3 18a4 u C a2
1 2u a
C p tan1 p
3a4 3 a 3
u2 du 1
278. 3 3 2
D 3
u C a 3u C a3
du 1 1 u3
279. D C ln
uu3 C a3 2 3a3 u3 C a3 3a6 u3 C a3
224 Chapter 12
du 1 u2 4 u du
280. D
u2 u3 C a3 2 a6 u 3a6 u3 C a3 3a6 u3 C a3
um du um2 3 um3 du
281. D a
u3 C a3 m2 u3 C a3
du 1 1 du
282. 3 3
D 3 3
n
u u C a a n 1u n1 a u u3 C a3
n3
INTEGRALS INVOLVING u4 š a4
p
du 1 u2 C ax 2 C a2
283. D p ln p
u4 C a4 4a3 2 u2 au 2 C a2
p
1 1 au 2
p tan
2a3 2 u2 a2
2
u du 1 1 u
284. D tan
u4 C a4 2a2 a2
p
u2 du 1 u2 ax 2 C a2
285. D p ln p
u4 C a4 4a 2 u2 C au 2 C a2
p
1 1 au 2
p tan
2a 2 u2 a2
3
u du 1
286. 4 4
D lnu4 C a4
u Ca 4
du 1 u4
287. D 4 ln 4
uu4 C a4 4a u C a4
p
du 1 1 u2 ax 2 C a2
288. D 4 p ln p
u2 u4 C a4 a u 4a5 2 u2 C au 2 C a2
p
1 1 au 2
C p tan
2a5 2 u2 a2
2
du 1 1 1 u
289. D tan
u3 u4 C a4 2a4 u2 2a6 a2
du 1 ua 1 u
290. D 3 ln 3 tan1
u4 a 4 4a uCa 2a a
u du 1 u2 a2
291. D ln
u4 a4 4a2 u2 C a2
Chapter 12 225
u2 du 1 ua 1 1 u
292. D ln C tan
u4 a4 4a uCa 2a a
3
u du 1
293. D ln ju4 a4 j
u4 a4 4
du 1 u4 a4
294. D ln
uu4 a4 4a4 u4
du 1 1 ua 1 u
295. 2 4 4
D 4 C 5 ln C 5 tan1
u u a a u 4a uCa 2a a
du 1 1 u2 a2
296. D C ln
u3 u4 a4 2a4 u2 4a6 u2 C a2
INTEGRALS INVOLVING un š an
du 1 un
297. D ln
uun an nan un C an
n1
u du 1
298. n n
D ln jun C an j
u Ca n
um du umn du n umn du
299. D a
un C an r un C an r1 un C an r
du 1 du
300. m n n r
D n
u u C a a u u C an r1
m n
1 du
n mn
a u un C an r
p n p
du 1 u C an an
301. p D p n ln p n p
u un C an n a u C an C an
du 1 un an
302. D ln
uun an nan un
n1
u du 1
303. n n
D ln jun C an j
u Ca n
um du n umn du umn du
304. D a C
un C an r un C an r un C an r1
du 1 du
305. D
um un an r an umn un an r
1 du
n
a u u an r1
m n
226 Chapter 12
du 2 an
306. p n D p n cos1
u u a n n a un
up1 du
307.
u2m C a2m
m
1 2k 1p u C a cos[2k 1 /2m]
D sin tan1
ma2mp kD0
2m a sin[2k 2 /2m]
1 m
2k 1p 2k 1
2mp
cos ln u2 C 2au cos C a2
2ma kD0
2m 2m
up1 du
308.
u2m a2m
m1
1 kp 2 k 2
D cos u 2au cos Ca
2ma2mp kD1 m m
m1
1 kp u a cosk /m
sin tan1
ma2mp kD1
m a sink /m
up1 du
309.
u2mC1 C a2mC1
m
21p1 2kp 1 u C a cos[2k /2m C 1]
D sin tan
2m C 1a2mpC1 kD1 2m C 1 a sin[2k /2m C 1]
1p1 m
2kp 2k
2mpC1
cos ln u2 C 2au cos C a2
2m C 1a kD1
2m C 1 2m C 1
1p1 ln ju C aj
C
2m C 1a2mpC1
where 0 < p 2m C 1
Chapter 12 227
up1 du
310.
u2mC1 C a2mC1
m
2 2kp 1 u a cos[2k /2m C 1]
D sin tan
2m C 1a2mpC1 kD1 2m C 1 a sin[2k /2m C 1]
1 m
2kp 2k
C 2mpC1
cos ln u2 2au cos C a2
2m C 1a kD1
2m C 1 2m C 1
ln ju aj
C where 0 < p 2m C 1
2m C 1a2mpC1
un sin au nun1
316. un cos au du D C cos au
a a2
nn 1
un2 cos au du
a2
u sin 2au
317. cos2 au du D C
2 4a
u2 u sin 2au cos 2au
318. u cos2 au du D C C
4 4a 8a2
sin au sin3 au
319. cos3 au du D
a 3a
3u sin 2au sin 4au
320. cos4 au du D C C
8 4a 32a
228 Chapter 12
cosn1 au sin au n 1
321. cosn au du D C cosn2 au du
an n
cos au au2 au4 au6
322. du D ln juj C C ÐÐÐ
u 2 Ð 2! 4 Ð 4! 6 Ð 6!
cos au cos au sin au
323. 2
du D a du
u u u
cos au cos au a sin au
324. n
du D n1
du
u n 1u n1 un1
du 1 1 au
325. D ln j sec au C tan auj D ln tan C
cos au a a 4 2
u du 1 au2 au4 5au6
326. D 2 C C C ÐÐÐ
cos au a 2 8 144
En au2nC2
C C ÐÐÐ
2n C 22n!
du tan au
327. 2
D
cos au a
du sin au 1 au
328. 3
D C ln tan C
cos au 2a cos2 au 2a 4 2
du sin au n2 du
329. n
D n1
C n2
cos au an 1 cos au n 1 cos au
u du u sin au
330. D
cosn au an 1 cosn1 au
1
a2 n
1n 2 cosn2 au
n2 u du
C
n1 cosn2 au
sina bu sina C bu
331. cos au cos bu du D C
2a b 2a C b
du 1 au
332. D cot
1 cos au a 2
u du u au 2 au
333. D cot C 2 ln sin
1 cos au a 2 a 2
du 1 au
334. D tan
1 C cos au a 2
u du u au 2 au
335. D tan C 2 ln cos
1 C cos au a 2 a 2
du 1 au 1 au
336. 2
D cot cot3
1 cos au 2a 2 6a 2
Chapter 12 229
du 1 au 1 au
337. 2
D tan C tan3
1 C cos au 2a 2 6a 2
du
338.
p C q cos au
2 p 1
tan1 p q/p C q tan au
a p q 2
2 2
1 p
D tan au C q C p/q p
1 2
ln
a q 2 p2 1 p
tan au q C p/q p
2
du q sin au
339. 2
D
p C q cos au aq p2 p C q cos au
2
p du
2
q p2 p C q cos au
du 1 p tan au
340. D tan1
p2 2 2
C q cos au 2
ap p C q 2 p2 C q 2
du
341.
p2 q2 cos2 au
1 p tan au
tan1
ap p2 q2 p2 q2
D
1 p tan au q2 p2
ln
2ap q2 p2 p tan au C q2 p2
sinm au
400. du
cosn au
sinm1 au m1 sinm2 au
du
an 1 cosn1 au n1 cosn2 au
sinmC1 au mnC2 sinm au
D du
an 1 cosn1 au n1 cosn2 au
sinm1 au m1 sinm2 au
C du
am n cosn1 au n1 cosn au
cosm au
401. du
sinn au
cosm1 au m1 cosm2 au
du
an 1 sinn1
au n1 sin n2
au
cosmC1 au mnC2 cosm au
D du
an 1 sinn1 au n1 sinn2 au
cosm1 au m1 cosm2 au
C du
am n sinn1 au n1 sinn au
du
402. m D
sin au cosn au
1 mCn2 du
an 1 sinm1 au cosn1 au n 1 m
sin au cosn2 au
1 mCn2 du
C
m1 m2
am 1 sin au cosn1 au m1 sin au cosn au
Chapter 12 235
cot au 1 au au3
422. du D ÐÐÐ
u au 3 135
22n Bn au2n1
ÐÐÐ
2n 12n!
u cot au 1 u2
423. u cot2 au du D C 2 ln j sin auj
a a 2
du pu
424. D 2
p C q cot au p C q2
q
ln jp sin au C q cos auj
ap C q2
2
236 Chapter 12
sin1 u/a u u/a3 1 Ð 3u/a5
454. du D C C
u a 2Ð3Ð3 2Ð4Ð5Ð5
1 Ð 3 Ð 5u/a7
C C ÐÐÐ
2Ð4Ð6Ð7Ð7
p
sin1 u/a sin1 u/a 1 a C a2 u2
455. du D ln
u2 u a u
u 2 u 2 u
456. sin1 du D u sin1 2u C 2 a2 u2 sin1
a a a
u u a
457. tan1 du D u tan1 lnu2 C a2
a a 2
u 1 u au
458. u tan1 du D u2 C a2 tan1
a 2 a 2
u u3 u au2 a3
459. u2 tan1 du D tan1 C lnu2 C a2
a 3 a 6 6
tan1 u/a u u/a3 u/a5 u/a7
460. du D C C ÐÐÐ
u a 32 52 72
2
tan1 u/a 1 1 u 1 u C a2
461. du D tan ln
u u a 2a u2
u u a
462. cot1 du D u cot1 C lnu2 C a2
a a 2
u 1 u au
463. u cot1 du D u2 C a2 cot1 C
a 2 a 2
3 2
u u u au a3
464. u2 cot1 du D cot1 C lnu2 C a2
a 3 a 6 6
cot1 u/a tan1 u/a
465. du D ln juj du
u 2 u
2
cot1 u/a cot1 u/a 1 u C a2
466. du D C ln
u2 u 2a u2
Chapter 12 239
p
1 u
u sec a ln ju C u2 a2 j,
a
u
0 < sec1 <
u a 2
467. sec1 du D p
a
u
u sec1 C a ln ju C u2 a2 j,
a
u
< sec1 <
2 a
2 p
u u a u2 a2
sec1 ,
2 a 2
u
0 < sec1 <
u a 2
468. u sec1 du D p
a
u2 a u2 a2
1 u
sec C ,
2 a 2
u
< sec1 <
2 a
u
469. u2 sec1 du D
a
3 p
u 1 u au u2 a2 a3 p
sec ln ju C u2 a2 j,
3 a 6 6
u
0 < sec1 <
a 2
p
u 3
u au u2 a2 a 3 p
sec1 C C ln ju C u2 a2 j,
3 a 6 6
u
< sec1 <
2 a
sec1 u/a a u/a3 1 Ð 3u/a5
470. du D ln juj C C C
u a u 2Ð3Ð3 2Ð4Ð5Ð5
1 Ð 3 Ð 5u/a7
C C ÐÐÐ
2Ð4Ð6Ð7Ð7
1
p
sec u/a u2 a2
C ,
u au
u
1
0 < sec1 <
sec u/a a 2
471. du D p
u
1 2 2
sec u/a u a
,
u au
u
< sec1 <
2 a
240 Chapter 12
p
1 u
u csc C a ln ju C u2 a2 j,
a
u
0 < csc1 <
u a 2
472. csc1 du D u p
a
1
u csc a C a ln ju C u a j,
2 2
u
< csc1 < 0
2p a
2 2 a2
u u a u
csc1 C ,
2 a 2
u
u 0 < csc1 <
473. u csc1 du D p a 2
a
u 2
u a u a 2 2
csc1
,
2 a 2
u
< csc1 < 0
2 a
u
474. u2 csc1 du D
a
3 p
u u au u2 a2 a3 p
csc
1
ln ju C u2 a2 j,
3 a 6 6
u
0 < csc1 <
p a 2
u 3
u au u a2 2 a 3 p
csc1 C ln ju C u2 a2 j,
C
3 a 6 6
u
< csc1 < 0
2 a
csc1 u/a a a/u3 1 Ð 3a/u5
475. du D C C
u u 2Ð3Ð3 2Ð4Ð5Ð5
1 Ð 3 Ð 5a/u7
C C ÐÐÐ
2Ð4Ð6Ð7Ð7
u p
csc1
a u2 a2
,
u au
u
csc1 u
0 < csc1 <
a du D a 2
476.
u 2
u p
csc1 u2 a2
a
C ,
u au
u
< csc1 < 0
2 a
Chapter 12 241
u unC1 u 1 unC1
477. un sin1 du D sin1 p du
a nC1 a nC1 a2 u2
n 1 u unC1 u 1 unC1
478. u cos du D cos1 C p du
a nC1 a nC1 a2 u2
n 1 u unC1 u a unC1
479. u tan du D tan1 du
a nC1 a nC1 u2 C a2
n u1 unC1 1 u a unC1
480. u cot du D cot du
a nC1 a nC1 u2 C a2
nC1
u sec1 u/a a un du
p ,
nC1 nC1 u2 a2
u
0 < sec1 <
u a 2
481. un sec1 du D
a
unC1 sec1 u/a un du
a
C p ,
nC1 nC1 u2 a2
u
< sec1 <
2 a
nC1 1 n
u csc u/a a u du
p
nC1 nC1 u2 a2
u
u 0 < csc1 <
482. un csc1 du D a 2
a
u nC1
csc 1
u/a a u n
du
p
nC1 nC1 u2 a2
u
< csc1 < 0
2 a
u2 1
502. u ln juj du D ln juj
2 2
mC1
m u 1
503. u ln juj du D ln juj
mC1 mC1
ln juj 1
504. du D ln2 juj
u 2
ln juj ln juj 1
505. du D
u2 u u
ln jujn du ln jujnC1
506. D
u nC1
du
507. D ln jln jujj
u ln juj
du ln juj2 ln juj3
508. D ln jln jujj C ln juj C C C ÐÐÐ
ln juj 2 Ð 2! 3 Ð 3!
m
u du m C 12 ln juj2
509. ln jln jujj C m C 1 ln juj C
ln juj 2 Ð 2!
m C 13 ln juj3
C C ÐÐÐ
3 Ð 3!
umC1 ln jujn n
510. um ln jujn du D um ln jujn1 du
mC1 mC1
u
511. lnu2 C a2 du D u lnu2 C a2 2u C 2a tan1
a
244 Chapter 12
uCa
512. ln u2 a2 du D u ln u2 a2 2u C a ln
ua
umC1 ln u2 š a2 2
513. um ln u2 š a2 du D
mC1 mC1
umC2
du
u2 š a2
du q sinh au p
534. 2
D 2
p C q cosh au aq p p C q cosh au q p2
2 2
du
p C q cosh au
du
535. D
p2 q2 cosh2 au
1 p tanh au C p2 q2
2app2 q2 ln p tanh au p2 q2
1 p tanh au
tan1
2
ap q p 2 q 2 p2
du
536. D
p2 C q2 cosh2 au
1 p tanh au C p2 C q2
ln
2ap p2 C q2 p tan au C q2 p2
1 p tanh au
tan1
ap p2 C q2 p2 C q 2
246 Chapter 12
m um sinh au m
537. u cosh au du D um1 sinh au du
a a
coshn1 au sinh au
538. coshn au du D
an
n1
C coshn2 au du
n
cosh au cosh au a sinh au
539. n
du D n1
C du
u n 1u n1 un1
du sinh au n2 du
540. n D n1
C
cosh au an 1 cosh au n 1 coshn2 au
u du
541.
coshn au
u sinh au 1
D n1
C
an 1 cosh au n 1n 2a2 coshn2 au
n2 u du
C
n1 coshn2 au
sinh2 au
564. sinh au cosh au du D
2a
coshp C qu coshp qu
565. sinh pu cosh qu du D C
2p C q 2p q
sinhnC1 au
566. sinhn au cosh au du D
n C 1a
coshnC1 au
567. coshn au sinh au du D
n C 1a
sinh 4au u
568. sinh2 au cosh2 au du D
32a 8
du 1
569. D ln j tanh auj
sinh au cosh au a
du 1 cosh au
570. 2
D tan1 sinh au
sinh au cosh au a a
du sech 1 au
571. 2
D C ln tanh
sinh au cosh au a a 2
du 2 coth 2au
572. 2 2
D
sinh au cosh au a
2
sinh au sinh au 1 1
573. du D tan sinh au
cosh au a a
cosh2 au cosh au 1 au
574. du D C ln tanh
sinh au a a 2
du 1 1 C sinh au 1
575. D ln C tan1 eau
cosh au1 C sinh au 2a cosh au a
Chapter 12 249
du 1 au 1
576. D ln tanh C
sinh aucosh au C 1 2a 2 2acosh au C 1
du 1 au 1
577. D ln tanh
cosh au1 C sinh au 2a 2 2acosh au 1
a 4a u/a2 1 Ð 3u/a4
1
ln ln ÐÐÐ,
2
u u 2Ð2Ð2 2Ð4Ð4Ð4
sech1 u/a > 0
D
a 4a u/a2 1 Ð 3u/a4
1
ln ln C C ÐÐÐ,
2
u u 2Ð2Ð2 2Ð4Ð4Ð4
sech1 u/a < 0
Chapter 12 255
u u u
643. csch1 du D u csch1 š a sinh1
a a a
[‘‘ C ’’ p
if u > 0, ‘‘ ’’ if u < 0]
2
u u u a u2 C a2
644. u csch1 du D csch1 š
a 2 a 2
[‘‘ C ’’ if u > 0, ‘‘ ’’ if u < 0]
1
csch u/a
645. du
u
a 4a 1u/a2 1 Ð 3u/a4
1
ln ln C C ÐÐÐ,
2 u u 2Ð2Ð2 2Ð4Ð4Ð4
0<u<a
1 u u u/a2 1 Ð 3u/a4
D 2 ln a ln 4a 2 Ð 2 Ð 2 C 2 Ð 4 Ð 4 Ð 4 Ð Ð Ð ,
a < u < 0
a/u3 1 Ð 3a/u5
a
C C ÐÐÐ,
u 2Ð3Ð3 2Ð4Ð5Ð5
juj > a
mC1 mC1
u u u 1 u
646. um sinh1 du D sinh1 p du
a mC1 a mC1 u2 C a2
u
647. um cosh1 du
a
mC1
u u 1 umC1
cosh 1
p du,
mC1 a mC1 u2 a2
cosh1 u/a > 0
D
u mC1
u 1 u mC1
cosh1 C p du,
m C 1 a m C 1 u 2 a2
cosh1 u/a < 0
u umC1 u a umC1
648. um tanh1 du D tanh1 du
a mC1 a mC1 a2 u2
m 1 u umC1 1 u a umC1
649. u coth du D coth du
a mC1 a mC1 a2 u2
u
650. um sech1 du
a
mC1
u u a um du
sech 1
C p ,
mC1
a mC1 a2 u2
sech1 u/a > 0
D
umC1 u a um du
sech1 p ,
mC1 a mC1 a2 u2
sech1 u/a < 0
256 Chapter 12
u umC1 u a um du
651. um csch1 du D csch1 š p ,
a mC1 a mC1 u2 C a2
[‘‘ C ’’ if u > 0, ‘‘ ’’ if u < 0]
x x B1 x 2 B2 x 4 B3 x 6
D 1 C C Ð Ð Ð jxj < 2
ex 1 2 2! 4! 6!
The Euler numbers E1 , E2 , E3 , . . . are defined by the series
E1 x 2 E 2 x 4 E 3 x 6
sec x D 1 C C C C Ð Ð Ð jxj <
2! 4! 6! 2
GAMMA FUNCTION
1
For n > 0, n D tn1 et dt; n C 1 D nn
0
For n D 0, 1, 2, . . . n C 1 D n!
n C 1
For n < 0 n D
n
Chapter 12 257
BETA FUNCTION
1
Bm, n D tm1 1 tn1 dt m > 0, n > 0
0
mn
Bm, n D
m C n
SUM/DIFFERENCE
b b b
3. ffx š gxg dx D fx dx š gx dx
a a a
CONSTANT
b b
4. cfx dx D c fx dx where c is any constant
a a
MEAN-VALUE THEOREM
b
6. fx dx D b afc where c is between a and b
a
IMPROPER INTEGRALS
1 b
7. fx dx D lim fx dx
b!1 a
a 1 c b
8. fx dx D lim fx dx C lim fx dx
1 a!1 a b!1 c
258 Chapter 12
b b&
9. fx dx D lim fx dx if b is a singular point
&!0 a
a b b
10. fx dx D lim
fx dx if a is a singular point
&!0 aC&
b a
b
11. fxgx dx D fc gx dx where c is between a and b
a a
Rectangular formula
b
12. fx dx ³ hy0 C y1 C y2 C Ð Ð Ð C yn1
a
Trapezoidal formula
b
h
13. fx dx ³ y0 C 2y1 C 2y2 C Ð Ð Ð C 2yn1 C yn
a 2
Simpson’s formula (or parabolic formula) for n even
b
h
14. fx dx ³ y0 C 4y1 C 2y2 C 4y3 C Ð Ð Ð
a 3
C 2yn2 C 4yn1 C yn
1
sin ax a
109. dx D tanh
0 sinh bx 2b 2b
1
cos ax a
110. dx D sech
0 cosh bx 2b 2b
1 2
x dx
111. D 2
0 sinh ax 4a
1
x n dx 2nC1 1 1 1 1
112. D n nC1 n C 1 nC1 C nC1 C nC1 CÐ Ð Ð
0 sinh bx 2 a 1 2 3
Chapter 12 265
1
sinh ax a 1
113. bx
dx D csc
0 e C1 2b b 2a
1
sinh ax 1 a
114. bx
dx D cot
0 e 1 2a 2b b
1. 1 C 2 C 3 C Ð Ð Ð C n D 12 nn C 1
2. 1 C 3 C 5 C Ð Ð Ð C 2n 1 D n2
nn C 12n C 1
3. 12 C 22 C 32 C Ð Ð Ð C n2 D
6
n n C 12
2
4. 13 C 23 C 33 C Ð Ð Ð C n3 D
4
D 1 C 2 C 3 C Ð Ð Ð C n2
nn C 12n C 13n2 C 3n 1
5. 14 C 24 C 34 C Ð Ð Ð C n4 D
30
n6 n5 5n4 n2
6. 15 C 25 C 35 C Ð Ð Ð C n5 D C C
6 2 12 12
7. 12 C 32 C 52 C Ð Ð Ð C 2n 12 D 13 n4n2 1
8. 13 C 33 C 53 C Ð Ð Ð C 2n 13 D n2 2n2 1
2nn C 12n C 1
9. 22 C 42 C 62 C 82 C Ð Ð Ð C 2n2 D
3
nn C 1n C 2
10. 1 Ð 2 C 2 Ð 3 C 3 Ð 4 C Ð Ð Ð C nn C 1 D
3
11. 1 Ð 2 Ð 3 C 2 Ð 3 Ð 4 C 3 Ð 4 Ð 5 C Ð Ð Ð C nn C 1n C 2
D 14 nn C 1n C 2n C 3
1 1 1 1
12. 1 C C Ð Ð Ð D ln 2
2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1
13. 1 C C ÐÐÐ D
3 5 7 9 4
1 1 1 1 1
14. C C C C ÐÐÐ D
1Ð3 3Ð5 5Ð7 7Ð9 2
1 1 1 1 3
15. C C C C ÐÐÐ D
1Ð3 2Ð4 3Ð5 4Ð6 4
266
Chapter 13 267
The value z, which may be different in the two forms, lies between
c and x. The result holds if f(x) has continuous derivatives of at least
order n.
lim Rn D 0, the infinite series obtained is called the Taylor
If n!1
Series for f(x) about x D a. If c D 0, the series is often called a
Maclaurin series. Both series, often called power series, generally
converge for all values of x in some interval called the interval of
convergence and diverge for all x outside this interval.
BINOMIAL SERIES
nn 1 n2 2
17. a C xn D an C nan1 x C a x
2!
nn 1n 2 n3 3
C a x C ÐÐÐ
3!
n n n1 n n2 2 n n3 3
Da C a xC a x C a x CÐ Ð Ð
1 2 3
18. a C x2 D a2 C 2ax C x 2
19. a C x3 D a3 C 3a2 x C 3ax 2 C x 3
20. a C x4 D a4 C 4a3 x C 6a2 x 2 C 4ax 3 C x 4
21. 1 C x1 D 1 x C x 2 x 3 C x 4 Ð Ð Ð 1 < x < 1
22. 1 C x2 D 1 2x C 3x 2 4x 3 C 5x 4 Ð Ð Ð 1 < x < 1
23. 1 C x3 D 1 3x C 6x 2 10x 3 C 15x 4 Ð Ð Ð 1 < x < 1
1 1Ð3 2 1Ð3Ð5 3
24. 1 C x1/2 D 1 x C x x C ÐÐÐ
2 2Ð4 2Ð4Ð6
1 < x 1
268 Chapter 13
1 1 2 1Ð3 3
25. 1 C x1/2 D 1 C x x C x ÐÐÐ
2 2Ð4 2Ð4Ð6
1 < x 1
1 1Ð4 2 1Ð4Ð7 3
26. 1 C x1/3 D 1 x x x C ÐÐÐ
3 3Ð6 3Ð6Ð9
1 < x 1
1 2 2 2Ð5 3
27. 1 C x1/3 D 1 C x x C x ÐÐÐ
3 3Ð6 3Ð6Ð9
1 < x 1
x 2 5x 4 61x 6 En x 2n
38. sec x D 1 C C C C ÐÐÐ C C ÐÐÐ jxj <
2 24 720 2n! 2
1 x 7x 3 31x 5
39. csc x D C C C C ÐÐÐ
x 6 360 15, 120
222n1 1Bn x 2n1
C C ÐÐÐ 0 < jxj <
2n!
1 x3 1 Ð 3 x5 1 Ð 3 Ð 5 x7
40. sin1 x D x C C C C ÐÐÐ jxj < 1
23 2Ð4 5 2Ð4Ð6 7
1 1 1 x3 1 Ð 3 x5
41. cos x D sin x D x C C C ÐÐÐ
2 2 2 3 2Ð4 5
jxj < 1
x 3
x 5
x 7
x C C ÐÐÐ, if x 2 < 1 or
3 5 7
1 1 1
42. tan1 x D C 3 5 C ÐÐÐ, if x ½ 1
2 x 3x 5x
1
1 1
C 3 5 C Ð Ð Ð , if x > 1
2 x 3x 5x
43. cot1 x D tan1 x
2
x3 x5
x C Ð Ð Ð , if x 2 < 1 or
2 3 5
D 1 1 1
p C 3 C 5 Ð Ð Ð , [p D 0 if x > 1,
x 3x 5x
p D 1 if x < 1]
1 1 1 1 1 1Ð3
44. sec x D cos D C C C ÐÐÐ
x 2 x 2 Ð 3x 3 2 Ð 4 Ð 5x 5
jxj > 1
1 1 1 1 Ð 3
45. csc1 x D sin1 D C C C ÐÐÐ jxj > 1
x x 2 Ð 3x 3 2 Ð 4 Ð 5x 5
1 x x3 2x 5
49. coth x D C C C ÐÐÐ
x 3 n1 45 2n 9452n1
1 2 Bn x
C C ÐÐÐ 0 < jxj <
2n!
x 2 5x 4 61x 6
50. sech x D 1 C C ÐÐÐ
2 n 24 2n 720
1 En x
C C ÐÐÐ jxj <
2n! 2
1 x 7x 3 31x 5
51. csch x D C C ÐÐÐ
x 6 360 15, 120
1n 222n1 1Bn x 2n1
C C ÐÐÐ 0 < jxj <
2n!
52. sinh1 x
x3 1 Ð 3x 5 1 Ð 3 Ð 5x 7
x C C Ð Ð Ð , jxj < 1 or
D 2 Ð 3 2 Ð 4 Ð 5 2 Ð 4 Ð 6 Ð 7
1 1Ð3 1Ð3Ð5
š ln j2xj C C ÐÐÐ
2 Ð 2x 2 2 Ð 4 Ð 4x 4 2 Ð 4 Ð 6 Ð 6x 6
‘‘ C ’’ if x ½ 1
‘‘ ’’ if x 1
1
53. cosh x
1 1Ð3 1Ð3Ð5
D š ln j2xj C C C ÐÐÐ
2 Ð 2x 2 2 Ð 4 Ð 4x 4 2 Ð 4 Ð 6 Ð 6x 6
‘‘ C ’’ if cosh1 x > 0, x ½ 1
‘‘ ’’ if cosh1 x < 0, x ½ 1
3 5 7
x x x
54. tanh1 x D x C C C C ÐÐÐ jxj < 1
3 5 7
1 1 1 1
55. coth1 x D C 3 C 5 C 7 C Ð Ð Ð jxj > 1
x 3x 5x 7x
MISCELLANEOUS SERIES
x2 x4 x5
56. esin x D 1 C x C C ÐÐÐ 1 < x < 1
2 8 15
cos x x 2 x 4 31x 6
57. e De 1 C C ÐÐÐ 1 < x < 1
2 6 720
x 2 x 3 3x 4
58. etan x D 1 C x C C C C ÐÐÐ jxj <
2 2 8 2
Chapter 13 271
2x 3 x5 x6
59. ex sin x D x C x 2 C C ÐÐÐ
3 30 90
2n/2 sinn/4x n
C C ÐÐÐ 1 < x < 1
n!
3 4
x x 2 cosn/4x n
n/2
60. ex cos x D 1 C x C ÐÐÐ C C ÐÐÐ
3 6 n!
1 < x < 1
2 4 6
x x x
61. ln j sin xj D ln jxj ÐÐÐ
6 180 2835
22n1 Bn x 2n
C ÐÐÐ 0 < jxj <
n2n!
x2 x4 x6 17x 8
62. ln j cos xj D ÐÐÐ
2 12 45 2520
22n1 22n 1Bn x 2n
C ÐÐÐ jxj <
n2n! 2
x 2 7x 4 62x 6
63. ln j tan xj D ln jxj C C C C ÐÐÐ
3 90 2835
22n 22n1 1Bn x 2n
C C ÐÐÐ 0 < jxj <
n2n! 2
ln j1 C xj
64. D x 1 C 12 x 2 C 1 C 12 C 13 x 3 Ð Ð Ð jxj < 1
1Cx
APPENDICES
A. Mathematical Symbols
š Plus or minus Ý Minus or plus
D Equal to 6D Not equal to
Identically equal to 6 Not identically equal to
ð Multiplication ł, / Division
> Greater than < Less than
½ Greater than or equal to Less than or equal to
' Congruent to ³ Approximately equal to
¾ Similar to ! Approaches
/ Varies (proportional to) ln Natural logarithm
? Perpendicular to jj Parallel to
p Square root p
n nth root
p
i Imaginary unit 1 1 Infinity
n!
n D
n Cr or r n Pr D n!/n r !
r!n r !
jaj Absolute value of a ÐÐÐ And so on
B. Greek Alphabet
A ˛ Alpha N Nu
B ˇ Beta Xi
Gamma O o Omicron
υ Delta Pi
E Epsilon P Rho
Z Zeta Sigma
H Eta T Tau
Theta ! Upsilon
I " Iota $ Phi
K % Kappa X & Chi
( Lambda Psi
M + Mu , ω Omega
272
Appendices 273
C. Answers
15. similar
1. a. jTIj D jAGj, jRIj D 16. similar
jNGj 17. 4
b. jRIj D jNGj 18. 6
c. 6 T ' 6 A 16
2. a. jCBj D jFEj, jABj D 19.
3
jDEj 40
b. jABj D jDEj 20.
7
c. 6 C ' 6 F 8
3. AB ' ED; AC ' EF; CB ' 21. 3
FD; 6 A ' 6 E; 6 B ' 10
6 D; 6 C ' 6 F
22.
0 0 0 0
9
4. GH ' G H ; GI ' G I ; HI ' 23. 24
p ft
0 0 24. 640 ³ 25ft
H I ; 6 G ' 6 G0 ; 6 H '
6 H0 ; 6 I ' 6 I0 25. 10
pft
5. RS ' TU; RT ' RT; ST ' 26. 2p2
UR; 6 SRT ' 6 UTR; 6 S ' 27. 3 2
6 U; 6 STR ' 6 URT 28. 29pft
6. WX ' YZ; WZ ' YX; XZ ' 29. 5p 13 ft; 18 ft; 55 ft
XZ; 6 W ' 6 Y; 6 WXZ ' 30. 3
6 YZX; 6 WZX ' 6 YXZ
20
31.
7. congruent, ASA 3
32. 260 ft
8. congruent, SAS (or 33. 125
possibly SSS) 34. 24 ft
9. congruent, SAS 35. 29 ft
10. congruent, ASA 36. 9.19 cm3
11. similar 37. 4 ft
12. not similar 38. 3 ft
13. not similar 32
14. similar 39.
3
13. a5 b8 c 7
1. 212 7. 23
14. b1 c3
2. 510 8. 213
15. a4 b8 c12
3. 56 9. 2
16. a10 b15 c10
4. 224 10. 23
17. a2 b2 c2
5. 33 11. 22
18. a2 b2 c 2
6. 33 12. 2
19. a4 b4 c4
274 Appendices
p
2 2 1 š 8y 47
x Cy 50.
20. 4
x2 y 2
3t C 2
x4 y 4 51. 2,
21. 4
x 2 C y 2 2
52. x D 3 š 4 y 2 2
22. a15/2 b10 c3
53. 1, 52 [ 1, 73
23. a1/2 b1/2 2a C 3b
24. a1/2 4a 3b 54. 23 , 32 [ 2, 1
25. a1/2 ba C b 55. 1, 0 [ 12 , 5
26. a1/2 b1/3 a C b2/3 56. 1, 32 [ 0, 2
27. x 12 3 x 14 57. 1,p1 p
28. 6u2u2 u 4 58. [1 7, 1 C 7]
29. 6x2x C 3 x C 1 59. 6
30. 10x4x C 5 2 2x C 1 60. 1
31. x C 1 2 2x C 3 61. 9
10x C 13 62. 7
32. 2xx 2 2 4 2x 2 C 1 3 63. 2
18x 2 11 64. 1
33. [7, 1 65. 3
34. 1, 36 66. 17i C 8j C 14k
35. [ 12 , 1 67. 1
36. 1, 2 68. 2
37. [1, 5] 69. 0
38. 8, 3] 70. 0
39. 73 , 1] 71. a4 C 4a3 b C 6a2 b2 C 4ab3 C
15 b4
40. , 4] 72. a3 C 6a2 b C 12ab2 C 8b3
2
41. f1, 6g 73. 27x 3 C 54x 2 y C 36xy 2 C 8y 3
42. f2, 3g 74. x 5 C 10x 4 y 40x 3 y 2 C
43. f0, 7 g
3 80x 2 y 3 80xy 4 C 32y 5
p
14 1 4y 6y 2 4y 3
44. 2
š 7 or š 75. C C 2 C C y4
7 x4 x3 x x
p 76. a5/2 C 10a2 b C 40a3/2 b2 C
5 š 73 80ab3 C 80a1/2 b4 C 32b5
45.
8 77. f1, 2, 2g
3
46. 78. f3, 3, 12 g
2 p 79. f2, 3, 3g
1 š 8w C 1
47. 80. f1, 2, 3g
4 81. f2, 2, 3g
p
w š w2 40 82. f2, 3, 12 g
48.
4 83. f3, 5, 12 g
84. f3g
1št
49. 85. f1, 1, 3, 6g
2
86. f2, 2, 3, 3g
Appendices 275
p p
87. f3, 5, 7g 90. f0, 1, 3, 1 2, 1 C 2g
88. f1, 2, 3, 4g 91. 2 sin $
89. f1, 1g
9. a. 1 15.
b. 0
c. 1
d. 0
e. 1
p
2
10. a.
2
p
2 16.
b.
2
p
2
c.
2
p
2
d.
2
e. 0
11. 1 17.
12.
18.
13.
19.
14.
Appendices 277
20. 21.
p p p p
6 2 2C 6
22. 24.
p 4p p 4p
6 2 2 6
23. 25.
4 4
26. sin 2x D sinx C x
D sin x cos x C cos x sin x
D 2 sin x cos x
n
since sin n D 0 and cos n D 1
51. 0.00, 1.05, 1.22, 1.92, 2.09, 3.14, 3.32, 4.01, 4.19, 5.24, 5.41,
6.11
52. 0.00, 1.05, 1.22, 1.92, 2.09, 3.14, 3.32, 4.01, 4.19, 5.24, 5.41,
6.11
29. 30.
31. 32.
33. 34.
35. 36.
37. 38.
Appendices 281
39. 40.
41. 42.
43.
y = cos x
r = cos θ
44.
y = sin x
r = sin θ
45.
y = tan x
r = tan θ
282 Appendices
46.
y = sec x
r = sec θ
47.
y = csc x
r = csc θ
48.
y = cot x
r = cot θ
r D cos C C 1
r D cos cos
sin C 1
So r D cos 1. The
graph shows that both
graphs are the same.
x 2 bx C y 2 ay D 0
b2 a2 a2 b2
x 2 bx C C y 2 ay C D C
4 4 4 4
b 2 a 2 a 2 C b 2
x C y D
2 2 4
We recognize this as a circle with center
p
b b a2 C b2
, and radius .
2 2 2
11. x 2 D 45 y 5 12. x 2 D 34 y 4
V0, 5 ; c D 1/5 V0, 4 ; c D 3/16
2
17. y 32 D 4 x 5
16 18. y C 5 2 D 4x C 3
5 3
V 16 , 2 ;c D 1 V3, 5 ; c D 1
2
21. x C 13 D 2 y 43 22. x C 1 2 D 23 y 16
3
V 13 , 43 ; c D 12 V 1, 163 ;c D 6
1
286 Appendices
23. 24.
5
3
25. y 2 D 10 x 2 26. x 2 D 6 y 2
2
27. y 2 D 16x C 1
2
28. x 4 D 12y C 1
2
29. x C 2 D 24y C 3
2
30. y 4 D 16x C 3
31. x C 3 2
D 13 y 2
32. y 2 2
D 36
7 x 4
33. y 2 D 12x 3 34. x 2 D 8y C 2
8 4
39. rD 40. rD
1 C cos 1 cos
4 3
41. rD 42. rD
1 sin 1 C cos
43. r sin2 D 4 cos 44. r cos2 D 2 sin
45. 4r 2 cos2 D r sin 3
2
46. r cos C 1 D 2r sin 3
47. (0, 0) 48. (0, 0)
49. tangent line: y C 2 D x 1 or
xCyC1D0
normal line: y C 2 D x 1 or
xy3D0
59. V(0, 0); F(c, 0) or y 2 D 4cx; Pc, y0 , so y02 D 4c2 , which implies
that y0 D š2c.
dD c c 2 C 2c 0 2 D 2c
61. y 2 D 4cx, x ½ 0 and c > 0. The distance from the vertex to P(x,
y) is
x c 2 C y 2 D d2
x c 2 C 4cx D d2
m1 D y 0 D 2c/y; at c, 2c , m1 D 1
x C c D x c
x D c
63. A D 4c2
x4 kx 2
x 2 2hx C h2 C C k 2 D R2
16c2 2c
x x1 x x2 x x3 x x4 D 0
2 2
x0 2 x0 2
y0 c D Cc
2c 4c
Problem Set 7
1. 2.
290 Appendices
3. 4.
5. 6.
7. 8.
9. 10.
Appendices 291
11. 12.
13. 14.
2 2 2 2
y 3 x 1 x C 1 y 1
15. D1 16. D1
4 9 4 1
292 Appendices
2 2 2 2
x C 1 y 1 x C 1 y 1
17. C D1 18. C D1
1/4 1 1 1/4
x 2 y 1 2
x 1 2
y2
19. C D1 20. C D1
4 9 9 4
x 2 y 5 2 y2 x2
21. C D1 22. C D1
4 9 16 7
x2 y 2 y 2 x2
23. C D1 24. D1
8 4 4 5
x2 y2
25. x2 y 2 D 1 26. D1
25 24
x2 y2 x2 y2
27. C D1 28. D1
16 9 9 16
x 2 2 y 1 2 x2 y2
29. C D1 30. C D1
9 25 36 35
y2 x2 x2 y C 3 2
31. D1 32. C D1
4 32 36 20
x 2 y C 3 2 x2 y2
33. D1 34. D1
9 7 9 81
Appendices 293
35. 36.
37. 38.
39. y 3 D 56 x C 2 or 5x 6y C 28 D 0
40. There are two cases.
2 2
x b y 3
C D1
9 b2
2 2
x a y 3
C D1
a2 9
p
41. Pš 3, 12
p
42. dD3 2
x 1 2 4y C 1 2
43. D1
4 81
2 2
x y
44. D1
81 81
x2 y 2
45. D1
4 1
294 Appendices
x x0 y y0
46. cosh t D and sinh t D
a b
Since cosh2 t sinh2 t D 1, we have
2 2
x x0 y y0
D1
a2 b2
provided that x ½ x0 C a, because cosh t ½ 1.
x x0 y y0
47. sinh t D and cosh t D
a b
Since cosh2 t sinh2 t D 1, we have
2 2
y y0 x x0
D1
b2 a2
provided that y ½ y0 C b, because cosh t ½ 1.
x2 y2
49. C D 1; The foci are 2c ³ 58.643 million miles apart.
502 40.52
50. 9.2 ð 107 mi and 9.5 ð 107 mi.
51. Let d1 be the distance that sound travels from the gun at A to
the person at P. Let d2 be the distance that sound travels from
the gong at B to the person at P. Let x be the distance that it
takes the bullet to reach the gong at B. Then d1 d2 D x, and
the person should stand on a branch of the hyperbola with foci
at A and B.
52. The airplane is located at the point (3.5387, ).
8
53. Let d1 be the distance from P(x, y) to F1 c, 0 and d2 be the
distance from P(x, y) to F2 c, 0 . By definition,
d1 C d2 D 2a
Appendices 295
d1 D 2a d2
d1 2 D 4a2 4ad2 C d2 2
x C c 2 C y 2 D 4a2 4ad2 C 4x c 2 C y 2
2cx D 4a2 4ad2 2cx
cx D a2 ad2
ad2 D a2 cx
a2 [x c 2 C y 2 ] D a4 2a2 cx C c2 x 2
a2 x 2 2a2 cx C a2 c2 C a2 y 2 D a4 2a2 cx C c2 x 2
a2 c2 x 2 C a2 y 2 D a2 a2 c2
b2 x 2 C a2 y 2 D a2 b2
x2 y 2
C 2 D1
a2 b
54. Let d1 be the distance from P(x, y) to F1 c, 0 and d2 be the
distance from P(x, y) to F2 c, 0 . By definition,
d1 d2 D 2a
d1 D 2a C d2
d1 2 D 4a2 C 4ad2 C d2 2
x C c 2 C y 2 D x c 2 C y 2 C 4a2 C 4ad2
2cx D 4a2 C 4ad2 2cx
cx D a2 C ad2
ad2 D a2 C cx
a2 [x c 2 C y 2 ] D a4 2a2 cx C c2 x 2
a2 x 2 2a2 cx C a2 c2 C a2 y 2 D a4 2a2 cx C c2 x 2
a2 c2 x 2 C a2 y 2 D a2 a2 c2
b2 x 2 C a2 y 2 D a2 b2
x2 y2
D1
a2 b2
55. a. A D C D 0
b. A and C have the same signs
296 Appendices
c. A D C
d. A and C have opposite signs
e. A > 0 and
D2 E2
C <F
4A 4C
or
A < 0 and
D2 E2
C >F
4A 4C
56. a.
x2 y 2
C 2 D1
a2 b
2x 2yy 0
C 2 D0
a2 b
b2 x
y0 D
a2 y
b 2 x0
m D y0 D
a 2 y0
b 2 x0
y y0 D x x0
a 2 y0
y 0 y y 0 2 x0 x x0 2
2 C 2 2 D0
b2 b a a
x0 x y 0 y x0 2 y 0 2
C D C 2
a2 b2 a2 b
x0 x y 0 y
C 2 D1
a2 b
(since P0 x0 , y0 lies on the ellipse).
b. At P0 ša, 0 ,
šax
D1
a2
or x D ša, a vertical tangent line.
Appendices 297
At P0 0, šb
šby
D1
b2
b
yDš x 2 a2
a
b
and from the asymptote y D š x. Let d be the vertical distance
a
between points on the hyperbola and points on the asymptote x.
Then
b
lim x 2 a2 x
x!1 a
p p
b x 2 a2 x x 2 a2 C x
D lim p x
x!1 a x 2 a2 C x
b x 2 a2 x 2
D lim p
x!1 a x 2 a2 C x
1
D ab lim p D0
x!1 x 2 a2 C x
1. 2.
298 Appendices
3. 4.
p p
y½ 5 or y 5.
p
Asymptotes: y pD š 3x p
Intercepts: 0, 5 , 0, 5 .
p
26
15. Symmetric with respect to the origin. Extent: domain,
p p p 2
26 26 26
x ; range, y .
2 2 2
6p 6p
Intercepts: 0, š 26 , š 26, 0 .
13 13
23. rational function y D 1/x, which has been translated to the point
(0, 1)
Appendices 301
24. rational function y D 1/x, which has been translated to the point
2, 1
x2 y 2
29. Recognize as an ellipse: C D 1.
4 9
y 2 x2
30. Recognize as a hyperbola: 5 D 1.
5 3
31. vertical ellipse with 45° rotation; if you carry through the
x 02 y 02
rotation, the equation is C D 1.
9 4
Appendices 303
37.
38.
39.
Appendices 305
40.
INDEX
A Arcsecant
function, 81
AAA, 90 graph, 84, 179
AAS, 91 Arcsine
Absolute value function, 51, 172, function, 81
272 graph, 84, 179
Addition laws, 86 Arctangent
Addition, matrices, 73 function, 81
Algebra, review of, 24 graph, 84, 179
Algebraic expression, 25 Area, 1
Algebraic functions, 50 cardioid, 173
Alpha ˛, 272 circle, 3, 4
Altitude, 1 cycloid, 175
Angle ellipse, 175
geometric, 80 equilateral triangle, 2
negative, 80 folium of Descartes, 176
polar, 97 parallelogram, 2
positive, 80 polygon, 3
standard position, 80 rectangle, 2
Angle-side-angle property (ASA), sector, 4
12 sector, 90
Answers, 273 segment, 4
Antiderivative, 151 square, 3
Approaches, 272 trapezoid, 2
Approximation formulas for triangle, 1, 89
definite integrals, 258 Arithmetic sequence, 33
Arc, 3 Arithmetic series, 33
Arccosecant Array, 65
function, 81 Astroid, 172
graph, 84, 179 Asymptotes, 162
Arccosine horizontal, 163
function, 81 oblique, 143, 163
graph, 84, 179 procedure for finding, 164
Arccotangent vertical, 163
function, 81 Axis:
graph, 84, 179 conjugate, 141
Archimedian spiral, 172 major, 136
Arc length, 6 minor, 136
cardioid, 173 principal, 120
circle, 173 semimajor, 136
cycloid, 175 semiminor, 136
ellipse, 175 transverse, 140
307
308 INDEX
B Cochleoid, 173
Cofunction identities, 86
Base 1, 32
Column, 47
e, 32
Column, 65
10, 32
Combination, 272
Bernoulli numbers, 256
Common factor, 26
Beta ˇ, 272
Completing the square, 39
Beta function, 256, 257
graphing ellipses, 140
Between relationship, 43
graphing hyperbolas, 143
Bifolium, 172
graphing parabolas, 123
Binomial series, 267
Complex numbers, 24
Binomial theorem, 28
Cone, 6
Box, 5
frustum, 6, 7
Congruent, 11
C properties of, 13
Cap (of a sphere), 7 triangle, 11
Cardioid, 105, 173 Conic section, 119
rotated, 107 polar form, 127
standard position, 106 Conjugate axis, 141
Cassinian curve, 173 length of, 142
Cassinian curve, 180 Constant formula for definite
Catalog of curves, 172 integrals, 257
Catenary, 177 Constant function, 50
Center: Constant multiple rule:
circle, 3, 4 for differentiation, 191
ellipse, 135 for integration, 197
hyperbola, 140 Constant rule:
Central angle, 1 for gradient, 194
Central rectangle, 142 for integration, 198
Chain rule for differentiation, 192 Corresponding angles, 13, 14
one independent variable, 193 Corresponding parts, 11
two independent variables, 193 Corresponding sides, 13
Chi , 272 Cosecant, 80
Chord, 3 derivative, 192
Circle, 3, 4 function, 80
circumscribed, 4 graph, 84, 174
graph of, 172 integral, 199
sector, 4 Cosine squared integration formula,
segment, 4 200
Circular cone, 6 Cosines, law of, 89
frustum, 6, 7 Cosine, 80
Circular cylinder, 6 derivative, 192
Circumference, 1, 6 function, 80
formula, 5 graph, 83, 174
Circumscribed circle, 4 integral, 199
Circumscribed polygon, 4 Cotangent, 80
Cissoid of Diocles, 173 derivative, 192
Closed interval, 42 function, 80
INDEX 309
O Pi , 272
Pivot element, 71
Oblate spheroid, 10 Pivot row, 69
Oblique asymptotes, 143, 163
Pivoting, 70
procedure for finding, 164
Planetary orbits, 154
Octagon, 1
Plus/minus, 272
Odd integer, 28
Point-slope form of a line, 51
Omega ω, 272
Polar angle, 97
Open equation, 34, 35
Polar axis, 97
Open interval, 42
Polar coordinate system, 97
Opposite of a definite integral
Polar-form points, 98
theorem, 257
Polar-form, 104, 97
Opposite-angle identities, 86
convert to rectangular form, 100
Order of operations, 25, 26
extended, 26 parabola, 127
Order, 65 Pole, 97
Origin, symmetry with respect to, Polygons, 1, 3
157, 158 circumscribed, 4
Ouija board curve, 180 classification of, 1
Oval of Cassini, 180 inscribed, 4
regular, 4
Polynomial functions, 50
P Polynomial, 25, 50
Parabola, 119, 180 Pontoon, 8
eccentricity, 145 Positive angle, 80
polar form, 127 Positive root, 28
reflectors, 128 Power function, 51
standard form equation, 121 Power rule, 192
translations, 122 for gradient, 194
Parabolic spiral, 182 for integration, 198
Paraboloid, 9, 10 for limits, 187
Parallel to, 272 Powers, 27
Parallelepiped, 5 Powers, 34
Parallelogram, 2 Principal axis, 120
Parameterize and ellipse, 138 Prismatoid, 8
Partial derivative, 191 Prism, 5
Pentagon, 1 Probability curve, 180
Perfect cube, 28 Product rule:
Perfect square, 28, 29 for differentiation, 191
Perimeter, 1 for gradient, 194
parallelogram, 2 for limits, 187
polygon, 3 for limits with two variables,
rectangle, 2 188
square, 2 Product-to-sum identities, 87
trapezoid, 2 Prolate cycloid, 181
triangle, 1 Prolate spheroid, 10
Permutation, 272 Proportional sides, 13
Petals, 111 Pseudo-vertices, 142
Phi , 272 Psi , 272
INDEX 315
R S
Radial coordinates, 97 Saddle surface, see hyperbolic
Radian, 80 paraboloid
Radical expression, 31 SAS, 12, 90
Radius, 3 Satisfy an equation, 35
Range, 161 polar form, 102
procedure for finding, 161 Scalar, 67
Ratio identities, 86 multiplication with matrices, 73
Rational expression, 25 Scalar rule:
Rational function, 51 for limits, 186
graphing, 167 for limits of two variables, 188
Rational inequality, 45 Secant function, 80
Rational numbers, 24 derivative, 192
Rational root theorem, 52 graph, 84, 181
Real numbers, 24 integral, 199
Reciprocal function, 181 Secant integration formula, 200
Reciprocal identities, 86 Secant of a circle, 3
Reciprocal squared function, 181 Sector, 4,
Rectangle, 2 area of, 90
Rectangular coordinates, 99, 100 Segment, 4
convert to polar form, 100 spherical, 7
Rectangular formula, 258 Semicubical parabola, 181
Rectangular parallelepiped, 5 Semimajor axis, 136
Reduction principle, 81 Sequences, 33
Reduction rules for integration, 200 Series, 34, 266
Reflection property: arithmetic, 33
ellipse, 150 binomial, 267
316 INDEX