Smith KJ Student Mathematics Handbook and Integral Table For

STUDENT MATH HANDBOOK
AND
INTEGRAL TABLE
FOR
CALCULUS, 3rd Edition
by Monty J. Strauss, Gerald L. Bradley and Karl J. Smith
KARL J. SMITH
STUDENT MATHEMATICS
HANDBOOK
AND
INTEGRAL TABLE
FOR
CALCULUS, 3rd Edition

 2002 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
A Simon and Schuster Company
Upper Saddle River, N. J. 07458
All rights reserved.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN 0-13-092021-5
Printed in the United States of America
iv
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: Review of Geometry 1

1.1 Polygons 1
1.2 Circles 3
1.3 Solid Geometry 5
1.4 Congruent Triangles 11
1.5 Similar Triangles 13
1.6 Problem Set 1 18
CHAPTER 2: Review of Algebra 24

2.1 Real Numbers 24
2.2 Algebraic Processes 24
2.3 Powers and roots 27
2.4 Sequences and Series 33
2.5 Solving Equations 34
2.6 Completing the Square 39
2.7 Solving Inequalities 41
2.8 Determinants 47
2.9 Functions 50
2.10 Polynomials 52
CHAPTER 3: Systems of Equations 59

3.1 Elementary Methods 59
3.2 Matrix Methods 64
3.3 Equality-of-Coefficients Method 76
CHAPTER 4: Review of Trigonometry 80

4.1 Trigonometric Functions 80
4.2 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 81
4.3 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions 81
4.4 Trigonometric Graphs 83
4.5 Trigonometric Identities 86
4.6 Solving Triangles 89
4.7 Trigonometric Equations 91
v
vi Contents
CHAPTER 5: Polar Coordinates 97

5.1 Plotting Points in Polar Coordinates 97
5.2 Relationship Between Polar and Rectangular
Coordinates 99
5.3 Polar Graphs 101
5.4 Graphing by Plotting Points 103
5.5 Cardioids 105
5.6 Symmetry and Rotations 106
5.7 Limaçons 108
5.8 Rose Curves 111
5.9 Lemniscates 114
CHAPTER 6: Conic Sections: The Parabola 119

6.1 Standard-Position Parabolas 119
6.2 Translation of Parabolas 122
6.3 Representation in Polar Coordinates 125
6.4 Parabolic Reflectors 129
CHAPTER 7: Conic Sections: The Ellipse and the

Hyperbola 135
7.1 Ellipses 135
7.2 Hyperbolas 140
7.3 Eccentricity and Polar Coordinates 144
7.4 Geometric Properties 150
CHAPTER 8: Curve Sketching 157

8.1 Symmetry 157
8.2 Extent 160
8.3 Asymptotes 162
8.4 Intercepts 166
CHAPTER 9: Catalog of Special Curves 172
CHAPTER 10: Limit Formulas 184

10.1 Definition of Limit 184
10.2 Rules of Limits 186
10.3 Limits of a Function of Two Variables 188
Contents vii
CHAPTER 11: Differentiation Formulas 190

11.1 Definition of Derivative 190
11.2 Procedural Rules of Differentiation 191
11.3 Differentiation Rules 192
11.4 Functions of Two Variables 193
CHAPTER 12: Integration Formulas 195

12.1 Definition of Integral 195
12.2 Procedural Rules for Integration 197
12.3 Integration Rules 198
12.4 Integral Table 200
12.5 Bernoulli and Euler Numbers; Gamma and
Beta Functions 256
12.6 Definite Integral Formulas 257
CHAPTER 13: Series 266

13.1 Series of Constants 266
13.2 Taylor Series 267
APPENDICES: 272
A. Mathematical Symbols 272
B. Greek Alphabet 272
C. Answers 273
INDEX: 307
PREFACE
Calculus is probably the first mathematics course you have taken

that is not self-contained in the sense that the material from previous
mathematics courses is expected without specifically mentioning it
in the textbook. This supplement is a convenient reference book to
be used along with your textbook, Calculus, to remind you of those
formulas or topics that you may have forgotten.
This handbook is organized so that it can be used in two ways. The
first use is as a reference manual providing a summary of terminology,
formulas, and tables, not only of prerequisite mathematics, but also
of the material covered in a standard calculus course. The second use
is as a brief review of material assumed as a prerequisite for a course
in calculus. This material is presented with examples, brief written
exposition, and practice problems. The topics that are included with
exposition and practice problems are sometimes missing from the
backgrounds of many students who otherwise have the prerequisites
for calculus. We remind the student that nearly everyone qualified to
enroll in calculus has, for a variety of reasons, gaps in knowledge
of prerequisite material, and the brief review in this handbook can
help to bridge that gap. We provide this supplement to Calculus free
of charge with the purchase of the textbook, in an attempt to help
ensure your success in calculus. Use this book for reference, and as a
handbook as you progress through the course.
There are many places in your textbook where you will see the
logo. You will find this same logo in this manual, and if
you want extra help on these topics, you will see here some of the
background information that is not usually included in a calculus
textbook. As you use this handbook, remember that it was written
to accompany the book Calculus, Third Edition by Strauss, Bradley,
and Smith. When you see a reference in this manual to the text,
that reference is to your textbook, not this handbook. Also, if the
reference is to Problem Set 3.2, for example, that is the reference to
the text, whereas a reference Problem Set 3 is to this handbook. That
is, problem sets designated by counting numbers are in this handbook,
and those with decimals are in the textbook.
In addition, new technology has changed the emphasis of many of
the topics in a calculus course. One recent change is the acknowledg-
ment of the role of calculators and computers to help not only with the
mechanics of algebra, but also with the mechanics of differentiation
and integration in calculus. Outside of the academic environment,
engineers and physicists tells us that using available technology, as
ix
x Preface
well as tables of integration, is by far more important than many of the

esoteric topics they were taught in their calculus courses many years
ago. For that reason, calculus books are evolving, and the emphasis
is not on obscure esoteric topics, but rather practical knowledge
that balances between application and theory. To capture this new
emphasis, we see the need for you to have a more complete integration
table, so one has been provided in this handbook.
CHAPTER 1
Review of Geometry
In this book, we use the following variables when stating formulas:

A D area, P D perimeter, C D circumference, S D surface area, and
V D volume. Also, r denotes radius, h altitude, l slant height, b base,
B area of base, and central angle expressed in radians.
1.1 Polygons
CLASSIFICATION
Type Number of sides
triangle 3
quadrilateral 4
pentagon 5
hexagon 6
heptagon 7
octagon 8
nonagon 9
decagon 10
undecagon 11
dodecagon 12
TRIANGLES
A D 12 bh The sum of the measures of the
angles of a triangle is 180° .
PDaCbCc
Pythagorean theorem: The sum of the squares of the lengths of

the legs of a right triangle is equal to the square of the length of the
hypotenuse.
45° –45° –90° triangle theorem: For any right triangle with acute
angles measuring 45° ,pthe legs are the same length, and the hypotenuse
has a length equal to 2 times the length of one of those legs.
1
2 Chapter 1
30° –60° –90° triangle theorem: For any right triangle with acute
angles measuring 30° and 60° ,
1. The hypotenuse is twice as long as the leg opposite the 30° angle
(the shorter leg).
2. The leg opposite the 30° angle (the shorter leg) is 12 as long as the
hypotenuse.
3. The leg opposite the 60° angle p (the longer leg) equals the length
of the other (shorter) leg times 3.
4. The leg opposite
p the 30° angle equals the length of the other leg
divided by 3.
Equilateral triangle: For any equilateral triangle:

p p
˛ D ˇ D D 60° A D 14 b2 3 h D 12 b 3
QUADRILATERALS
Rectangle Square
A D w A D s2
P D 2 C 2wp P D 4s p
Diagonal D 2 C w2 Diagonal D s 2
Parallelogram Trapezoid
A D bh D ab sin A D 12 ha C b
P D 2a C 2b PDaCb
Chcsc C csc
Chapter 1 3
REGULAR POLYGON OF n SIDES
2
central angle:
n
A D 14 na2 cot
n
P D an
1.2 Circles
TERMINOLOGY
Definition: In a plane, a circle is the set of all points a given distance,
called the radius, from a given point, called the center.
Circumference: distance around a circle.
Chord: a line joining two points of a circle.
Diameter: a chord through the center: AB in Figure 1.1.
Arc: part of a circle: BC, AC, or ACB in Figure 1.1. The length s of an
arc of a circle of radius r with central angle (measured in radians)
is s D r.
To intercept an arc is to cut off the arc; in Figure 1.1, 6 COB intercepts
BC.
A tangent of a circle is a line that intersects the circle at one and only
one point.
A secant of a circle is a line that intersects the circle at exactly two
points.
FIGURE 1.1
4 Chapter 1
An inscribed polygon is a polygon, all of whose sides are chords of a

circle. A regular inscribed polygon is a polygon, all of whose sides
are the same length.
An inscribed circle is a circle to which all the sides of a polygon are
tangents.
A circumscribed polygon is a polygon, all of whose sides are tangents
to a circle.
A circumscribed circle is a circle passing through each vertex of a
polygon.
BASIC FORMULAS
Circle
2
A D r
C D 2r D d
Sector
1 2
AD 2
r
s D r
We first use this in the text in Section 2.2 proving a very

important limit property.
Segment
1 2
AD 2
r sin
Chapter 1 5
1.3 Solid Geometry

Rectangular parallelepiped (box)
V D abc p
Diagonal D a2 C b2 C c2 .
Prism
V D Bh
B is area of the base
Pyramid
V D 13 Bh
B is area of the base
This formula is derived in Example 2, Section 6.2, of the text.
6 Chapter 1
Tetrahedron
(a pyramid
p with a triangular base)
V D 13 h ss as bs c
where s D 12 a C b C c
Right circular cylinder

V D r 2 h
Lateral surface D 2rh
S D 2rh C 2r 2
Right circular cone

V D 13 r 2 h
Lateral surface D rl
S D rl C r 2
The formula for the lateral surface is derived in Section 6.4
of the text.
Frustum of a right circular cone

V D 13 hr 2 C rR C R2 or
p
V D 13 hB1 C B1 B2 C B2
Note: h D h1 h2
This formula is derived in Problem 66 of Problem Set 6.2.
Chapter 1 7
Frustum of a p
pyramid
V D 13 hB1 C B1 B2 C B2
Note: h D h1 h2
Torus
S D 42 Rr
This formula is derived in Problem 55 of Problem Set 12.6.
V D 22 Rr 2
This formula is derived in Example 7 of Section 6.5.
Spherical segment
S D 2rh, with radius r
V D 16 h3r1 2 C 3r2 2 C h2 , with cross sections of radii r1 and r2
For the ‘‘cap,’’

S D 2rr h, with radius r

V D 2r 2 3r 2 h C h3 , with cross sections of radii r1 and r2
3
This volume for the cap is Problem 65 of Problem Set 6.2.
8 Chapter 1
Cylinder with a cross-sectional area A

V D Ah; S D p C 2A
Prismatoid, pontoon, wedge

V D 16 hB0 C 4B1 C B2
Quadric Surfaces
Sphere
x 2 C y 2 C z2 D r 2
V D 43 r 3
S D 4r 2
We derive the formula for the volume of a sphere in Example 3 of

Section 12.3 and again in Example 5 of Section 12.7.
Chapter 1 9
Ellipsoid
x2 y 2 z2
C C D1
a2 4b2 c2
V D 3 abc
A special case of this formula is derived in Problem 46 of the

supplementary problems for Chapter 6, where r D 0 and c D b.
Elliptic Paraboloid
x2 y 2
C 2 Dz
a2 b
Hyperboloid of One Sheet

x2 y 2 z2
C D1
a2 b2 c 2
10 Chapter 1
Hyperboloid of Two Sheets

x2 y 2 z2
C D 1
a2 b2 c 2
Hyperbolic paraboloid
y 2 x2
2 Dz
a2 b
An oblate spheroid is formed by the rotation of the ellipse

x2 y 2
C 2 D 1 about its minor axis, b. Let ! be the eccentricity.
a2 b
4
V D a2 b
3

2 b2 1C!
S D 2a C ln
! 1!
A prolate spheroid is formed by the rotation of the ellipse

x2 y 2
C 2 D 1 about its minor axis, a. Let ! be the eccentricity.
a2 b
4
V D ab2
3
ab 1
S D 2b2 C sin !
!
Chapter 1 11
1.4 Congruent Triangles
We say that two figures are congruent if they have the same size
and shape. For congruent triangles ABC and DEF, denoted by
ABC ' DEF, we may conclude that all six corresponding parts
(three angles and three sides) are congruent.
EXAMPLE 1.1 Corresponding parts of a triangle
Name the corresponding parts of the given triangles.

a. ABC ' A0 B0 C0 b. RST ' UST
Solution
0 0
a. AB corresponds to A B b. RS corresponds to US
0 0
AC corresponds to A C RT corresponds to UT
0 0
BC corresponds to B C ST corresponds to ST
6 A corresponds to 6 A0 6 R corresponds to 6 U
6 B corresponds to 6 B0 6 RTS corresponds to 6 UTS
6 C corresponds to 6 C0 6 RST corresponds to 6 UST

Two angles are equal if they have the same measure. For the
triangles in Example 1.1, we see that 6 A corresponds to 6 A0 . This
means that these angles are the same size, or have the same measure.
We write m6 A D m6 A0 to mean that the angles have the same measure,
or in other words, the same size and shape.
Line segments, angles, triangles, or other geometric figures are
congruent if they have the same size and shape. In Example 1.1, since
m6 A D m6 A0 , we say that angles A and A0 are congruent, and we write
6 A ' 6 A0 .
In this section, we focus on triangles.
12 Chapter 1
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES
Two triangles are congruent if their corresponding sides

have the same length and their corresponding angles have
the same measure.
To prove that two triangles are congruent, you must show that they
have the same size and shape. It is not necessary to show that all six
parts (three sides and three angles) are congruent; if certain of these
six parts are congruent, it necessarily follows that the other parts are
congruent. Three important properties are used to show congruence
of triangles:
CONGRUENT-TRIANGLE PROPERTIES
SIDE–SIDE–SIDE (SSS)
If three sides of one triangle are congruent to three sides of
another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
SIDE–ANGLE–SIDE (SAS)
If two sides of one triangle and the angle between those
sides are congruent to the corresponding sides and angle of
another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
ANGLE–SIDE–ANGLE (ASA)
If two angles and the side that connects them on one
triangle are congruent to the corresponding angles and side
of another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
EXAMPLE 1.2 Finding congruent triangles
Determine whether each pair of triangles is congruent. If so, cite one

of the congruent-triangle properties.
Solution
a. b.
Congruent; SAS Not congruent

Chapter 1 13
c. d.
Congruent; ASA Congruent; SSS
A side that is in common to two triangles obviously is equal in length

to itself and does not need to be marked.
In geometry, the main use of congruent triangles is when we want
to know whether an angle from one triangle is congruent to an angle
from a different triangle or when we want to know whether a side
from one triangle is the same length as the side from another triangle.
In order to do this, we often prove that one triangle is congruent to the
other (using one of the three congruent-triangle properties) and then
use the following property:
CONGRUENT-TRIANGLE PROPERTY
Corresponding parts of congruent triangles are congruent.
1.5 Similar Triangles
See Sections 3.7 and 4.6 of the text for examples in which we use
these ideas in calculus.
It is possible for two figures to have the same shape, but not necessarily
the same size. These figures are called similar figures. We will now
focus on similar triangles. If ABC is similar to DEF, we write
ABC ¾ DEF
Similar triangles are shown in Figure 1.2.

You should note that congruent triangles must be similar, but similar
triangles are not necessarily congruent. Since similar figures have the
same shape, we talk about corresponding angles and corresponding
sides. The corresponding angles of similar triangles are the angles
that have the same measure. It is customary to label the vertices of
triangles with capital letters and the sides opposite the angles at those
14 Chapter 1
Figure 1.2 Similar triangles
vertices with corresponding lowercase letters. It is easy to see that, if

the triangles are similar, the corresponding sides are the sides opposite
equal angles. In Figure 1.2, we see that
6 A and 6 D are corresponding angles;
6 B and 6 E are corresponding angles; and
6 C and 6 F are corresponding angles.
Side a BC is opposite 6 A, and d EF is opposite 6 D, so we say that

a corresponds to d;
b corresponds to e; and
c corresponds to f.
Even though corresponding angles are the same size, corresponding

sides do not need to be the same length. If they are the same length,
then the triangles are congruent. However, when they are not the same
length, we can say they are proportional. As Figure 1.2 illustrates,
when we say the sides are proportional, we mean that
a d a d b e
D D D
b e c f c f
b e c f c f
D D D
a d a d b e
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
Two triangles are similar if two angles of one triangle have

the same measure as two angles of the other triangle. If
the triangles are similar, then their corresponding sides are
proportional.
Chapter 1 15
FIGURE 1.3
EXAMPLE 1.3 Similar triangles
Identify pairs of triangles that are similar in Figure 1.3.
Solution ABC ¾ JKL; DEF ¾ GIH; SQR ¾ STU.
EXAMPLE 1.4 Finding unknown lengths in similar triangles
Given the following similar triangles, find the unknown lengths

marked b0 and c0 :
Solution Since corresponding sides are proportional (other propor-

tions are possible), we have
a0 b0 a a0
D D
a b c c0
4 b0 8 4
D D 0
8 12 14.4 c
412 14.44
b0 D c0 D
8 8
D6 D 7.2

16 Chapter 1
EXAMPLE 1.5 Finding a perimeter by using similar triangles
In equilateral ABC, suppose DE D 2 and is parallel to AB, as shown

at the right. If AB is three times as long as DE, what is the perimeter
of quadrilateral ABED?
Solution ABC ¾ DEC, so DEC is equilateral. This means that

CE and DC both are of length 2; thus, EB and AD both are of length
4. The perimeter of the quadrilateral is
jABj C jBEj C jDEj C jADj D 6 C 4 C 2 C 4 D 16
Finding similar triangles is simplified even further if we know that the

triangles are right triangles, because then the triangles are similar if
one of the acute angles has the same measure as an acute angle of the
other triangle.
EXAMPLE 1.6 Using similar triangles to find an unknown

length
Suppose that a tree and a yardstick are casting shadows as shown

in Figure 1.4. If the shadow of the yardstick is 3 yards long and the
shadow of the tree is 12 yards long, use similar triangles to estimate
the height of the tree if you know that angles S and S0 are the same
size.
FIGURE 1.4
Chapter 1 17
Solution Since 6 G and 6 G0 are right angles, and since S and S0 are the
same size, we see that SGT ¾ S0 G0 T0 . Therefore, corresponding
sides are proportional. Hence,
1 h
D
3 12
112
hD
3
D4
The tree is 4 yards tall.
EXAMPLE 1.7 Similar triangles in a pyramid
This example is adapted from Example 2 of Section 6.2
A regular pyramid has a square base of side L, and its apex is located H
units above the center of its base. The pyramid is shown in Figure 1.5.
Suppose a cut is made h units from the bottom, thus forming two
triangles, as shown at the right in Figure 1.5. Use similar triangles to
find the length of the cut.
Solution Let be the length of the cut. We recognize two triangles:

ABC and DEC, and we want to show that these triangles are
similar. Obviously, m6 C D m6 C in both triangles. Since the line
segment AB is parallel to the line segment DE, and we can consider
the line passing through A and D to be a transversal, we conclude that
m6 A D m6 D because 6 A and 6 D are corresponding angles. Since two
angles of one triangle have the same measure as the corresponding
angles in the other triangle, we conclude that ABC ¾ DEC. It
follows that if the triangles are similar, then their corresponding sides
Figure 1.5 Pyramid with a square base

18 Chapter 1
are proportional.
Hh
D Note that the height of DEC is H h
L H

h
D 1 L Multiply both sides by L.
H
1.6 PROBLEM SET 1
1. In TRI and ANG shown at right, 6 R ' 6 N and jT Rj D

jA Nj. Name other pairs you would need to know in order to
show that the triangles are congruent by
a. SSS b. SAS c. ASA
2. In ABC and DEF shown at right, 6 A ' 6 D and jA Cj D

jD Fj. Name other pairs you would need to know in order to
show that the triangles are congruent by
a. SSS b. SAS c. ASA
Name the corresponding parts of the triangles in Problems 3–6.
3. 4.
Chapter 1 19
5. 6.
In Problems 7–10, determine whether each pair of triangles is

congruent. If so, cite one of the congruent-triangle properties.
7. 8.
9. 10.
In Problems 11–16, tell whether it is possible to conclude that the

pairs of triangles are similar.
11.
12.
20 Chapter 1
13.
14.
15.
16.
Given the two similar triangles shown, find the unknown lengths in
Problems 17–22.
17. a D 4, b D 8, a0 D 2; find b0 .
18. b D 5, c D 15, b0 D 2; find c0 .
19. c D 6, a D 4, c0 D 8; find a0 .
20. a0 D 7, b0 D 8, a D 5; find b.
21. b0 D 8, c0 D 12, c D 4; find b.
22. c0 D 9, a0 D 2, c D 5; find a.
23. How far from the base of a building must a 26-ft ladder be
placed so that it reaches 10 ft up the wall?
24. How high up a wall does a 26-ft ladder reach if the bottom of
the ladder is placed 6 ft from the building?
Chapter 1 21
25. A carpenter wants to be sure that the corner of a building is

square and measures 6 ft and 8 ft along the sides. How long
should the diagonal be?
26. What is the exact length of the hypotenuse if the legs of a right
triangle are 2 in. each?
27. What is the exact length of one leg of an isosceles right triangle
if the hypotenuse is 3 ft?
28. An empty rectangular lot is 40 ft by 65 ft. How many feet would
you save by walking diagonally across the lot instead of walking
the length and width? Round your answer to the nearest foot.
29. A television antenna is to be erected and held by guy wires. If
the guy wires are 15 ft from the base of the antenna and the
antenna is 10 ft high, what is the exact length of each guy wire?
What is the length of each guy wire, rounded to the nearest foot?
If three guy wires are attached, how many feet of wire should
be purchased if it cannot be bought in fractions of a foot?
30. In equilateral ABC, shown below, D is the midpoint of segment
A B. What is the length of C D?
31. In the figure shown below, AB and DE are parallel. What is the
length of AB?
32. Ben walked diagonally across a rectangular field that measures

100 ft by 240 ft. How far did Ben walk?
33. Use similar triangles and a proportion to find the length of the
lake shown in the following figure:
34. Use similar triangles and a proportion to find the height of the
house shown in the following figure:
22 Chapter 1
35. If a tree casts a shadow of 12 ft at the same time a 6-ft person

1
casts a shadow of 2 ft, find the height of the tree to the nearest
2
foot.
36. If an inverted circular cone (vertex at the bottom) of height 10
cm and a radius of 4 cm contains liquid with height measuring
3.8 cm, what is the volume of the liquid?
37. A person 6 ft tall is walking away from a streetlight 20 ft high

at the rate of 7 ft/s. How long (to the nearest ft) is the person’s
shadow at the instant when the person is 10 ft from the base of
the lamppost?
Example 2, Section 3.7
38. A bag is tied to the top of a 5-m ladder resting against a vertical
wall. Suppose the ladder begins sliding down the wall in such a
way that the foot of the ladder is moving away from the wall.
How high is the bag at the instant when the base of the ladder is
4 m from the base of the wall?
Example 3, Section 3.7

Chapter 1 23
39. A tank filled with water is in the shape of an inverted cone 20

ft high with a circular base (on top) whose radius is 5 ft. How
much water does the tank hold when the water level is 8 ft deep?
See Example 5 of Section 3.7 of the text.

CHAPTER 2
Review of Algebra
2.1 Real Numbers
The text assumes that you know these sets of numbers. You are asked to
characterize each set in Problem 1 of Chapter 1 review.
Name Symbol Set Examples p p

Counting numbers f1, 2, 3, 4, Ð Ð Ðg 72; 2,345, 950; 25; 1
or natural numbers
10 16, 425
Whole numbers f0, 1, 2, 3, Ð Ð Ðg 0; 72; ;
2 25
10
Integers fÐ Ð Ð , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, Ð Ð Ðg 5; 0; ; 9,562; 82
2
1 4
Rational numbers Numbers that can be ; ; .863214; .8666Ð Ð Ð;
written in the form pq , 3 17
11 1
where p and q are 5; 0; ; 15; ;
3 4
integers with q 6D 0
3.1416; 8.6
Irrational numbers 0 Numbers whose 5.123456789101112
p p Ð Ð Ð;
decimal representations 2; 3;
do not terminate and do 4.31331333133331Ð Ð Ð; ;
not repeat
2
Real numbers The collection of all All examples listed on this
rational and irrational page are real numbers. Not
numbers all numbers are real
numbers, however. There
is another set of numbers
(not considered in this
handbook) called complex
numbers, which includes
the real numbers as a
subset.
2.2 Algebraic Processes
In order to review the basic algebraic processes with which you

need to be familiar in calculus, we begin with a review of some
terminology.
24
Chapter 2 25
TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLES

p
Numerical A number or several 6; 5 C 2; 5 2
expression numbers connected
by defined
mathematical
operations.
Algebraic A numerical expression 6x; x C y; 2x 2 3x C 4
expression with at least one
variable.
1
Term A number, a variable, 6; x; 6x; 2x 2 ; y 3
or a product of 2
numbers and
variables.
Polynomial A term or a sum of 6; x C y; 4x 3 3x C 1
terms. (Note: Since
x y D x C y ,
differences are
included.)
xCy 1 1
Rational A polynomial divided ; C
expression by a nonzero xy x y
polynomial. (Note:
Includes
polynomials, because
if P is a polynomial,
it can be written as
P
P D .)
1
p p x2 C y 2
Radical An algebraic x; 3 y;
expression expression with a 2
variable expression
as a radicand (the
expression under a
radical sign).
Many of the processes in algebra are based on an agreement, called

the order-of-operations agreement, that tells us how to deal with
expressions with more than one operation:
First, carry out those operations enclosed in parentheses.

Second, carry out all multiplications and divisions as they occur,
left to right.
26 Chapter 2
Third, carry out all additions and subtractions as they occur, left
to right.
If there are exponents, use what is sometimes called the extended

order-of-operations agreement which instructs us to do the opera-
tions involving exponents just before those involving multiplications
and divisions.
There are four principal processes used in algebra:
Factor To factor an expression means to write the expression as

a product. An expression is called completely factored if
all fractions are eliminated by common factoring and if no
further factoring is possible over the set of integers.
Simplify To simplify a numerical expression means to carry out all
the operations, according to their order, and write your
answer as a single number.
To simplify a polynomial means to carry out all the opera-
tions, according to their order, combine similar terms, and
write your answer by arranging the terms in decreasing
degree. If there are different terms of the same degree, then
they are arranged alphabetically.
To simplify a rational expression means to carry out all the
operations, according to their order, factor the numerator
and denominator, and make sure that there is no common
factor (other than 1 or 1). If there is a negative, then the
p p
expression is written in the form or for positive p
q q
and q.
To simplify a radical expression means to carry out all the
operations, according to their order, and to make sure that
the following conditions are satisfied:
1. When the radicand is written in completely factored

form, there is no factor raised to a power greater than
or equal to the index of the radical.
2. No radical appears in a denominator.
3. No fraction (or negative exponent) appears within a
radical.
4. There is no common factor (other than 1) between the
power of the radicand and the index of the radical.
Sometimes the word expand is used instead of simplify.

For example, to expand the expression x C y 2 means to
Chapter 2 27
simplify it; that is, write

2
x C y D x 2 C 2xy C y 2
Evaluate To evaluate an algebraic expression means to replace the

variable or variables with a given number and then simplify
the expression. In calculus, we often evaluate a function at
two values and then we subtract those values. For example,
if the function fx D x 2 C x C 1 is evaluated at x D 2,
we have f2 D 22 C 2 C 1 D 7, and if f is evaluated at
x D 1, we have f1 D 12 C 1 C 1 D 3. Finally, if we
subtract these evaluations, we get f2 f1 D 7 3 D
4. Since this is a frequent calculation, a compact notation
is sometimes used:
fx j21 D f2 f1
For example,
[x 2 C x C 1]j21 D [22 C 2 C 1] [12 C 1 C 1]

D73
D4
2.3 Powers and roots

EXPONENTS
Definition of Exponent:
In the expression x n , the number n is called the exponent, the

number b is called the base, and x n is called a power. If n is a
1
positive integer, then x n D x Ð x Ðx Ð Ð Ð x, and x 0 D 1; x n D n
x
n factors
If m and n are integers, then
1 p
n
p
xn D x whenever n x is defined
and
m 1
m p m p
x n D x n Dnx whenever n
x is defined
Factorial numbers:
n! D nn 1 n 2 Ð Ð Ð 3 Ð 2 Ð 1 0! D 1 for n a nonnegative
integer
28 Chapter 2
ROOTS
Recall that for any positive even integer n (called the index of the
radical) and any positive number x (called the radicand),
p
yD n
x if and only if y > 0 and y n D x
We call y the positive nth

p root of x. Forpexample, the positive fourth
root of 16 is denoted by 4 16; we write 4 16 D 2, since 24 D 16.
For any positive odd integer n and any number x (positive or
negative),
p
y D n x and only if y n D x
p
3
and y is called the nth root of x. For example, 8 D 2, since
2 3 D 8.p
Note that x 2 D jxj for any number x.
LAWS OF EXPONENTS
If r and s are real numbers, then
x r Ð x s D x rCs
x r s
D x rs whenever x r is meaningful
xy r D x r y r whenever x r and y r are meaningful
r
x xr
D r whenever x r and y r are meaningful and y r 6D 0
y y
xr
D x rs whenever x r and x s are meaningful and x s 6D 0
xs
FACTORS AND EXPANSIONS
Difference of squares: a2 b2 D a b a C b
Perfect square: a C b 2 D a2 C 2ab C b2
Difference of cubes: a3 b3 D a b a2 C ab C b2
Sum of cubes: a3 C b3 D a C b a2 ab C b2
Perfect cube: a C b 3 D a3 C3a2 b C 3ab 2
C b3
n n
Binomial theorem: a C b n D an b0 C an1 b C
0 1
n n2 2 n
a b C ÐÐÐ C a0 bn
2 n
Chapter 2 29
where

n n n n nn 1
D 1, D , D ,ÐÐÐ,
0 1 1 2 1Ð2

n n! n
D ,ÐÐÐ, D1
r r!n r ! n
The following factoring procedure will work for most of the

factoring problems you encounter in calculus:
To factor an expression: First, look for the greatest common
factor.
Next, check to see if the expression is a
special type:
Difference of squares: x 2 y 2 D x y x C y
Difference of cubes: x 3 y 3 D x y x 2 C xy C y 2
Sum of cubes: x 3 C y 3 D x C y x 2 xy C y 2
Perfect square: x 2 C 2xy C y 2 D x C y 2
x 2 2xy C y 2 D x y 2
Finally, if the expression is a trinomial, factor it into two binomials.

Sometimes, grouping the terms will help you to factor.
EXAMPLE 2.1 Common factoring
Factor the following expressions:

a. Common monomial factors: a2 b C 5a3 b2 C 7a2 b3
b. Common binomial factors: 5x3a 5b C 9y3a 5b
1
c. Common factoring to provide integral coefficients: x y
36
d. Multiple common factoring:
2x 3 3 1 x 1 C x 1 1 C x 3 3
Solution
a. The common factor is a2 b:
a2 b C 5a3 b2 C 7a2 b3 D a2 b1 C 5ab C 7b2
b. The common factor is 3a 5b :
5x3a 5b C 9y3a 5b D 5x C 9y 3a 5b

30 Chapter 2
c. Treat the fraction as a common factor:

1 1 36
xy D x y
36 36 36
1
D x 36y
36
d. The common factor is 31 C x :
2x 3 3 1 x 1 C x 1 1 C x 3 3

D 31 C x [2x 3 1 x 1 1 C x 2 1 ]
D 31 C x [2x 2x 2 3 C 3x 1 C 1 C 2x C x 2 ]
D 31 C x [3x 2 3x 2]
EXAMPLE 2.2 Factoring special types

a. 3x 2 75
b. x C 3y 3 C 8
9a2 2
c. a C 3b
b2
d. x6 1
Solution
a. 3x 2 75 D 3x 2 25 Common factor first

D 3x 5 x C 5 Difference of squares
b. Recognize this as a sum of cubes:

x C 3y 3 C 8 D [x C 3y C 2][x C 3y 2
x C 3y 2 C 2 2 ]
D x C 3y C 2 x 2 C 6xy C 9y 2 2x 6y C 4
c. Use common factoring to provide integral coefficients:
9a2 2 1
a C 3b D [9a2 b2 a C 3b 2 ] Common factor
b2 b2
1
D 2 [3a ba C 3b ][3a C ba C 3b ]
b
Difference of squares
Chapter 2 31
1
D 3a ab 3b2 3a C ab C 3b2
b2
d. Treat this as a difference of squares.
x 6 1 D x 3 2
13 2
D x 3 1 x 3 C 1
D x 1 x 2 C x C 1 x C 1 x 2 x C 1
EXAMPLE 2.3 Factoring trinomials

a. x 2 8x C 15 b. 6w2 9w 15
c. 6x C y 9x C y 15 d. 4x 4 13x 2 y 2 C 9y 4
2
Solution
a. x 2 8x C 15 D x 5 x 3
b. 6w2 9w 15 D 32w2 3w 5 Common factor first
D 32w 5 w C 1
c. 6x C y 2 9x C y 15 D 3[2x C y 2 3x C y 5]

D 3[2x C y 5][x C y C 1]
D 32x C 2y 5 x C y C 1
d. 4x 4 13x 2 y 2 C 9y 4 D x 2 y 2 4x 2 9y 2
D x y x C y 2x 3y 2x C 3y
EXAMPLE 2.4 Factoring using negative exponents
1 1 1 1 1 1 yx
x 2 y 2 x 2 y 2 D x 2 y 2 y x D p
xy
RADICALS
An algebraic expression containing radicals is simplified if all four of
the following conditions are satisfied:
32 Chapter 2
1. When the radicand is written in completely factored form, there

is no factor raised to a power greater than or equal to the index of
the radical.
2. No radical appears in a denominator.
3. No fraction (or negative exponent) appears within a radical.
4. There is no common factor (other than 1) between the exponent
of the radicand and the index of the radical.
LOGARITHMS
In y D logb x, y is called a logarithm and b is called the base. The
logarithm (y) is defined as the exponent on a base b that equals the
number x.
Properties of logarithms Special bases:
logMN D log M C log N log x D log10 x; this is called a
common logarithm
logM/N D log M log N ln x D loge x, where
e ³ 2.71828182845905;
log Mn D n log M is called the natural logarithm
p 1
log n M D log M
n
logb b D 1
logn 1 D 0
EXAMPLE 2.5 Using laws of exponents
a. 2x 2 y 3 4
D 24 x 2Ð4 y 3Ð4 D 16x 8 y 12
b. 2x 2 C y 3 4
D 2x 2 4
C 42x 2 3 y 3 C 62x 2 2 y 3 2
C 42x 2 y 3 3
C y 3 4
D 16x 8 C 32x 6 y 3 C 24x 4 y 6 C 8x 2 y 9 C y 12
EXAMPLE 2.6 Simplifying radical expressions
1/3 p
3 x6 y 7 x6y 7 x 61/3 y 71/3 x 2 y 7/3 x2 y 2 3 y
D D D D
z9 z9 z91/3 z3 z3
p
Note that y 7/3 D y 6/3C1/3 D y 2C1/3 D y 2 y 1/3 D y 2 3 y
Chapter 2 33
EXAMPLE 2.7 Simplifying expressions with negative exponents

1 1 1 1 1 1 x C y 1 xy
a. x C y D C D D
x y xy xCy
1 1 1
b. x y D xy
EXAMPLE 2.8 Expanding an expression by using the binomial

theorem
Expand 2x 3y 5 .
Solution In the binomial theorem, replace a by 2x and b by 3y .

With n D 5, we have
5 5Ð4
2x 3y D 1 2x 5 3y 0 C 52x 4 3y 1 C 2x 3 3y 2
2
5Ð4Ð3 5Ð4Ð3Ð2
C 2x 2 3y 3 C 2x 1 3y 4
2Ð3 2Ð3Ð4
C 1 2x 0 3y 5
D 32x 5 240x 4 y C 720x 3 y 2 1080x 2 y 3

C 810xy 4 243y 5
2.4 Sequences and Series

This material is required in Chapter 8 of the text. A sequence is a list,
as in fs0 , s1 , s2 , Ð Ð Ð , sn g; a series is a sum: s0 C s1 C s2 C Ð Ð Ð C an .
Arithmetic sequence If an denotes the nth term, d the common
difference, and n the number of terms, then
an D a1 C n 1 d
Arithmetic series If An denotes the nth partial sum of an

arithmetic sequence, then
n n
An D a1 C an or An D [2a1 C n 1 d]
2 2
Geometric sequence If gn denotes the nth term, r the common

ratio, and n the number of terms, then
gn D g1 r n1 for n ½ 1
34 Chapter 2
Geometric series If Gn denotes the nth partial sum of a

geometric sequence, then
g1 1 r n
Gn D , r 6D 1
1r
Infinite geometric series If G is the sum of an infinite geometric

series, then
g1
GD for jrj < 1
1 r0
SUMS OF POWERS OF THE FIRST n INTEGERS

You can use these formulas to help find Riemann sums in Chapter 5 of
the text.
n
1Dn
kD1
n
nn C 1
k D 1 C 2 C 3 C ÐÐÐ C n D
kD1
2
n
nn C 1 2n C 1
k 2 D 12 C 22 C 32 C Ð Ð Ð C n2 D
kD1
6
n
n2 n C 1 2
k 3 D 13 C 23 C 33 C Ð Ð Ð C n3 D
kD1
4
n
nn C 1 2n C 1 3n2 C 3n 1
k 4 D 14 C24 C34 C Ð Ð Ð C n4 D
kD1
30
2.5 SOLVING EQUATIONS

Even though there are many aspects of algebra that are important to
the scientist and mathematician, the ability to solve simple equations
is important to the layperson and can be used in a variety of everyday
applications.
Pay attention to the difference between an expression and an equation.

Also, note that ‘‘to solve’’ is not the same as ‘‘to simplify.’’ An
equation is a statement of equality. There are three types of equations:
true, false, and open. An open equation is an equation with a variable.
Chapter 2 35
A true equation is an equation that lacks variables and that is true,

such as
2C3D5
A false equation is an equation that lacks variables and that is false,

such as
2 C 3 D 15
Our focus is on open equations — those equations with a variable. The

values that make an open equation true are said to satisfy the equation
and are called the solutions or roots of the equation. To solve an open
equation is to find all replacements for the variable(s) that make the
equation true. There are three types of open equations. Those that are
always true, such as
xC3D3Cx
are called identities. Those that are always false, such as
xC3D4Cx
are called contradictions. Most open equations, such as
2 C x D 15
are true for some replacements of the variable and false for other
replacements. These are called conditional equations. Generally, when
we speak of equations, we mean conditional equations. Our concern in
solving equations is to find the numbers that satisfy a given equation,
so we look for things to do to equations to make the solutions or
roots more obvious. Two equations with the same solutions are called
equivalent equations. An equivalent equation may be easier to solve
than the original equation, so we try to get successively simpler
equivalent equations until the solution is obvious. There are certain
procedures you can use to create equivalent equations. In this section,
we will discuss solving the two most common types of equations you
will encounter: linear and quadratic.
Linear equations : ax C b D 0 a 6D 0
Quadratic equations : ax 2 C bx C c D 0 a 6D 0
Linear Equations
To solve the first-degree (or linear) equation, isolate the variable on
one side. That is, the solution of ax C b D 0 is
b
x D , where a 6D 0
a
36 Chapter 2
To solve a linear equation, use the following steps:
Step 1: Use the distributive property to clear the equation of paren-

theses. If the equation is a rational expression, multiply both sides by
the appropriate expression to eliminate the denominator. Be sure to
check the solutions obtained by ‘‘plugging’’ the values back into the
original equation.
Step 2: Add the same number to both sides of the equality to obtain
an equation in which all of the terms involving the variable are on one
side and all of the other terms are on the other side.
Step 3: Multiply (or divide) both sides of the equation by the same
nonzero number to isolate the variable on one side.
EXAMPLE 2.9 Solving a linear equation
Solve 4x 3 C 5x D 58 C x .
Solution
4x 3 C 5x D 58 C x
4x 12 C 5x D 40 C 5x
9x 12 D 40 C 5x
4x 12 D 40
4x D 52
x D 13
Check: 413 3 C 513 D 145, and 58 C 13 D 145.
EXAMPLE 2.10 Solving a rational equation
xC1 xC2
Solve D .
x2 x2
Solution
x C 1 x 2 D x C 2 x 2
x 2 2x C x 2 D x 2 4
x 2 D 4
Chapter 2 37
x D 2
xD2
Notice that x D 2 causes division by 0, so the solution set is empty.
EXAMPLE 2.11 Solving a literal equation
Solve 4x C 5xy C 3y 2 D 10 for x.
Solution
4x C 5xy D 10 3y 2
4 C 5y x D 10 3y 2
10 3y 2 4
xD , y 6D
4 C 5y 5
Quadratic Equations: To solve a second-degree (or quadratic)

equation, first obtain a zero on one side. Next, try to factor the
quadratic. If it is factorable, set each factor equal to zero and solve. If
it is not factorable, use the quadratic formula:
HANDBOOK THEOREM 1 Quadratic Formula

The solution of ax 2 C bx C c D 0 is
p
b š b2 4ac
xD , where a 6D 0
2a
Examples 2.12–2.16 here are similar to Problems 7–18 in Problem Set
1.1.
EXAMPLE 2.12 Solving a quadratic equation by factoring
Solve 2x 2 x 3 D 0.
Solution Factoring yeilds 2x 3 x C 1 D 0. If 2x 3 D 0, then

x D 32 ; if x C 1 D 0, then x D 1. The solution is x D 32 , 1.
EXAMPLE 2.13 Solving a quadratic equation by using the

quadratic formula
Solve 5x 2 3x 4 D 0.
38 Chapter 2
Solution a D 5, b D 3, and c D 4; thus (since the equation does

not factor),
p p
3š 9 45 4 3 š 89
xD D
25 10
EXAMPLE 2.14 Solving a literal equation by using the quadratic

formula
Solve x 2 C 2xy C 3y 2 4 D 0 for x.
Solution a D 1, b D 2y, c D 3y 2 4; thus,

2y š 4y 2 41 3y 2 4
xD
21

2y š 16 8y 2
D
2
D y š 4 2y 2
EXAMPLE 2.15 Solving an absolute-value equation
Solve j5x C 2j D 12.
Solution Use Property 7 of Table 1.1 in the text to write the

absolute-value equation as two equations:
5x C 2 D 12 5x C 2 D 12
5x D 10 5x D 14
14
xD2 xD
5
14
The solution is x D 2, .
5
Exponential Equations: See Examples 4, 7, and 9 of Section 2.4
of the text.
Logarithmic Equations: See Examples 5 and 8 of Section 2.4 of
the text.
Higher Degree Equations: See Examples 2.36, 2.37, and 2.38 on
pp. 40–41.
Trigonometric Equations: See Section 4.7, pp. 71–74.
Chapter 2 39
EXAMPLE 2.16 Solving absolute-value equations
a. Solve j5x C 2j D 12. b. Solve j5 3wj D 3.
Solution
a. Use property 7 of Table 1.1 in the text to write two equations:
5x C 2 D 12 5x C 2 D 12
5x D 10 5x D 14
14
xD2 xD
5
14
The solution is x D 2, .
5
b. Use property 1 of Table 1.1 of the text, jaj ½ a, to see that there
are no real values for w that make this equation true.
2.6 Completing the Square

In Section 1.1 of the text, this procedure of completing the square is
used to find the equation of a circle.
In algebra, the method of completing the square was first introduced

as a technique for solving quadratic equations. The method leads to a
proof of the quadratic formula. However, when we are working with
conic sections, we need to complete the square whenever the conic is
not centered at the origin. (See Chapters 6 and 7 of this Handbook.)
Consider
Ax 2 C Bx C C D 0
We wish to put this into the form

2
xC? D some number
To do this, we perform the following steps below:
Step 1: Subtract C (the constant term) from both sides:
Ax 2 C Bx D C
Step 2: Divide both sides by A. (A 6D 0; if A D 0, the equation would

not be quadratic.) That is, we want the coefficient of the squared term
to be 1. The result of dividing by A is
B C
x2 C xD
A A
40 Chapter 2

B 2
Step 3: Add to both sides. That is, take one-half of the
2A
coefficient of the first-degree term, square it, and add it to both sides:
2
2 B B B2 C
x C xC D 2

A 2A 4A A
Step 4: The expression on the left is now a perfect square and can
be factored:
B 2 B2 C
xC D 2
2A 4A A
EXAMPLE 2.17 Completing the square
Complete the square for x 2 C 2x 5 D 0.
Solution
x 2 C 2x 5 D 0
x 2 C 2x D 5
x 2 C 2x C 1 D 5 C 1
x C 1 2
D6
EXAMPLE 2.18 Completing the square when the expression

involves fractions
Complete the square for 3x 2 C 5x 4 D 0.
Solution
3x 2 C 5x 4 D 0
3x 2 C 5x D 4
5 4
x2 C x D
3 3
2
5 5 4 25
x2 C x C D C
3 6 3 36
2
5 73
xC D
6 36
Chapter 2 41
EXAMPLE 2.19 Completing the square in two variables
Complete the square in both the x and the y terms:

x 2 C y 2 C 4x 9y 13 D 0
Solution Associate the x and y terms:

x 2 C 4x C y 2 9y D 13

2 2 81 81
x C 4x C 4 C y 9y C D 13 C 4 C
4 4

9 2 149
2
x C 2 C y D
2 4
EXAMPLE 2.20 Completing the square in two variables
Complete the square in both the x and the y terms:

2x 2 3y 2 12x C 6y C 7 D 0
Solution Associate the x and y terms:

2x 2 12x C 3y 2 C 6y D 7
In this example, we cannot divide by the coefficient of the squared
terms, because we need to make both the x 2 and the y 2 coefficients
equal to 1. Instead, we factor
2x 2 6x 3y 2 2y D 7
Now we complete the square; be sure you add the same number to
both sides.
2x 2 6x C 9 3y 2 2y C 1 D 7 C 18 3

add 18 to both sides add 3 to both sides
2x 3 2 3y 1 2
D8
2.7 Solving Inequalities
Linear Inequalities
The first-degree inequality is solved following the steps outlined in the
previous section for solving first-degree equations. The only difference
is that, when we multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by
42 Chapter 2
a negative value, the order of the inequality is reversed. That is, if

a < b, then
a C c < b C c for any number c
a c < b c for any number c
ac < bc for any positive number c
ac > bc for any negative number c
A similar result holds if we use , >, or ½.
Answers to inequality problems are often intervals on a real-number
line. We use the following notation for intervals:
Interval notation is first introduced in Section 1.1 of the text.

Interval notation is used in stating the solutions to most inequal-
ities. You might wish to review in this section how interval
notation is used.
closed interval (endpoints included) :
a b
[a, b]
open interval (endpoints excluded) :
a b
a, b
a
a, 1
half-open (or half-closed) interval :
a b
a, b]
a b
[a, b
a
1, a]
To denote two intervals that are not connected, we use the notation
for the union of two sets:
a b c d
[a, b [ c, d]
a b c
[a, b [ b, c]
EXAMPLE 2.21 Solving a linear inequality
Solve 5x C 3 < 3x 15.

Chapter 2 43
Solution
2x C 3 < 15
2x < 18
x < 9
The solution is 1, 9 .
EXAMPLE 2.22 Solving a linear inequality
Solve 2x C 1 x 5 2x 3 x C 2
Solution
2x 2 9x 5 2x 2 C x 6
9x 5 x 6
10x 1
1
x½
10
The solution set is [0.1, 1).
The word between is often used with a double inequality. We say
that x is between a and b if a < x < b and that x is between a and b,
inclusive if a x b.
EXAMPLE 2.23 Solving a between relationship
Solve 5 x C 4 5.
Solution
5 x C 4 5
5 4 x C 4 4 5 4
9 x 1
The solution set is [9, 1]. We say that x is between 9 and 1,

inclusive.
Quadratic Inequalities
The method of solving quadratic inequalities is similar to the method
of solving quadratic equations:
44 Chapter 2
Step 1: Obtain a zero on one side of the inequality.
Step 2: Factor if possible. If the inequality is a rational expression,

factor the numerator and the denominator separately.
Step 3: Set each factor equal to zero. These values are not necessarily
the solution of the inequality. If the inequality is not factorable, we
treat the entire expression as a single factor and solve by the quadratic
formula. Values for which the factors are zero are called the critical
values of x. Plot these values on a number line. The points determine
one or more intervals on the line.
Step 4: Choose some value in each interval. It will make the

inequality true or false in that interval; we accordingly include or
exclude that interval from the solution set.
EXAMPLE 2.24 Solving a quadratic inequality by factoring
Solve x 2 < 6 x.
Solution
x2 C x 6 < 0
x 2 x C 3 < 0

Factors
Product of factors < 0 means that the product of factors is negative;

product of factors > 0 means that the product of factors is positive.
For this example, we are seeking values of x that make the product of
the factors negative.
Signs of factors:
Solve: x−2=0
x=2 This is a critical value.
←
x − 2: x<2 x>2
x − 2 is neg ← → x − 2 is pos
Write: − − − − − ++++++
−3 2
x+3=0
x = −3 This is a critical value.
←
x + 3: x < −3 x > −3
x + 3 is neg ← → x + 3 is pos
Write: − − − +++++++
−3 2
Chapter 2 45
We summarize these steps by writing

− − − − − +++ ++
− − ++++ +++ ++
neg . neg neg . pos pos . pos
pos neg pos ← product of factors

critical values → −3 2
We see from the number line that the segment labeled negative
is 3, 2 ; this is the solution (except for a consideration of the
endpoints). In this example, the endpoints are not included, so the
solution is an open interval. These steps are summarized as
− − − + + + ← signs of factors
a b
pos neg pos ← sign of product (negative because of <)

EXAMPLE 2.25 Solving an inequality by examining the factors
Solve 2 x x C 3 x 1 ½ 0.
Solution Plotting critical values and checking the signs of the factors,
we have
+ − − + + − + + + −+ +
−3 1 2
Endpoints included because of ≥
pos neg pos neg
The solution is 1, 3] [ [1, 2].
EXAMPLE 2.26 Solving a rational inequality
xC3
Solve < 0.
x2
Solution Be careful not to multiply both sides by x 2 , since
we do not know whether x 2 is positive or negative. We could
consider separate cases, but instead we solve the inequality as if it were
quadratic. We set the numerator and denominator each equal to zero
to obtain the critical values x D 3, x D 2. We then plot these values
on a number line and check a value in each interval to determine the
solution.
−− +− ++
−3 2
46 Chapter 2
x3
Solve > 1.
x
Solution
x3
1>0
x
x3x
>0
x
3
>0
x
3
Since 3 < 0 for , we have
x
x<0 x>0
neg ÷ neg neg ÷ pos
− − − +
0
pos neg
xC2
Solve ½ 5.
2x
Solution
xC2
5½0
2x
x C 2 10x
½0
2x
2 9x
½0
2x
+÷− +÷+ −÷+
0 2
neg pos 9 neg
The solution is 0, 29 ]. The endpoints are included when we have

intervals with ½ or . However, values of the variable that cause
division by zero are excluded.
Chapter 2 47
EXAMPLE 2.29 Solving a quadratic inequality that does not

factor
Solve x 2 C 2x 4 < 0.
Solution The left-hand expression is in simplified form and cannot

be factored. Therefore, we proceed by considering x 2 C 2x 4 as a
single factor. To find the critical values, we find the values for which
the factor is zero:
x 2 C 2x 4 D 0
p
2 š4 41 4
xD
2
p
D 1 š 5
Next, we plot the critical values and check the sign of the expression
in each of the intervals:
+ − +
−1 − √5 −1 + √5
p p
The solution is 1 5, 1 C 5 .
2.8 Determinants
Determinants are used in calculus in several places. We first see

them in Section 9.4 of the text, when they are used as memory
devices of an operation called the cross product. In Sections
12.3 and 12.8, we use determinants to calculate what is called
the Jacobian of a transformation. Finally, in Chapter 14, the
Wronskian is defined in terms of an n ð n determinant.
The following arrays of numbers are examples of matrices:

a1 b1
a1 b1 a1 b1 c1 d1
a2 b2
a2 b2 a2 b2 c2 d2
a3 b3
The first of these matrices has two rows and two columns and is called
a ‘‘two-by-two matrix’’ (written ‘‘2 ð 2 matrix’’), the second is a
3 ð 2 matrix, since it has three rows and two columns, and the last
one is a 2 ð 4 matrix. The a’s, b’s, c’s, etc., that appear are called the
entries of the matrix. An n ð n matrix (i.e., a matrix with n rows and
n columns, and hence a matrix with the same number of rows and
columns) is called a square matrix. Associated with each square matrix
is a certain number called the determinant of the matrix. We shall
show how to find the determinant of a 2 ð 2 matrix and a 3 ð 3 matrix.
48 Chapter 2
DETERMINANT

a b
If A is the 2 ð 2 matrix , then the determinant of A
c d
is defined to be the number ad bc.

a b
Some notations for this determinant are det A, , and jAj. We
c d
will generally use jAj.
Note that determinants always have the same number of rows
WARNING
and columns; that is, they are square: 2 ð 2, 3 ð 3, 4 ð 4, Ð Ð Ð.

EXAMPLE 2.30 Evaluating determinants

4 2
a. D 4 Ð 3 2 1 D 12 2 D 10
1 3

2 2
b. D2Ð22Ð2D0
2 2

1 0
c. D1Ð10Ð0D1
0 1

1 2
d. D1Ð42Ð2D0
2 4
We next define the determinant of a 3 ð 3 matrix. We need a

preliminary observation. If we delete the first row and first column of
the matrix
a1 b1 c1
A D a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3

b2 c2
We obtain the 2 ð 2 matrix . This 2 ð 2 matrix is referred to
b3 c3
as the minor associated with the entry in the first row and first column.
Similarly, the minor associated with b1 is obtained by deleting
the
first
a2 c2
row and second column of A, and hence this minor is . The
a3 c3
a b2
minor associated with c1 is 2 . The determinant of the 3 ð 3
a3 b3
matrix A is obtained by using these minors as follows:

b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2

jAj D a1
b1
C c1
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
minor minor minor
D a1 associated b1 associated C c1 associated
with a1 with b1 with c1
Chapter 2 49
EXAMPLE 2.31 Evaluating a determinant

1 4 1 0 2 2 2 2
C 1 0
2 0 2 D 1 4
1 2 3 2 3 1
3 1 2
D 2 C 410 C 2 D 40

a 0 0

It is not difficult to show that 0 b 0 D abc

0 0 c
We found the determinant for a 3 ð 3 matrix by using the entries in the
first row and their minors. In fact, it is possible to find the determinant
using any row (or column); the formulas are similar and use the
minors of the terms in the given row (or column), but adjustments
must be made for the signs of the minors. The interested reader can
find these results in any standard college algebra book. The following
four properties of determinants are worth noting:
HANDBOOK THEOREM 2 Properties of determinants
Property 1 If B is the matrix obtained from A by multi-
plying a row (or column) of A by a real
number k, then jBj D kjAj.
Property 2 If B is the matrix obtained from A by adding
to a row (or column) of A a multiple of some
other row (or column) of A, then jBj D jAj.
Property 3 If the matrix B is obtained from A by
interchanging two rows (or columns), then
jBj D jAj.
Property 4 If two rows (or columns) of a matrix A are
equal or proportional, then jAj D 0.
EXAMPLE 2.32 Properties of determinants illustrated

ka1 kb1 a1 b a1 b1
a. Property 1: D 1 D k
a2 b2 ka2 kb2 a2 b2
Property2: Multiplying each entry in the first row of the matrix
b.
1 2
D A by 2, and adding the result to the corresponding
2 5
1 2
entry in the second row, we obtain the matrix B D , and
0 1
property 2 asserts that jAj D jBj. (Check for yourself to see that
this is correct.)
c. Property 3 (interchange the first and third rows):

1 3 5 7 1 5

3 2 1 D 3 2 1

7 1 5 1 3 5
50 Chapter 2

1 2

d. 2 4 D 0
Note that 2 times an entry in row 1 is equal to the corresponding
entry in row 2.
EXAMPLE 2.33 Multiplicative property of determinants
Verify that 2 ð 2 determinants have the following multiplicative

property:

a1 b1 a2 b2 a1 a2 C b1 c2 a1 b2 C b1 d2
D
c1 d1 c2 d2 c1 a2 C d1 c2 c1 b2 C d1 d2
Solution

a1 b1 a2 b2
D a1 d1 b1 c1 a2 d2 b2 c2
c1 d 1 c2 d2
D a1 a2 d1 d2 b1 c1 a2 d2 a1 d1 b2 c2 C b1 b2 c1 c2
D a1 a2 C b1 c2 c1 b2 C d1 d2 a1 b2 C b1 d2 c1 a2 C d1 c2

a1 a2 C b1 c2 a1 b2 C b1 d2
D
c1 a2 C d1 c2 c1 b2 C d1 d2
2.9 Functions
Definition: A function f is a rule that assigns, to each element x of a
set X, a unique element y of a set Y. (See Section 1.3 of the text.)
In this handbook, we will simply list and categorize some of the
more common types of functions you will encounter in calculus.
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS:
Definition: An algebraic function is a function that satisfies an
equation of the form
an x y n C an1 x y n1 C Ð Ð Ð C a0 x D 0
where the coefficient functions ak x are polynomials in x.
Polynomial Functions
Definition: fx D an x n C an1 x n1 C an2 x n2 C Ð Ð Ð C a2 x 2 C
a1 x C a0 , an 6D 0
Constant function: fx D a

Chapter 2 51
Linear function: fx D ax C b

Standard form: Ax C By C C D 0
Point-slope form: y k D mx h
Slope-intercept form: y D mx C b

y2 y1
Two-point form: y y1 D x x1 or
x2 x1

x y 1

x1 y 1 1 D 0

x2 y 2 1
x y
Intercept form: C D1
a b
Horizontal line: yDk
Vertical line: xDh
Quadratic function: fx D ax 2 C bx C c, a 6D 0

Cubic function: fx D ax 3 C bx 2 C cx C d, a 6D 0
Miscellaneous Algebraic Functions

x if x ½ 0
Absolute value function: fx D jxj D
x if x < 0
Greatest integer function: fx D [[x]] This is the unique integer

[[x]] satisfying [[x]] x < [[x]] C 1; this means that [[x]] is the largest
integer not exceeding x. For example, [[2.3]] D 2, [[2.3]] D 3, and
[[2]] D 2.
Power function: fx D x r for any real number r.
Px
Rational function: fx D , where Px and Dx are two
Dx
polynomial functions, with Dx 6D 0.
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS:
Definition: Functions that are not algebraic are called transcen-
dental.
Exponential function: fx D bx b > 0, b 6D 1
Logarithmic function: fx D logb xb > 0, b 6D 1

If b D 10, then f is a common logarithm: fx D log x
If b D e, then f is a natural logarithm: fx D ln x
52 Chapter 2
Trigonometric functions: Let ' be any angle in standard position,

and let Px, y be any point on the terminal side of the angle a distance
x y y
of r from the origin r 6D 0 . Then cos ' D , sin ' D , tan ' D ,
r r x
r r x
sec ' D , csc ' D , and cot ' D .
x y y
2.10 Polynomials
THEOREMS Let Px and Qx be polynomial functions.
Zero factor theorem: If Px Qx D 0, then either Px D 0 or

Qx D 0 (or both).
Remainder theorem: If Px is divided by x r until a constant is

obtained, then the remainder is equal to Pr .
Intermediate-value theorem for a polynomial function: If Px

is a polynomial function on [a, b] such that Pa 6D Pb , then P takes
on every value between Pa and Pb over the interval [a, b].
Factor theorem: If r is a root of the polynomial equation Px D 0,

then x r is a factor of Px . Also, if x r is a factor of P(x), then r
is a root of the polynomial equation Px D 0.
Root limitation theorem: A polynomial function of degree n has,

at most, n distinct roots.
Location theorem: If P is a polynomial function such that Pa and

Pb are opposite in sign, then there is at least one real root on the
interval [a, b].
Rational root theorem: If Px has integer coefficients and has a

rational root p/q (where p/q is reduced), then p is a factor of the
constant term, a0 , and q is a factor of the leading coefficient, an .
Upper and lower bound theorem: If a > 0 and, in the synthetic

division of Px by x a, all the numbers in the last row are either
positive or negative, then a is an upper bound for the roots of Px D 0.
If b < 0 and, in the synthetic division of Px by x b, the numbers
in the last row alternate in sign, then b is a lower bound for the roots
of Px D 0.
Descartes’s rule of signs: Let Px be written in descending powers

of x. Then
1. The number of positive real zeros is equal to the number of sign
changes or is equal to that number decreased by an even integer.
Chapter 2 53
2. The number of negative real zeros is equal to the number of sign

changes in Px or is equal to that number decreased by an
even integer.
Fundamental theorem of algebra: If Px is a polynomial of

degree n ½ 1 with complex coefficients, then Px D 0 has at least
one complex root.
Number-of-roots theorem: If Px is a polynomial of degree n ½ 1

with complex coefficients, then Px D 0 has exactly n roots (if roots
are counted according to their multiplicity).
EXAMPLE 2.34 Synthetic division
Divide x 4 C 3x 3 12x 2 C 5x 2 by x 2.
Solution To do synthetic division, the divisor must be of the form

x b.
This is the number b.

# 1 3 12 5 2 Coefficients of
2j 2Ł 10 4 2 given polynomial
1 5 2 1 0
" "
— Add "
Remainder
Bring down leading coefficient
Ł
The numbers in this row are found as follows:
2 Ð 1 D 2; 2 Ð 5 D 10; 2 Ð 2 D 4; 2 Ð 1 D 2
The degree of the result is one less than the degree of the given
polynomial and has coefficients given by the last row (1, 5, 2, and 1
for this example; the last entry is the remainder). Thus,
x 4 C 3x 3 12x 2 C 5x 2
D x 3 C 5x 2 2x C 1
x2
EXAMPLE 2.35 Synthetic division with zero coefficients and a

remainder
Divide x 5 3x 2 C 1 by x 2.
54 Chapter 2
Solution Note: x 5 3x 2 C 1 D x 5 C 0x 4 C 0x 3 3x 2 C 0x C 1.
1 0 0 3 0 1
2j 2 4 8 10 20
1 2 4 5 10 21 R
x 5 3x 2 C 1 4 3 2
21
D x C 2x C 4x C 5x C 10 C
x2 x2

EXAMPLE 2.36 Solving a polynomial equation
Solve 12x 3 6x 2 24x C 18 D 0.
Solution Using the rational root theorem, p D š1, š2, š3, š6, š9,
š18 and q D 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12. There are many possible rational roots of
p
the form . We try these values using synthetic division, until we find
q
a root that, in turn, allows us to write a factorization of polynomials
of a degree lower than that of the original polynomial. We obtain
12 6 24 18
1 12 6 18 0
The root is 1 (zero remainder), so x 1 and 12x 2 C 6x 18 are

factors. Solving thus yields
12x 3 6x 2 24x C 18 D 0
x 1 12x 2 C 6x 18 D 0
6x 1 2x 2 C x 3 D 0
6x 1 2x C 3 x 1 D 0
The roots are 32 , 1, where 1 has multiplicity 2.
EXAMPLE 2.37 Solving a polynomial equation with repeated

roots
Solve r 4 5r 3 C 6r 2 C 4r 8 D 0.
Solution The possible rational roots are š1, š2, š4, and š8.
1 5 6 4 8 Coefficients of
1j 1 6 12 8 given polynomial
1 6 12 8 0
2j 2 8 8
1 4 4 0
Chapter 2 55
Solving the remaining quadratic:
x 2 4x C 4 D 0
2
x 2 D0
xD2
The roots are 1 and 2. Note: The root 2 has multiplicity 3.
EXAMPLE 2.38 Solving a polynomial equation that has no

rational roots
Solve x 4 3x 2 6x 2 D 0.
p
Solution p: š1, š2 and q: 1, so : š1, š2. We try these values,
q
using synthetic division:
1 0 3 6 2
1 1 1 2 8 10
2 1 2 1 4 10
1 1 1 2 4 2
2 1 2 1 8 14 Lower bound
There are no rational roots. (We have tried all the numbers on our
list.) Next, we verify the type of roots by using Descartes’s rule of
signs. First,
fx D x 4 3x 2 6x 2
There is one sign change, so there is one positive root. Next,
fx D x 4 3x 2 C 6x 2
There are three sign changes, so we have three negative roots or one
negative root.
Using synthetic division to find some additional points yields
0, 2 for the y-intercept;

1.5, 12.6875 ;
3, 34 ; there are no roots larger than 3
Using the intermediate-value theorem and synthetic division, we can

find the roots to any desired degree of accuracy. We find the following:
56 Chapter 2
1 0 3 6 2
0.5 1 0.5 2.75 4.625 0.3125
0.4 1 0.4 2.84 4.864 0.0544
0.41 1 0.41 2.8319 4.8389 0.0161
0.42 1 0.42 2.8236 4.8141 0.0219
Remember that there is a root between 0.41 and 0.42, since the
remainder is positive for 0.42 and negative for 0.41. We continue
in this fashion to approximate the root to any degree of accuracy
desired. This is a good problem for a calculator or a computer. We
repeat the procedure for the other roots to find (correct to the nearest
tenth) 0.4, 2.4. The graph can be used to verify that these are the
only real roots.
You may need to consult a precalculus textbook for a review of how

to solve polynomial equations.
2.11 PROBLEM SET 2

Perform the indicated operations in Problems 1–12.
1. 25 Ð 27 2. 52 Ð 58 3. 52 3
4. 82 4
38 35 25
5. 5 6. 8 7. 25 Ð 28 8. 8
33 3 2 2/3
2 8
9. 4 10. 82/3 Ð 41/2 11. 163/4 Ð 81/3 12. 1/2
2 4
Perform the indicated operations Problems 13–22. Assume that a,
b, and c are positive real numbers.
13. a2 b3 c5 Ð a3 b5 c2 14. a2 b3 c5 Ð a2 b4 c2
2 3 5
a b
15. ab2 c3 4 16.
c2
2 2 1 2 2 1
a b a b
17. 18.
c2 c2
2 2 2
a b
19. 20. x 2 C y 2
c2
21. x 2 C y 2 2 22. a1/2 b2/3 c1/5 15
Factor the expressions in Problems 23–32.
23. 2a1/2 b1/2 C 3a1/2 b1/2 24. 3a1/2 b C 4a1/2

25. a1/2 b C a1/2 b2 26. a1/2 b1/3 C a1/2 b1/3
4
27. x 12 2x 12
(Adapted from Problem 20, Section 4.3, of text.)
Chapter 2 57
28. 12u3 6u2 24u

29. 2x2x C 3 2 C 2x 2 2x C 3 2
30. [2x]4x C 5 3 C x 2 [34x C 5 2 4 ]
(From Example 9, Section 3.5, of text.)
31. x C 1 3 2 2x C 3 2 C 2x C 3 2 3 x C 1 2 1
32. 42x 2 C 1 3 4x x 2 2 5 C 52x 2 C 1 4 2x x 2 2 4
In Problems 33–58, solve each equation or inequality for x.
33. 3x 9 ½ 12 34. x > 36

35. 32 4x 0 36. 53 x > 3x 1
37. 5 5x 25 38. 3 x < 8
39. 5 < 3x C 2 5 40. 5 3 2x < 18
41. x 2 C 5x 6 D 0 42. x 2 C 5x C 6 D 0
43. 3x 2 D 7x 44. 7x 2 D 2
2
45. 5x D 3 4x 46. 4x 2 D 12x 9
2
47. 2x C x w D 0 48. 2x 2 C wx C 5 D 0
49. 4x 2 4x C 1 t2 D 0 50. y D 2x 2 C x C 6
51. 4x 2 3t C 10 x C 6t C 4 D 0, t > 2
52. x 3 2 C y 2 2 D 4
53. x C 1 2x C 5 7 3x > 0
54. x 2 3x C 2 3 2x < 0
x2x 1 x
55. >0 56. <0
5x 2x C 3 x 2
57. 2x 2 C 4x C 5 ½ 0 58. x 2 2x 6 0
In Problems 59–70, find the value of the given determinant.

3 0 0
0 1 0

5 2
59. 5 1 0 60. 1 32 1

1 2 48 1
2 5
2 0 1 0 1 1

61. 1 3 2 62. 1 3 2

2 3 2 1 4 2

1 1 2 2 1 1

63. 0 1 3 64. 1 0 0

1 0 1 0 1 2

1 2 3 i j k

65. 4 7 11 66. 2 1 3

5 9 1 0 7 4
(From Example 5, For variables i, j, and k.
Section 9.4, of text.) (From Example 1, Section 9.4, of text.)
58 Chapter 2

1 2 3 2 3 4

67. 0 0 1 68. 2 0 0

0 1 0 0 1 1

1 2 3 4 8 1 7 5

8 1 5 7 1 2 2 3
69. 70.
2 4 6 8 7 8 15 4

1 5 3 7 3 6 6 9
In Problems 71–76, expand the given quantity.

4
71. a C b 72. a C 2b 3 73. 3x C 2y 3
5 1 p
74. x C 2y 75. C y 4 76. a C 2b 5
x
Solve the polynomial equations in Problems 77–90.
77. x 3 x 2 4x C 4 D 0
78. 2x 3 x 2 18x C 9 D 0
79. x 3 2x 2 9x C 18 D 0
80. x 3 C 2x 2 5x 6 D 0
81. x 3 C 3x 2 4x 12 D 0
82. 2x 3 C x 2 13x C 6 D 0
83. 2x 3 3x 2 32x 15 D 0
84. x 4 12x 3 C 54x 2 108x C 81 D 0
85. x 4 C 3x 3 19x 2 3x C 18 D 0
86. x 4 13x 2 C 36 D 0
87. x 3 C 15x 2 C 71x C 105 D 0
88. x 5 C 6x 4 C x 3 48x 2 92x 48 D 0
89. x 6 3x 4 C 3x 2 1 D 0
90. x 7 C 3x 6 4x 5 16x 4 13x 3 3x 2 D 0
91. Evaluate the determinant

sin * cos ' + sin * sin ' + cos * cos '

sin * sin ' + sin * cos ' + cos * sin '

cos * 0 + sin *
This problem is from Example 6 of Section 12.8
CHAPTER 3
Systems of Equations
3.1 Elementary Methods

Two or more equations that are to be solved at the same time
make up a system of equations. The simultaneous solution of a
system of equations is the intersection of the solution sets of the
individual equations. We use a brace to show that we are looking for
a simultaneous solution. If all the equations in a system are linear, the
system is called a linear system.
GRAPHING METHOD
The graph of each equation in a system of linear equations in two
variables is a line; in the Cartesian plane, two lines must be related to
each other in one of three ways:
1. The graphs intersect at a single point.

2. The graphs are parallel lines. In this case, the solution set is empty,
and the system is called inconsistent. In general, any system that
has an empty solution set is referred to as an inconsistent system.
3. The graphs are the same line. In this case, there are infinitely
many points in the solution set, and any solution of one equation
is also a solution of the other. Such a system is called a dependent
system.
In other words, we graph the equations and check for the intersection
point. If the graphs do not intersect, then the equations represent
an inconsistent system. If the graphs coincide, then the equations
represent a dependent system. When we solve a system by graphing
the equations and then looking for points of intersection, we call the
technique the graphing method.
EXAMPLE 3.1 Graphing method
Solve the given systems by graphing:

2x 3y D 8 2x 3y D 8 2x 3y D 8
a. b. c.
xCy D6 4x 6y D 0 y D 23 x C 83
59
60 Chapter 3
Solution
a. Graph the line 2x 3y D 8:
3y D 2x C 8
y D 23 x C 8
3
Graph the line x C y D 6:
y D x C 6
Look at the point(s) of intersection, as shown in Figure 3.1. The

solution appears to be (2, 4), which can be verified by direct
substitution into both the given equations.
b. The graphs of the given lines are shown in Figure 3.2.
Notice that these lines are parallel; you can show this analytically
by noting that the slopes of the lines are the same. Since the lines
are distinct and parallel, there is no point of intersection. This is
an inconsistent system.
c. The graphs of the given lines are shown in Figure 3.3.
The equations represent the same line. This is a dependent system.

2x 3y D 8
Figure 3.1 Graph of
xCyD6

2x 3y D 8
Figure 3.2 Graph of
4x 6y D 0
Chapter 3 61

2x 3y D 8
Figure 3.3 Graph of
y D 23 x C 83
SUBSTITUTION METHOD
The graphing method can give solutions as accurate as the graphs

you can draw; consequently, it is adequate for many applications.
However, there is often a need for more exact methods.
In general, given a system, the procedure for solving is to write
a simpler equivalent system. Two systems are said to be equiv-
alent if they have the same solution set. In this book, we limit
ourselves to finding only real roots. There are several ways to go
about writing equivalent systems. The first nongraphical method we
consider comes from the substitution property of real numbers and
leads to a substitution method for solving systems.
SUBSTITUTION METHOD FOR SOLVING SYSTEMS OF

EQUATIONS WITH TWO EQUATIONS AND TWO
UNKNOWNS
1. Solve one of the equations for one of the variables.

2. Substitute the expression that you obtain into the other
equation.
3. Solve the resulting equation.
4. Substitute that solution into either of the original
equations to find the value of the other variable.
5. State the solution.
62 Chapter 3
EXAMPLE 3.2 Substitution method

2p C 3q D 5
Solve: .
q D 2p C 7
Solution Since q D 2p C 7, substitute 2p C 7 for q in the other

equation:
2p C 3q D 5
2p C 32p C 7 D 5
2p 6p C 21 D 5
4p D 16
pD4
Now, substitute 4 for p in either of the given equations:
q D 2p C 7
D 24 C 7
D 1
The solution is p, q D 4, 1. If the variables are not x and y, then
you must also show the variables along with the ordered pair. This
establishes which variable is associated with which number — here,
p D 4 and q D 1.
LINEAR COMBINATION (ADDITION) METHOD
A third method for solving systems is termed the linear combination

method (or, as it is often called, the addition method). The method
involves substitution and the idea that if equal quantities are added
to equal quantities, the resulting equation is equivalent to the original
system. In general, addition will not simplify the system unless the
numerical coefficients of one or more terms are opposites. However,
you can often force them to be opposites by multiplying one or both
of the given equations by nonzero constants.
Chapter 3 63
LINEAR COMBINATION METHOD FOR SOLVING SYSTEMS

OF EQUATIONS
1. Multiply one or both of the equations by a constant or

constants so that the coefficients of one of the variables
become opposites.
2. Add corresponding members of the equations to obtain
a new equation in a single variable.
3. Solve the derived equation for that variable.
4. Substitute the value found into either of the original
equations, and solve for the second variable.
5. State the solution.
EXAMPLE 3.3 Linear combination method
Solve the following system by the linear combination method:

3x C 5y D 2
2x C 3y D 0
Solution Multiply both sides of the first equation by 2 and both sides
of the second equation by 3. This procedure forces the coefficients
of x to be opposites:

2 3x C 5y D 2
3 2x C 3y D 0
This means you should add the equations.

# 6x C 10y D 4
C 6x 9y D 0
y D 4 Add the equations.
If y D 4, then 2x C 3y D 0 means that 2x C 34 D 0, which

implies that x D 6. The solution is 6, 4.
EXAMPLE 3.4 Method of substitution followed by addition
Solve the system
This is from Example 1 of Section 11.8.

64 Chapter 3

2x D 1
2y D 1 .
xCy D1
Solution We use substitution. Since the first and second equations

are both equal to , they must
be equal to each other, giving the system
2x D 2y
xCy D1
We write this system in standard form as

2x 2y D 0
xCy D1
or
xy D0
C
xCy D1
We add the equations to obtain
2x D 1
1
xD 2
By substitution, 12 y D 0, or y D 12 . Finally, if x D 12 and y D 12 ,

then that D 2 12 D 1. The solution is x D 12 , y D 12 , D 1.

3.2 Matrix Methods

One of the most common types of problems to which we can apply
mathematics in a variety of different disciplines is the solution of
systems of equations. In fact, common real-world problems require
the simultaneous solution of systems involving 3, 4, 5, or even 20 or
100 unknowns. The methods of the previous section will not suffice,
and, in practice, techniques that allow a computer or a calculator to
help in solving systems are common. In this section, we introduce
a general way of solving large systems of equations so that we can
handle the solution of a system of m equations with n unknowns.
DEFINITION OF A MATRIX
Consider a system with unknowns x1 and x2 . We use subscripts 1 and
2 to denote the unknowns, instead of using variables x and y, because
we want to be able to handle n unknowns, which we can easily denote
as x1 , x2 , x3 , Ð Ð Ð , xn ; if we continued by using x, y, z, Ð Ð Ð for systems
Chapter 3 65
in general, we would soon run out of letters. Here is the way we will
write a general system of two equations with two unknowns.

a11 x1 C a12 x2 D b1
a21 x1 C a22 x2 D b2
The coefficients of the unknowns use double subscripts to denote

their position in the system; a11 is used to denote the numerical
coefficient of the first variable in the first row, a12 denotes the
numerical coefficient of the second variable in the first row, and so
on. The constants are denoted by b1 and b2 .
We now separate the parts of this system of equations into rectan-
gular arrays of numbers. An array of numbers is called a matrix. A
matrix is denoted by enclosing the array in large brackets.

a11 a12
Let [A] be the matrix (array) of coefficients: .
a21 a22

x
Let [X] be the matrix of unknowns: 1 .
x2

b
Let [B] be the matrix of constants: 1 .
b2
We will write the system of equations as a matrix equation, [A][X] D
[B], but before we do this, we need to do some preliminary work with
matrices.
Matrices are classified by the number of (horizontal) rows and
(vertical) columns. The numbers of rows and columns of a matrix
need not be the same, but if they are, the matrix is called a square
matrix.
The order or dimension of a matrix is given by an expression m
ð n (pronounced ‘‘m by n’’), where m is the number of rows and n
is the number of columns. For example, the preceding matric [A] is
a matrix of order 2 ð 2, and matrices (plural for matrix) [X] and [B]
have order 2 ð 1.
MATRIX FORM OF A SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS

We write a system of equations in the form of an augmented matrix.
The matrix refers to the matrix of coefficients, and we augment (add
to, or affix) this matrix by writing the constant terms at the right of the
matrix (separated by a dashed line):

a11 x1 C a12 x2 D b1 a11 a12 j b1
in matrix form is
a21 x1 C a22 x2 D b2 a21 a22 j b2
66 Chapter 3
GAUSS–JORDAN ELIMINATION
Gauss–Jordan elimination is a general method for solving all these
types of systems. We write the system in augmented matrix form and
then carry out a process that transforms the matrix until the solution
is obvious.
ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS AND PIVOTING

What process will allow us to transform a matrix into diagonal
form? We begin with some steps called elementary row operations.
Elementary row operations change the form of a matrix, but the
new form represents an equivalent system. Matrices that represent
equivalent systems are called equivalent matrices; we now introduce
the elementary row operations, which allow us to write equivalent
matrices. Let us work with a system consisting of three equations and
three unknowns (any size will work the same way), for example,
System format Matrix format

2x 2y C 4z D 14 2 2 4 j 14
x y 2z D 9 [A] D 1 1 2 j 9
3x C 2y C z D 16 3 2 1 j 16
For the discussion that follows, we call this matrix A and denote it by
[A].
Elementary Row Operation 1: RowSwap
Interchanging two equations is equivalent to interchanging two rows

in the matrix format, and certainly, if we do this, the solution to the
system will be the same:

x y 2z D 9 1 1 2 j 9
2x 2y C 4z D 14 2 2 4 j 14
3x C 2y C z D 16 3 2 1 j 16
In this example, we interchanged the first and the second rows of the
matrix. If we denote the original matrix as [A], then we indicate the
operation of interchanging the first and second rows of matrix A by
RowSwap([A], 1, 2).
Chapter 3 67
Elementary Row Operation 2: RowC
Since adding the entries of one equation to the corresponding entries

(similar terms) of another equation will not change the solution of a
system of equations, the second elementary row operation is called
row addition. (The same step is called linear combination in the
previous section.) In terms of matrices, we see that this operation
corresponds to adding one row to another:

2x 2y C 4z D 14 2 2 4 j 14
x y 2z D 9 [A] D 1 1 2 j 9
3x C 2y C z D 16 3 2 1 j 16
Add row 1 to row 3:

2x 2y C 4z D 14 2 2 4 j 14
x y 2z D 9 1 1 2 j 9
5x C 5z D 30 5 0 5 j 30
Notice that only row 3 changes; we call the row being added to
(i.e., the row that is being changed) the target row. We indicate this
operation by Row C [A], 1, 3 .
"
targetrow
Elementary Row Operation 3: *Row
Multiplying or dividing both sides of an equation by any nonzero

number does not change the simultaneous solution; then, in matrix
format, the solution will not be changed if any row is multiplied or
divided by a nonzero constant. In this context, we call the constant a
scalar. For example, we can multiply both sides of the first equation of
the original system by 12 . (Note that dividing both sides of an equation
by 2 can be considered as multiplying both sides by 12 .) The original
system is

2x 2y C 4z D 14 2 2 4 j 14
x y 2z D 9 [A] D 1 1 2 j 9
3x C 2y C z D 16 3 2 1 j 16
68 Chapter 3
Multiply the first row by 12 to obtain


x y C 2z D 7 1 1 2 j 7
x y 2z D 9 1 1 2 j 9
3x C 2y C z D 16 3 2 1 j 16
scalar
#
We indicate this operation by *RowC( 12 ,[A], 1 ).
"
target row
Elementary Row Operation 4: *Row+
In solving systems, more often than not we need to multiply both
sides of an equation by a scalar before adding to make the coefficients
opposites. Elementary row operation 4 combines row operations 2
and 3 so that the two can be accomplished in one step. Let us return
to the original system:

2x 2y C 4z D 14 2 2 4 j 14
x y 2z D 9 [A] D 1 1 2 j 9
3x C 2y C z D 16 3 2 1 j 16
We can change this system by multiplying the second equation by 2
and adding the result to the first equation. In matrix terminology, we
say that we multiply the second row by 2 and add it to the first row.
We denote this by
scalar
#
ŁRow C 2 , [A], 2, 1
"
target row

8z D 32 0 0 8 j 32
x y 2z D 9 1 1 2 j 9
3x C 2y C z D 16 3 2 1 j 16
Once again, multiply the second row, this time by 3, and add it to
the third row. Wait! Why 3? Where did that come from? The idea
is the same one we used in the linear combination method: We use a
number that will give a zero coefficient to the x in the third equation:

8z D 32 0 0 8 j 32
x y 2z D 9 1 1 2 j 9
5y C 7z D 43 0 5 7 j 43
Chapter 3 69
Note that the multiplied row is not changed; instead, the changed row
is the one to which the multiplied row is added. We call the original
row the pivot row. Note also that we worked, not with the original
matrix [A], but rather with the previous answer, so we indicate this by
scalar pivot row

# #
ŁRow C 3 , [Ans], 2 , 3
"
target row
There you have it! You can carry out these four elementary
operations until you have a system for which the solution is obvious,
as illustrated by the next example.
EXAMPLE 3.5 Comparing system and matrix formats

2x 5y D 5
Solve, using both system format and matrix format: .
x 2y D 1
Solution
System format Matrix format Operation performed

2x 5y D 5 2 5 j 5
[A] D RowSwap[A], 1, 2
x 2y D 1 1 2 j 1

x 2y D 1 1 2 j 1
This matrix is called
2x 5y D 5 2 5 j 5
[Ans] because it is
the result of the
previous operation.
ŁRow C
2, [Ans], 1, 2

x 2y D 1 1 2 j 1
This matrix is now
y D 3 0 1 j 3
referred to as [Ans].
*Row(1,[Ans],2)

x 2y D 1 1 2 j 1
*Row+(2,[Ans],2,1)
y D 3 0 1 j 3

x D 5 1 0 j 5
y D 3 0 1 j 3
The solution 5, 3 is now obvious.

70 Chapter 3
As you study Example 3.5, first look at how the elementary row
operations led to a system equivalent to the first — but one for which
the solution is obvious. The steps chosen in that example illustrate
a very efficient method of using the elementary row operations to
determine a system whose solution is obvious. Let us restate the
elementary row operations and the operation called pivoting.
PIVOTING
There are four elementary row operations for producing

equivalent matrices:
1. RowSwap Interchange any two rows.

2. RowC Row addition: Add a row to any other
row.
3. *Row Scalar multiplication: Multiply (or
divide) all the elements of a row by the
same nonzero real number.
4. *RowC Multiply all the entries of a row (the
pivot row) by a nonzero real number,
and add each resulting product to the
corresponding entry of another specified
row (the target row).
This operation changes only the target row.
These elementary row operations are used together in a

process called pivoting, in which we
1. divide all entries in the row in which the pivot appears
(called the pivot row) by the nonzero pivot element so
that the pivot entry becomes a 1. This procedure uses
elementary row operation 3.
2. obtain zeros above and below the pivot element by
using elementary row operation 4.
You are now ready to see the method worked out by Gauss and
Jordan, known as Gauss–Jordan elimination. It efficiently uses the
elementary row operations to diagonalize the matrix. That is, the first
pivot is the first entry in the first row, first column; the second is the
entry in the second row, second column; and so on, until the solution
is obvious. A pivot element is an element that is used to eliminate
Chapter 3 71
elements above and below it in a given column by using elementary

row operations.
GAUSS-JORDAN ELIMINATION
Step 1. Select as the first pivot the element in the first

row, first column, and pivot.
Step 2. The next pivot is the element in the second row,
second column; pivot.
Step 3. Repeat the process until you arrive at the last
row or until the pivot element is a zero. If it is a
zero and you can interchange that row with a row
below it, so that the pivot element is no longer a
zero, do so and continue. If the pivot element is
zero and you cannot interchange rows so that it is
not a zero, continue with the next row. The final
matrix is called the row-reduced form.
EXAMPLE 3.6 Gauss–Jordan method

x C 2y z D 0
Solve 2x C 3y 2z D 3 .
x 4y C 3z D 2
Solution We solve this system by choosing the steps according to

the Gauss–Jordan method:

1 2 1 j 0
[A] D 2 3 2 j 3 First pivot (row 1, col. 1)
1 4 3 j 2

1 2 1 j 0
ŁRow C 2, [A], 1, 2
! 0 1 0 j 3
ŁRow C 1, [Ans], 1, 3
0 2 2 j 2

1 2 1 j 0
! 0 1 0 j 3 Ł Row1, [Ans], 2
0 2 2 j 2
Second pivot (row 2, col. 2)

1 0 1 j 6
ŁRow C 2, [Ans], 2, 1
! 0 1 0 j 3
ŁRow C 2, [Ans], 2, 3
0 0 2 j 8
72 Chapter 3

1 0 1 j 6
! 0 1 0 j 3 Ł Row0.5, [Ans], 3
0 0 1 j 4
Third pivot (row 3, col. 3)

1 0 0 j 2
! 0 1 0 j 3 Ł Row C 1, [Ans], 3, 1
0 0 1 j 4
The solution 2, 3, 4 is found by inspection, since the last matrix
represents the system

1x C 0y C 0z D 2
0x C 1y C 0z D 3
0x C 0y C 1z D 4
INVERSE MATRICES
The availability of computer software and calculators that can carry
out matrix operations has considerably increased the importance of a
matrix solution of systems of equations, which involves the inverse of
a matrix. If [A] is a square matrix and if there exists a matrix [A]1
such that
[A]1 [A] D [A][A]1 D [I]
where [I] is the identity matrix for multiplication, then [A]1 is called
the inverse of [A] for multiplication.
If we let [A] be the matrix of coefficients of a system of equations,
[X] the matrix of unknowns, and [B] the matrix of constants, we can
then represent the system of equations by the matrix equation
[A][X] D [B]
1
Note that [A]1 does not mean [A ]
, but rather means the inverse of
matrix [A].
If we can define an inverse matrix, denoted by [A]1 , we should be
able to solve the system by finding
[X] D [A]1 [B]
To understand this simple process, you need to understand what it

means for matrices to be inverses and develop a basic algebra for
matrices. This is done in other courses, but for this course we assume
that you use a calculator or computer program to carry out basic matrix
operations defined in the next box.
Chapter 3 73
MATRIX OPERATIONS
Equality:
[M] D [N] if and only if matrices [M] and [N] are the same
order and their corresponding entries are the same.
Addition:
[M] C [N] D [S] if and only if [M] and [N] are the same
order and the entries of [S] are found by adding the
corresponding entries of [M] and [N].
Multiplication by a scalar:
c[M] D [M]c is the matrix in which each entry of [M] is
multiplied by the scalar (real number) c.
Subtraction:
[M] [N] D [D] if and only if [M] and [N] are the same
order and the entries of [D] are found by subtracting the
entries of [N] from the corresponding entries of [M].
Multiplication:
Let [M] be an m ð r matrix and [N] an r ð n matrix. Then
the product matrix [M][N] D [P] is an m ð n matrix. The
entry in the ith row and jth column of [M][N] is the sum
of the products formed by multiplying each entry of the ith
row of [M] by the corresponding element in the jth column
of [N].
If an addition or multiplication cannot be performed because

of the order of the given matrices, the matrices are said to be
nonconformable.
EXAMPLE 3.7 Matrix operations

7 3 2
Let [A] D [ 5 2 1 ] , [B] D [ 4 8 5 ] , [C] D ,
5 4 3

0 1 2 3 4 1
[D] D 2 1 1 , and E] D 2 0 5 . Find
1 1 0 4 2 3
a. [A] + [B] b. [A] + [C]
c. [D] + [E] d. (5)[C]
e. 2[A] 3[B] f. [D][E]
74 Chapter 3
g. [E][D] h. [D]1
Solution
a. [A] C [B] D [5 2 1] C [4 8 5]
D [5 C 4 2 C 8 1 C 5]
D [9 10 4]
b. [A] C [C] is not defined, because [A] and [C] are nonconformable.
   
0 1 2 3 4 1
c. [D] C [E] D  2 1 1  C  2 0 5 
1 1 0 4 2 3
 
3 5 1
D  4 1 6 
5 3 3
Add, entry by entry.

7 3 2
d. 5[C] D 5
5 4 3

35 15 10
D
25 20 15
Multiply each entry by 5.
e. 2[A] 3[B] D 2 [ 5 2 1 ] C 3 [ 4 8 5 ]
D [ 10 4 2 ] C [ 12 24 15 ]
D [ 2 20 17 ]
  
0 1 2 3 4 1

f. [D][E] D 2 1 1   2 0 5 
1 1 0 4 2 3
 
0C28 0C0C4 0C5C6

D 624 8 C 0 C 2 2 C 5 C 0 
3 C 2 C 0 4 C 0 C 0 1 C 5 C 0
Chapter 3 75
 
6 4 11
D 0 10 3 
1 4 6

3 4 1 0 1 2
g. [E][D] D 2 0 5 2 1 1
4 2 3 1 1 0

0C8C1 341 6C4C0
D 0C05 2C0C5 4C0C0
0 C 4 3 4 2 C 3 8 C 2 C 0

9 2 10
D 5 7 4
1 3 6
Note: From parts f and g, we see that matrix multiplication is not

commutative; that is, [D][E] 6D [E][D].
h. Using a calculator or a computer program, we find that

1 2 3
[D]1 D 1 2 4
1 1 2
If a given matrix has an inverse, we say that the matrix is

nonsingular.
INVERSE MATRIX METHOD

We can now see how to solve a system of linear equations by using
the inverse. Consider a system of n linear equations with n unknowns
whose matrix of coefficients [A] has an inverse [A]1 :
[A][X] D [B] Given system

[A]1 [A][X] D [A]1 [B] Multiply both sides by [A]1 .
[A]1 [A][X] D [A]1 [B] Associative property
[I][X] D [A]1 [B] Inverse property
[X] D [A]1 [B] Identity property
What this says: To solve a system of equations, look to see whether

the number of equations is the same as the number of unknowns. If
so, find the inverse of the matrix of the coefficients (if it exists), and
multiply it (on the right) by the matrix of the constants.
76 Chapter 3
EXAMPLE 3.8 Inverse matrix method

y C 2z D 0
Solve 2x y C z D 1 .
yx D1
Solution Write the system in matrix form:

0 1 2 x 0
[A] D 2 1 1 , [X] D y , [B] D 1 .
1 1 0 z 1
1 2 3
By calculator, [A]1 D 1 2 4 . Thus,
1 1 2

1 2 3 0 1
1
[X] D [A] [B] D 1 2 4 1 D 2
1 1 2 1 1
Therefore, the solution to the system is x, y, z D 1, 2, 1.
3.3 Equality-of-Coefficients Method

In equating functions of some variable, say, x, a system of equations is
sometimes used to find the values of several unknowns. For example,
if
3x 4 C 5x 3 2x 2 C 1 D Ax 4 C Bx 3 C Cx 2 C Dx C E
then it follows that
A D 3, B D 5, C D 2, D D 0, and E D 1
Examples 1 and 2 in Section 7.4 of the text illustrate this procedure.

The next example fills in the details for Example 3 in that section of
the text.
EXAMPLE 3.9 Method of equal coefficients
Find the values for A1 , A2 , B1 , and B2 , where
3x 3 x D A1 x C B1 x 2 C 1 C A2 x C B2

Chapter 3 77
Solution
3x 3 x D A1 x 3 C A1 x C B1 x 2 C B1 C A2 x C B2
D A1 x 3 C B1 x 2 C A1 C A2 x C B1 C B2
We equate the coefficients:


 3 D A1


 0DB
1

 1 D A1 C A2


0 D B1 C B2
We substitute the values from the first two equations into the second
two equations to obtain

1 D 3 C A2 or A2 D 1
0 D 0 C B2 or B2 D 0
Thus, A1 D 3, A2 D 2, B1 D 0, and B2 D 0.
There is an example of solving a nonlinear system in Example 4

of Section 11.8 of the text.
3.4 PROBLEM SET 3

Solve the systems in Problems 1–30 for all real solutions, using any
suitable method.

xCy D7 xy D8
1. 2.
x y D 1 xCy D2

x C 2y D 2 x 6y D 3
3. 4.
4x 7y D 5 2x C 3y D 9

y D 3x C 1 2x C 3y D 9
5. 6.
x 2y D 8 x D 5y 2

xCy D4 3x C 4y D 8
7. 8.
2x C 3y D 9 x C 2y D 2

2x y D 6 6x C 9y D 4
9. 10.
4x C y D 3 9x C 3y D 1

5x 2y D 1 5x C 4y D 9
11. 12.
3x C y D 17 9x C 3y D 12
78 Chapter 3

100x y D 0 x D 34 y 2
13. 14.
50x C y D 300 3y 4x D 5

q C d D 147 x C y D 10
15. 16.
0.25q C 0.10d D 24.15 0.4x C 0.9y D 0.510

12x 5y D 39 y D 2x 1
17. 18.
y D 2x C 9 y D 3x 9
 
x y D 1  xCy D2
19. xCz D1 20. xz D1
 
yz D1 y C z D 1
 
 x C 5z D 9  x C 2z D 13
21. y C 2z D 2 22. 2x C y D 8
 
2x C 3z D 4 2y C 9z D 41
 
 4x C y D 2  5x C z D 9
23. 3x C 2z D 9 24. x 5z D 7
 
2y C 3z D 5 xCyz D0
 
 x C y D 2  x C y D 1
25. yCz D2 26. y C z D 1
 
x y z D 1 xCyCz D1
 
 x C 2z D 9  x C 2z D 0
27. 2x C y D 13 28. 3x y C 2z D 0
 
2y C z D 8 4x C y D 6

 4x D 

 2y D  2A1 D 2
29. 30. 2A1 2A2 D 4

 2z D 
 2A1 C A2 2A3 D 0
xCyCz D1
From Example 2, Section 11.8. From Example 1, Section

14.3.
Solve the systems in Problems 31–35 by solving the corresponding

matrix equation with an inverse if possible.

4x 7y D 2 4x 7y D 65
31. a. b.
x C 2y D 1 x C 2y D 18

4x 7y D 48 4x 7y D 2
c. d.
x C 2y D 13 x C 2y D 3

8x C 6y D 12 8x C 6y D 16
32. a. b.
2x C 4y D 14 2x C 4y D 18
Chapter 3 79

8x C 6y D 6 8x C 6y D 28
c. d.
2x C 4y D 26 2x C 4y D 18

2x C 3y D 9 2x C 3y D 2
33. a. b.
x 6y D 3 x 6y D 16

2x C 3y D 2 2x C 3y D 9
c. d.
x 6y D 14 x 6y D 42

x C 2z D 7 x C 2z D 4
34. a. 2x C y D 16 b. 2x C y D 0
2y C 9z D 3 2y C 9z D 19

x C 2z D 4 x C 2z D 7
c. 2x C y D 0 d. 2x C y D 1
2y C 9z D 31 2y C 9z D 28

6x C y C 20z D 27 6x C y C 20z D 14
35. a. xy D0 b. xy D1
y C 3z D 4 y C 3z D 1

6x C y C 20z D 12 6x C y C 20z D 57
c. xy D6 d. xy D1
y C 3z D 7 y C 3z D 5
36. To control a certain type of crop disease, it is necessary to use

23 gal of chemical A and 34 gal of chemical B. The dealer can
order commercial spray I, each container of which holds 5 gal of
chemical A and 2 gal of chemical B, and commercial spray II,
each container of which holds 2 gal of chemical A and 7 gal of
chemical B. How many containers of each type of commercial
spray should be used to obtain exactly the right proportion of
chemicals needed?
37. A candy maker mixes chocolate, milk, and mint extract to
produce three kinds of candy (I, II, and III) with the following
proportions:
I: 7 lb chocolate, 5 gal milk, 1 oz mint extract
II: 3 lb chocolate, 2 gal milk, 2 oz mint extract
III: 4 lb chocolate, 3 gal milk, 3 oz mint extract
If 67 lb of chocolate, 48 gal of milk, and 32 oz of mint extract
are available, how much of each kind of candy can be produced?
38. Using the data from Problem 37, how much of each type of
candy can be produced with 62 lb of chocolate, 44 gal of milk,
and 32 oz of mint extract?
CHAPTER 4
Review of Trigonometry
One of the prerequisites for calculus is trigonometry. You are reminded

of this fact in Section 1.1 of your textbook. In this chapter, we provide
a brief summary and review of ideas from trigonometry that are needed
as you progress through your calculus course.
4.1 Trigonometric Functions

The geometric definition of an angle as two rays with an common
endpoint (called the vertex) is sometimes referred to as a geometric
angle. In higher mathematics, an angle is defined as the amount
of rotation of a ray from one position, called its initial side, to
another position, called its terminal side. If the rotation is in a
counterclockwise direction, the angle is called a positive angle, and if
the rotation is in a clockwise direction, the angle is called a negative
angle. If a coordinate system is drawn so that the origin of the system
is at the vertex of the angle and the positive x-axis coincides with the
initial side, then the angle is said to be in standard position.
Let be any angle in standard position,
and let P(x, y) be any point on the terminal
side of the angle a distance r from the
origin r 6D 0. Then
x y y
cos D sin D tan D
r r x
r r x
sec D csc D cot D
x y y
Standard position angle
RADIANS AND DEGREES

360° D 2 radians D 1 revolution

180 °
1 radian D ³ 57.2957 Ð Ð Ð degrees

1 degree D ³ 0.0174532 Ð Ð Ð radian
180
Angle measures, unless stated otherwise, are in radian measure. For
example, an angle of 6 means that the angle has a measure of 6 radians,
80
Chapter 4 81
whereas if you want to denote an angle with measure of six degrees,

then the word degrees or the degree symbol, as in 6° , must be stated.
In calculus, it is often necessary to determine when a given function
is not defined. For example, in Problem 22 of Problem Set 1.1 in the
textbook, we need to know when
p p
fx D 3 tan x C 33 tan x 3
is not defined.
From the given definitions of the trigonometric func-

tions, f is not defined, since tan x is not defined for x D or
2 2

for any odd multiple of .
2
4.2 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Inverse Function Domain Range
y D arccos x, or y D cos1 x 1 x 1 0y

y D arcsin x, or y D sin1 x 1 x 1 y
2 2

y D arctan x, or y D tan1 x All reals <y<
2 2
y D arccot x, or y D cot1 x All reals 0<y<

y D arcsec x, or y D sec1 x jxj ½ 1 0 y , y 6D
2

y D arccsc x, or y D csc1 x jxj ½ 1 y , y 6D 0
2 2
The principal values of the inverse trigonometric functions are those

values defined by these inverse trigonometric functions. The principal
values are the values obtained from a calculator.
4.3 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions
REDUCTION PRINCIPLE
If t represents any of the six
trigonometric functions, then
t D št 0 , where the sign
depends on the quadrant and
0 is the reference angle of . Quadrant I Quadrant II
82 Chapter 4
All of the trigonometric

functions are positive in
the first quadrant, sine and
cosecant are positive in the
second quadrant, tangent and
cotangent are positive in the
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
third quadrant, and cosine
and secant are positive in the
fourth quadrant.
BY CALCULATOR
cos cos sec sin 1/x cos1 inv cos

sec1 1/x inv cos
sin sin csc sin 1/x sin1 inv sin
csc1 1/x inv sin
tan tan cot tan 1/x tan1 inv tan
cot1 :
if > 0; 1/x inv tan
if < 0; 1/x inv tan C D
BY TABLE
Angle 3 Knowledge
0
6 4 3 2 2 of these exact
p p
3 2 1 values is
cos 1 2
0 1 0 assumed in
2 2
p p calculus.
1 2 3
sin 0 2
1 0 1
2 2
p
3 p
tan 0 1 3 undefined 0 undefined
3
2 2
sec 1 p p 2 undefined 1 undefined
3 2
2 2
csc undefined 2 p p 1 undefined 1
2 3
p 1
cot undefined 3 1 p 0 undefined 0
3
Chapter 4 83
This table of exact values can be extended by using one or more of

the trigonometric identities listed in Section 4.5 of this handbook.
The next example is similar to Problems 43–46 in Problem Set
1.1.
EXAMPLE 4.1 Exact values

5
Find the exact value of sin .
12
Solution First, use the reduction principle to write

5
sin D sin
12 " 12
Negative because the angle is in Quadrant III

Then, notice that, since D 15° D 45° 30° , we have
12

D . Thus,
12 4 6

sin D sin
12 4 6

D sin cos cos sin Identity 18
4 6 4 6
p p p
2 3 2 1
D Ð Ð
2 2 2 2
p p
6 2
D
4
p p
2 6
D
4
4.4 Trigonometric Graphs

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
84 Chapter 4
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Chapter 4 85
GENERAL TRIGONOMETRIC GRAPHS

You are expected to be able to graph trigonometric functions. Problem
Set 1.1 (Problems 51–56) and Problem Set 4 (Problems 12–21) should
give you some practice. To graph a general trigonometric curve, begin
by drawing a frame:
y − k = a cos b(x − h) y − k = a sin b(x − h)
y − k = a tan b(x − h)
1. Algebraically, put the equation into one of the preceding general

forms.
2. Identify (by inspection) the following values: (h, k), a, and b.
2
Then calculate p D for the cosine and sine and p D for
b b
the tangent.
3. Draw a frame:
a. Plot (h, k); this is the starting point.
b. Draw a; the height of the frame is 2jaj, up and down a units
from (h, k).
c. Draw p, the length of the frame.
4. Plot the endpoints, midpoints, and quarter points for each curve
as shown in the illustrations. You do not need to know the
coordinates of these points. Draw a sketch of the curve, using the
plotted points.
86 Chapter 4
4.5 Trigonometric Identities

Fundamental identities
Reciprocal identities
1 1 1
1. sec D 2. csc D 3. cot D
cos sin tan
Ratio identities
sin cos
4. tan D 5. cot D
cos sin
Pythagorean identities
6. cos2 C sin2 D 1 7. 1 C tan2 D sec2
8. cot2 C 1 D csc2
Cofunction identities

9. cos D sin 10. sin D cos
2 2

11. tan D cot
2
Opposite-angle identities
12. cos D cos 13. sin D sin
14. tan D tan
Addition laws
15. cos˛ C ˇ D cos ˛ cos ˇ sin ˛ sin ˇ
16. cos˛ ˇ D cos ˛ cos ˇ C sin ˛ sin ˇ
17. sin˛ C ˇ D sin ˛ cos ˇ C cos ˛ sin ˇ
18. sin˛ ˇ D sin ˛ cos ˇ cos ˛ sin ˇ
tan ˛ C tan ˇ
19. tan˛ C ˇ D
1 tan ˛ tan ˇ
tan ˛ tan ˇ
20. tan˛ ˇ D
1 C tan ˛ tan ˇ
Double-angle identities
21. cos 2 D cos2 sin2 22. sin 2 D 2 sin cos
D 2 cos2 1
D 1 2 sin2
2 tan
23. tan 2 D
1 tan2
Chapter 4 87
Half-angle identities
1 C cos 1 cos
24. cos 12 D š 25. sin 12 D š
2 2
1 cos
26. tan 12 D
sin
sin
D
1 C cos
Product-to-sum identities
27. 2 cos ˛ cos ˇ D cos˛ ˇ C cos˛ C ˇ
28. 2 sin ˛ sin ˇ D cos˛ ˇ cos˛ C ˇ
29. 2 sin ˛ cos ˇ D sin˛ C ˇ C sin˛ ˇ
30. 2 cos ˛ sin ˇ D sin˛ C ˇ sin˛ ˇ
Sum-to-product identities

˛Cˇ ˛ˇ
31. cos ˛ C cos ˇ D 2 cos cos
2 2

˛Cˇ ˛ˇ
32. cos ˛ cos ˇ D 2 sin sin
2 2

˛Cˇ ˛ˇ
33. sin ˛ C sin ˇ D 2 sin cos
2 2

˛ˇ ˛Cˇ
34. sin ˛ sin ˇ D 2 sin cos
2 2
Hyperbolic identities
1 1
35. sech x D 36. csch x D
cosh x sinh x
1 sinh x
37. coth x D 38. tanh x D
tanh x cosh x
cosh x
39. coth x D 40. cosh2 x sinh2 x D 1
sinh x
41. 1 tanh2 x D sech2 x 42. coth2 x 1 D csch2 x
43. sinhx D sinh x 44. coshx D cosh x
45. tanhx D tanh x
46. sinhx š y D sinh x cosh y š cosh x sinh y
47. coshx š y D cosh x cosh y š sinh x sinh y
tanh x š tanh y
48. tanhx š y D
1 š tanh x tanh y
88 Chapter 4
49. cosh 2x D cosh2 x C sinh2 x

D 2 cosh2 x 1
D 1 C 2 sinh2 x
50. sinh 2x D 2 sinh x cosh x
2 tanh x
51. tanh 2x D
1 C tanh2 x
cosh x C 1
52. cosh 12 x D š
2
cosh x 1
53. sinh 12 x D š
2
cosh x 1 sinh x
54. tanh 12 x D D
sinh x cosh x C 1
p
55. sinh1 x D lnx C x 2 C 1
p
1 1 C 1 C x2
56. csch x D ln if x > 0
x
p
57. cosh1 x D lnx C x 2 1
p
1 1 C 1 x2
58. sech x D ln if 0 < x 1
x

1 1 1Cx
59. tanh x D 2 ln if 1 < x < 1
1x

xC1
60. coth1 x D 12 ln if x 2 > 1
x1
The following example is similar to Problems 25–30 in Problem Set 1.4
and Problems 32–33 of Problem Set 4.
EXAMPLE 4.2 Finding an exact value

Find the exact value of sin cos1 56 .
Solution Let ˛ D cos1 56 , so that cos ˛ D 56 . We restate the given

trigonometric expression as
Chapter 4 89

sin cos1 56 D sin ˛

D š 1 cos2 ˛ Since sin2 ˛ C cos2 ˛ D 1

2
5 Positive, since the inverse
DC 1
6 cosine is positive in Quadrant I.
36 25
D
36 36
p
11
D
6
4.6 Solving Triangles

The following results hold for any plane
triangle ABC with sides a, b, c and
angles ˛, ˇ, .
Pythagorean theorem
In a right triangle with right angle at C, ∆ ABC
c 2 D a2 C b2
Law of cosines
a2 D b2 C c2 2bc cos ˛ b2 D a2 C c2 2ac cos ˇ
b2 C c 2 a2 a2 C c 2 b2
cos ˛ D cos ˇ D
2bc 2ac
2 2 2
c D a C b 2ab cos
a2 C b2 c 2
cos D
2ab
Law of sines
sin ˛ sin ˇ sin
D D
a b c
Law of tangents
aCb tan 12 ˛ C ˇ
D
ab tan 12 ˛ ˇ
with similar relations involving the other sides and angles

90 Chapter 4
AREA FORMULAS
Two sides and the included angle are known:
Area D 12 ab sin D 12 ac sin ˇ D 12 bc sin ˛

Two angles and the included side are known:
a2 sin ˇ sin b2 sin ˛ sin c2 sin ˛ sin ˇ
Area D D D
2 sin ˛ 2 sin ˇ 2 sin
Three sides are known:

Area D ss as bs c, where s D 12 a C b C c
Area of a sector
Area D 12 r 2 for central angle
PROCEDURE FOR SOLVING TRIANGLES
Given Conditions on the given Method of

information Solution
1. AAA No solution
More than one side given: Law of Cosines

2. SSS a. The sum of the lengths of the No solution
two smaller sides is less than
or equal to the length of the
larger side.
b. The sum of the lengths of the Law of Cosines
two smaller sides is greater
than the length of the larger
side.
3. SAS a. The given angle is greater No solution
than or equal to 180° .
b. The given angle is less than Law of Cosines
180° .
3. SSA a. The given angle is greater No solution
than or equal to 180° .
b. There are no solutions, one Law of Cosines
solution, or two solutions, as
determined by the quadratic
formula.
Chapter 4 91
More than one angle given: Law of Sines

4. ASA or a. The sum of the given angles No solution
AAS is greater than or equal to
180° .
b. The sum of the given angles Law of Sines
is less than 180° .
4.7 Trigonometric Equations

You will find a couple of these in Problem Set 1.1 of the text.
PROCEDURE FOR SOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
1. Solve for a single trigonometric function. You may

use trigonometric identities, factoring, or the quadratic
formula.
2. Solve for the angle. You will use the definitions of the
inverse trigonometric functions for this step.
3. Solve for the unknown.
PRINCIPAL VALUES
EXAMPLE 4.3 Linear trigonometric equation
Solve the equations for the principal value of . Compare the solutions
of these similar problems.
1 1
a. 5 sin C 1 D 2
b. sin 5 C 1 D 2
Solution
a. 5 sin C 1 D 12
1
sin C 1 D Solve for the function
10
C 1 D sin1 0.1 Solve for the angle
1
D 1 C sin 0.1 Solve for the unknown
³ 0.8998326 We use radians (real
numbers) unless otherwise
specified
92 Chapter 4
b. sin 5 C 1 D 12 The equation is solved for

the function
1
5 C 1 D sin1 2 Solve for the angle

5 D 5 C Solve for the unknown
6

D 1 C
30
³ 0.8952802
Notice that these two answers are not the same.
EXAMPLE 4.4 Quadratic trigonometric equation by factoring
Find the principal values of for 15 cos2 2 cos 8 D 0.
Solution
15 cos2 2 cos 8 D 0
3 cos C 25 cos 4 D 0 Factor if possible
The last equation is solved by setting each factor equal to zero (factor
theorem):
3 cos C 2 D 0 5 cos 4 D 0
2 4
cos D cos D
3 5
2 1 4
D cos1 D cos
3 5
³ 2.300524 ³ 0.6435011
EXAMPLE 4.5 Quadratic trigonometric equation by quadratic

formula
Find the principal values of for tan2 5 tan 4 D 0.
Solution
tan2 5 tan 4 D 0 Factor if possible

p
5 š 25 414
tan D
2
p
5 š 41 Quadratic formula if the
D
2 equation cannot be factored
Chapter 4 93
p
1 5š 41
D tan
2
³ tan1 5.7015621, tan1 0.7015621

³ 1.3971718, 0.6117736
GENERAL SOLUTION
The procedure for finding the general solution of a trigonometric
equation is to first find the reference angle, by using the table of exact
values or a calculator. Then find two values less than one revolution
apart, using the reference angle:
For y D arccos x or y D arcsec x,
if y is positive, then the inverse function is in Quadrants I and IV
if y is negative, then the inverse function is in Quadrants II and III
For y D arcsin x or y D arccsc x,
if y is positive, then the inverse function is in Quadrants I and II
if y is negative, then the inverse function is in Quadrants III and IV
For y D arctan x or y D arccot x,
if y is positive, then the inverse function is in Quadrants I and III
if y is negative, then the inverse function is in Quadrants II and IV
The foregoing information is summarized in Figure 4.1.
After you have found the two values less than one revolution apart,
the entire solution is found by using the period of the function:
For cosine, sine, secant and cosecant: add multiples of 2
For tangent and cotangent: add multiples of
EXAMPLE 4.6 General linear trigonometric equation
a. Solve cos D 12 . b. Solve cos D 12 .
S ine and A ll
cosecant positive
positive
T angent and C osine and

cotangent secant
positive positive
Figure 4.1 Signs of the trigonometric functions

94 Chapter 4
Solution

a. Reference angle 0 D Arccos 12 D ; angles less than one revo-
3

lution apart with a reference angle of are (Quadrant I) and
3 3
5
(Quadrant IV). The solution is infinite, so to find all solutions,
3
5
add multiples of 2 to these values: D C 2k, C 2k, for
3 3
any integral value of k.

b. 0 D Arccos 12 D . Reference angle is in Quadrants II and
3
2 4
III: D C 2k, C 2k.
3 3
EXAMPLE 4.7 Approximate values of a linear trigonometric

function
2
Solve sin x D for 0 x 2.

2
Solution x D Arcsin ³ 0.6901071. The solution is in Quad-

2
rants I and II is positive : x ³ 0.6901071, 2.4514856.

EXAMPLE 4.8 Trigonometric equation using an identity
Solve 12 cos 2t D 2 sin t.
Solution
12 cos 2t D 2 sin t
cos 2t D 4 sin t
1 2 sin2 t D 4 sin t
2 sin2 t C 4 sin t 1 D 0

4 š 42 421
sin t D
22
p
4 š 2 6
D
4
p
2 š 6
D
2
Chapter 4 95
³ 0.2247448714, 2 .224744871
"
Reject sin t½1
t ³ Arcsin0.227448714
³ 0.2266812, 2.914911452
4.8 PROBLEM SET 4

Find the radian measure of each angle in Problems 1–4.
1. D 6° 2. D 270° 3. D 100° 4. D 2°
Find the degree measure of each angle in Problems 5–8.
2 n
5. D 6. D 7. D 4.2 8. D 120
3 4
3
9. Evaluate: a. cos b. cos
2
3
c. cos 2 d. sin e. sin
2
3 3
10. Evaluate: a. sin b. cos
4 4
5 5
c. sin d. cos e. sin 2
4 4

2 7x 2 7x
11. Find sin C cos .
8 8
Graph the functions in Problems 12–21.

12. fx D sin x 13. fx D 3 sin x
3
14. y 2 D sin x 15. y 1 D 2 cos x
2 4
16. fx D 2 cos3x C 2 2 17. fx D tan x C 2
4
18. y 3 D sin x 19. y C 1 D tan x
6
20. fx D 2 secx C 1 21. fx D 2 cot x 1
6
In Problems 22–25, use the addition formulas to find the exact value.
22. cos75° D cos45° C 30° 23. sin 15°
24. sin105° D sin60° C 45° 25. sin 195°
26. Show that sin 2x D 2 sin x cos x
27. Show that, for any integer n, sinx C n D 1n sin x
28. Show that, for any integer n, cosx C n D 1n cos x
29. Show that 2 sin x cos y D sinx C y C sinx y
30. Show that 2 cos x sin y D sinx C y sinx y
96 Chapter 4
31. Use the result of Problem 29 to show that

ACB AB
sin A C sin B D 2 sin cos
2 2
32. If sin1 15 is the angle whose sine is 15 and cos1 1

5 is the angle
whose cosine is 15 , find the exact value of

cos sin1 15 C 2 cos1 15
From Problem Set 1.4, Problem 29, of text.
33. If sin1 15 is the angle whose sine is 15 and cos1 1

4 is the angle
whose cosine is 14 , find the exact value of

sin sin1 15 C cos1 14
From Problem Set 1.4, Problems 30, of text.
Solve the equations in Problems 34–52 for 0 x < 2. In Problems

42–52, give answers correct to two decimal places.
34. sin x D 0.5 35. sin x D 0.5
36. sin xcos x D 0 37. sin xtan x D 0
p
38. 2 cos x C p 22 cos x p1 D 0
39. 3 tan x C 33 tan x 3 D 0 p
40. tan2 x D tan x 41. tan2 x D 3 tan x
42. cos2 x 1 cos x D 0 43. sin2 x sin x 2 D 0
44. tan2 x 3 tan x C 1 D 0 45. csc2 x csc x 1 D 0
46. cos 3x C 2 sin 2x cos 3x D 0 47. sin 2x C 2 cos xp sin 2x D 0
48. cos3x 1 D 12 49. tan2x C 1 D 3
p
50. sin 2x C 1 D 3
51. sin2 3x C sin 3x C 1 D 1 sin2 3x
52. sin2 3x C sin 3x D cos2 3x 1
CHAPTER 5
Polar Coordinates
5.1 Plotting Points in Polar Coordinates
PLOTTING POLAR-FORM POINTS
In a polar coordinate system, points are plotted in relation to a fixed

point O, called the origin or pole, and a fixed ray emanating from the
origin, called the polar axis. We then associate with each point P in
the plane an ordered pair of numbers Pr, , where r is the distance
from O to P and is the angle measured from the polar axis to the
ray OP, as shown in Figure 5.1. The number r is called the radial
coordinate of P, and is the polar angle. The polar angle is regarded
as positive if measured counterclockwise up from the polar axis and
negative if measured clockwise. The origin O has radial coordinate 0,
and it is convenient to say that O has polar coordinates (0, ), for all
angles .
If the point P has polar coordinates r, , we say that the point Q
obtained by reflecting P in the origin O has coordinates r, . Thus,
if you think of a pencil lying along the directed line segment OP with
its midpoint at O and tip at Pr, , then the eraser will be at Qr, ,
as illustrated in the figure. The general procedure for plotting points
in polar coordinates is demonstrated in the next example.
Figure 5.1 Polar-form points
97
98 Chapter 5
EXAMPLE 5.1 Plotting polar-form points

Plot each of the following polar-form points: A 4, , B 4, ,
3 3
C 3, , D 3, , E3, 3, F3, 3, G4, 2,
6 6
3
H 5, , I 5, , J 5, .
2 2 2
Solution Points A, B, C, and D illustrate the basic ideas of plotting
polar-form points.
Points E, F, G, H, I, and J illustrate common situations that can

sometimes be confusing (see figure at top of next page). Make sure
you take time with each example.

3
In Example 5.1, we found that 5, , 5, , and 5, all
2 2 2
represent the same point in polar coordinates. Indeed, every point in
the plane has infinitely many polar representations. This property of
the polar coordinate system causes some difficulties, but nothing that
cannot be handled by exercising a little caution. We shall point out
situations in our examples in which the nonuniqueness of the polar
representation must be taken into account.
Chapter 5 99

3
I 5, , J 5, , and H 5, all represent the same point.
2 2 2
5.2 Relationship Between Polar and Rectangular

Coordinates
The relationship between polar and rectangular coordinates can be

found by using trigonometric functions. The origin of the rectangular
coordinate system is the pole, and the x-axis is the polar axis.
100 Chapter 5
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RECTANGULAR AND POLAR

COORDINATES
1. To change from polar to rectangular coordinates,
x D r cos y D r sin
2. To change from rectangular to polar coordinates,

y

r D x 2 C y 2 D tan1 , x 6D 0
x
where is the reference angle for . Place in the

proper quadrant by noting the signs of x and y. If
x D 0, then D .
2
What this says: The reference angle for a standard-position

angle is defined to be the smallest positive angle that the angle
makes with the x-axis.
EXAMPLE 5.2 Converting from polar to rectangular coordi-

nates

5
Change the polar coordinates 2, to rectangular coordinates.
6
Solution
p
5 3 p
x D 2 cos D 2 D 3
6 2

5 1
y D 2 sin D 2 D 1
6 2
p
The rectangular coordinates are 3, 1.
EXAMPLE 5.3 Converting from rectangular coordinates to

polar coordinates
Write polar-form coordinates for the point with rectangular coordi-

nates 52 , 52 .
Chapter 5 101
Solution

5 2 5 2 25 25 5p
rD C D C D 2
2 2 4 4 2
Note that is in Quadrant III because x is negative and y is negative.

5

5
D tan1 2 D tan1 1 D ; thus, D Quadrant III
5 4 4

2

5p 5
Polar-form coordinates are 2, .
2 4
5.3 Polar Graphs

The graph of an equation in polar coordinates is the set of all points
P whose polar coordinates r, satisfy the given equation. Circles,
lines through the origin, and rays emanating from the origin have
particularly simple equations in polar coordinates: Circles centered
at the pole with radius a have equations of the form r D a; lines (or
rays emanating from the origin) have equations of the form D k, for
some constant k.
As with other equations, we begin graphing polar-form curves by
plotting some points. However, you must first be able to recognize
whether a point in polar form satisfies a given equation.
EXAMPLE 5.4 Verifying that polar coordinates satisfy an

equation
Show that each of the following points lies on the polar graph whose
equation is
2
rD
1 cos

3
a. 2, b. 2, c. 1, 2
2 2
Solution Begin by substituting the given coordinates into the equation:
?
2 D 2 2
a. D D 2;
1 cos 2 10

2, is on the curve, because it satisfies the equation.
2
102 Chapter 5
?
2 D 2
b. 3
Although the equation is not satis-
1 cos 2 fied, we cannot say that the point
2
D D2 is not on the curve. Indeed, we see
10 from parta that it is
on thecurve,

3
because 2, and 2,
2 2
name the same point!
What this says: Even if one representation of a point does not

satisfy the equation, we must still check equivalent representations
of the point.
? 2 2
c. For 1, 2 , 1 D , which is undefined.
D
1 cos 2 11
Next, check the equivalent representation 1, :
?
1 D 2 2
D D1
1 cos 1 1
Thus, the point 1, 2 is on the curve.
We will discuss the graphing of polar-form curves in the next

section. Sometimes, though, a polar-form equation can be graphed by
changing it to rectangular form.
EXAMPLE 5.5 Polar-form graphing by changing to rectangular

form
Graph the following polar-form curves by changing to rectangular

form:
6
a. r D 3 cos b. r D 4 sec c. r D
2 sin C cos
Solution
a. r D 3 cos Given equation
r 2 D 3r cos Multiply by r.
x 2 C y 2 D 3x Because x D r cos and
r 2 D x2 C y 2
3 2
x 2 3x C 2
C y 2 D 94 Complete the square.
2
x 32 C y 2 D 94
3
We see that this is the equation of a circle with center at 2, 0
and radius 32 . The graph is shown in Figure 5.2a.
Chapter 5 103
b. Because r D 4 sec can be expressed as r cos D 4, the given

equation can be written x D 4, whose graph is a vertical line
(Figure 5.2b).
6
c. rD
2 sin C cos
Given equation
2r sin C r cos D 6
2y C x D 6 Because x D r cos , y D r sin
We recognize this equation as that of as a line with y-intercept 3

and slope 12 (Figure 5.2c).
5.2a. Graph of r D 3 cos 5.2b. Graph of r cos D 4
6
5.2c. Graph of r D
2 sin C cos
Figure 5.2 Polar-form graphs
5.4 GRAPHING BY PLOTTING POINTS

We have examined polar forms for lines and circles, and in this
section we shall examine curves that are more easily represented in
polar coordinates than in rectangular coordinates. We begin with a
simple spiral.
104 Chapter 5
Figure 5.3 Graph of r D
EXAMPLE 5.6 A spiral by plotting points
Graph r D for ½ 0.
Solution Set up a table of values:

r
0 0
1 1
2 2 Choose a , and then find a corre-
3 3 sponding r so that r, satisfies
4 4 the equation. Plot each of these
5 5 points and connect them, as shown
6 6 in Figure 5.3.
Notice that as increases, r must also increase.
In Example 5.6, in the polar equation r D , we see that there is

exactly one value of r for each value of . Thus, the relationship given
by r D is a function of , and we can write the polar form r D f,
where f D . A function of the form r D f, where is a polar
angle and r is the corresponding radial distance, is called a polar
function.
Chapter 5 105
5.5 Cardioids
Next, we examine a class of polar curves called cardioids because of
their heartlike shape.
EXAMPLE 5.7 A cardioid by plotting points
Graph r D 1 cos .
Solution Construct a table of values by choosing values for and

approximating the corresponding values for r:
r
0 0
1 0.4597
2 1.4161
3 1.9900
4 1.6536
5 0.7164
6 0.3983
Note that if D , then r D 1, and if D , then r D 2. The points
2
are connected as shown in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4 Graph of r D 21 cos

106 Chapter 5
The general form for a cardioid in standard position is given in the

following box.
STANDARD-POSITION CARDIOID
r D a1 cos
In general, a cardioid in standard position can be completely deter-

mined by plotting four particular points:
r D a1 cos Point

0 r D a1 cos 0 D a1 1 D 0 (0, 0)

r D a 1 cos D a1 0 D a a,
2 2 2
r D a1 cos D a1 C 1 D 2a 2a,

3 3 3
r D a 1 cos D a1 0 D a a,
2 2 2
These four points are all that you need to graph other standard-position
cardioids, because all cardioids have the same shape as the one shown
in Figure 5.4.
WHAT DOES THIS SAY? Remember, just as when you graph

rectangular curves, the key is not in plotting many points, but in
recognizing the type of curve and then plotting a few key points.
5.6 Symmetry and Rotations
In sketching a polar graph, it is often useful to determine whether the

graph has been rotated or whether it has any symmetry.
If an angle ˛ is subtracted from in a polar-form equation, the
effect is to rotate the curve.
Chapter 5 107
ROTATION OF POLAR-FORM GRAPHS
The polar graph of r D f ˛ is the same as the polar

graph of r D f, only rotated through an angle ˛. If ˛
is positive, the rotation is counterclockwise, and if ˛ is
negative, then the rotation is clockwise.
EXAMPLE 5.8 Rotated cardioid

Graph r D 3 3 cos .
6
Solution Recognize this as a cardioid with a D 3 and a rotation of
. Plot the four points shown in Figure 5.5, and draw the cardioid.
6
If the rotation is 90° , the equation simplifies considerably. We have

r D 3 3 cos Standard cardioid with 90°
2
rotation cos˛ ˇ D
D 3 3 cos cos C sin sin cos ˛ cos ˇ C sin ˛ sin ˇ
2 2
D 3 3 [cos 0 C sin 1]
D 3 3 sin
Compare this equation with that of Example 5.8, and you will see that
the only difference is a 90° rotation instead of a 30° rotation. This
means that the graph of an equation of the form
r D a1 sin

Figure 5.5 Graph of r D 3 3 cos
6
108 Chapter 5
instead of r D a1 cos is a standard-form cardioid with a 90°

rotation. Similarly,
r D a1 C cos is a standard-form cardioid with a 180° rotation.

r D a1 C sin is a standard-form cardioid with a 270° rotation.
The cardioid is only one of the polar-form curves that we will

consider. Before sketching other curves, let us examine symmetry.
There are three important kinds of polar symmetry, which are
described in the following box and are demonstrated in Figure 5.6:
SYMMETRY IN THE GRAPH OF THE POLAR FUNCTION

r D f
A polar-form graph r D f . . . if the equation r D f

is symmetric with respect is unchanged when r,
to . . . is replaced by . . .
x-axis r,
y-axis r,
origin or, alternatively r,
x-axis r,
y-axis r,
5.7 Limaçons
We will illustrate symmetry in polar-form curves by graphing a curve
called a limaçon.
Figure 5.6a. Symmetry with respect to the x-axis

Chapter 5 109
Figure 5.6b. Symmetry with respect to the y-axis
Figure 5.6c. Symmetry with respect to the origin
EXAMPLE 5.9 Graphing a limaçon by using symmetry
Graph r D 3 C 2 cos .
Solution Let f D 3 C 2 cos .

Symmetry with respect to the x-axis
f D 3 C 2 cos D 3 C 2 cos D f
Yes, the curve is symmetric, so it is enough to graph f for between

0 and .
Symmetry with respect to the y-axis
f D 3 C 2 cos
D 3 C 2[cos cos C sin sin ]
D 3 2 cos
After checking the other primary representation, we find that it is

not symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
110 Chapter 5
Symmetry with respect to the origin
r 6D f and r 6D f C ; the curve is not symmetric

with respect to the origin.
The graph is shown in Figure 5.7; note that we sketch the top half
of the graph (for 0 by plotting points and then complete the
sketch by reflecting the graph in the x-axis. Because cos decreases
steadily from its largest value of 1 at D 0 to its smallest value of 1
at D , the radial distance r D 3 C 2 cos will also steadily decrease
as increases from 0 to . The largest value of r is r D 3 C 21 D 5
at D 0, and the smallest value of r is r D 3 C 21 D 1 at D .
The graph of any polar equation of the general form
r D b š a cos or r D b š a sin
is called a limaçon (derived from the Latin word limax, which means
‘‘slug’’; in French, it is the word for ‘‘snail’’). The special case
where a D b is the cardioid. Figure 5.8 shows four different kinds
of limaçons that can occur. Note how the appearance of the graph
depends on the ratio a/b. We have discussed cases II and III in
Examples 5.8 and 5.9. Case I (the ‘‘inner loop’’ case) and case IV (the
‘‘convex’’) case are examined in the problem set.
Just as with the cardioid, we designate a standard-form limaçon and
consider the others as rotations thereof:
Figure 5.7 Graph of r D 3 C 2 cos

Chapter 5 111
Figure 5.8 Limaçons: r D b š a cos or r D b š a sin
STANDARD-POSITION LIMAÇON
r D b a cos
r D b a cos Standard form

r D b a sin 90° rotation
r D b C a cos 180° rotation
r D b C a sin 270° rotation
5.8 Rose Curves

There are several polar-form curves known as rose curves, which
consist of several loops, called leaves or petals.
EXAMPLE 5.10 Graphing a four-leaved rose
Graph r D 4 cos 2.

112 Chapter 5
Solution Let f D 4 cos 2.

f D 4 cos 2 D 4 cos 2 D f; Yes, the curve is symmetric
with respect to the x-axis.
Symmetry with respect to the y-axis f D 4 cos 2
D 4 cos2 2 D 4 cos2 D 4 cos 2 D f; Yes, the curve is
symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
Because of this symmetry, we shall sketch the graph of r D f for
between 0 and and then use symmetry to complete the graph.
2
f When D 0, r D 4, and as

0 4 increases from 0 to , the radial
4
0.2 3.684244 distance r decreases from 4 to 0.
0.4 2.786827 Then, as increases from to ,
0.6 1.449431 4 2
r becomes negative and decreases
0.8 0.1167981 from 0 to 4. A table of values is
1 1.664587 given in the margin.
1.2 2.949575
1.4 3.768889
The next part of the graph is obtained by first reflecting in the

y-axis:
Chapter 5 113
The last part of the graph is found by reflecting in the x-axis:

In general, r D a cos n is the equation of a rose curve in which
each petal has length a. If n is an even number, the rose has 2n petals;
if n is odd, the number of petals is n. The tips of the petals are equally
spaced on a circle of radius a. Equations of the form r D a sin n are
handled as rotations.
STANDARD-POSITION ROSE CURVE
r D a cos n
EXAMPLE 5.11 Graphing a rose curve by using a rotation
Graph r D 5 sin 4.
Solution We begin by finding the amount of rotation:
r D 5 sin 4

D 5 cos 4 Cofunctions of complementary angles
2

D 5 cos 4 Remember, cos D cos .
2

D 5 cos 4
8
We recognize this as a rose curve rotated. There are 24 D 8 petals

8
of length 5. The petals are a distance of (one revolution D 2
4
114 Chapter 5
Figure 5.9 Graph of r D 5 sin 4
divided by the number of petals) apart. The graph is shown in

Figure 5.9.
The graph of the eight-leaved rose in Example 5.11 provides a good
illustration of why the alternative criteria for symmetry are given. It
is obvious from the figure that the curve is symmetric with respect to
the x-axis, but if f D 5 sin 4, we have
f D 5 sin 4 D 5 sin 4 6D f
which means the primary criterion for symmetry with respect to the
x-axis fails. However,
f D 5 sin 4
D 5[sin 4 cos4 C cos 4 sin4]
D 5 sin 4
D f
so when r, is on the graph, so is r, . Thus, the alternative

criterion confirms that the graph is indeed symmetric with respect to
the x-axis.
5.9 Lemniscates
The last general type of polar-form curve we will consider is called a
lemniscate.
STANDARD-POSITION LEMNISCATE
r 2 D a2 cos 2
Chapter 5 115
EXAMPLE 5.12 Graphing a lemniscate
Graph r 2 D 9 cos 2.
Solution As before, when graphing a curve for the first time, begin
by checking symmetry and plotting points. For this example, note that
you obtain two values for r when solving the quadratic equation. For
example, if D 0, then cos 2 D 1 and r 2 D 9, so r D 3 or 3.
9 cos[2] D 9 cos 2, so r 2 D 9 cos 2 is not affected when is
replaced by ; yes, the curve is symmetric with respect to the x-axis.
Symmetry with respect to the y-axis
9 cos[2 ] D 9 cos2 2 D 9 cos2 D 9 cos 2;
yes, the curve is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
Symmetry with respect to the origin
r2 D r 2 so r 2 D 9 cos 2 is not affected when r is replaced by
r; yes, the curve is symmetric with respect to the origin.
Note that because r 2 ½ 0, the equation has a solution only when
cos 2 ½ 0; that is,
3 5
; ;....
4 4 4 4
We begin by restricting our atten-

tion to the interval 0 .
p 4
Note that 9 cos 2 decreases steadily
from 3 to 0 as varies from 0 to
:
4
A second step is to use symmetry Finally, obtain the rest of the graph
to reflect the curve in the x-axis: by reflecting the curve in the y-
axis:

116 Chapter 5
5.10 PROBLEM SET 5

In Problems 1–3, plot each of the given polar-form points and give
equivalent rectangular coordinates.

2
1. a. 4, b. 6, c. 5,
4 3 3

3 5
2. a. 3, b. , c. 4, 4
6 2 6

3
3. a. 1, 3 b. 2, c. 0, 3
2
Plot the rectangular-form points in Problems 4–6, and give a polar

form.
p p
4. a. (5, 5) b. 1, 3 c. 2, 2 3
5. a. 2, 2 b. 3, 3 c. (3, 7)

p p
6. a. 3, 3 3 b. 3, 1 c. 3, 0
Write each equation given in Problems 7–14 in rectangular coordi-

nates.
7. r D 4 sin 8. r D 16
9. r D 1 sin 10. r D 2 cos
11. r D sec 12. r D 4 tan

2 2
13. r2 D 14. r2 D
1 C sin2 3 cos2 1
In Problems 15–20, tell whether each of the given points lies on the
curve
5
rD
1 sin

15. 10, 16. 5,
6 2

5 10 5
17. 10, 18. ,
6 3 6
p
19. 20 C 10 3, 20. 10,
3 3
Chapter 5 117
In Problems 21–28, tell whether each of the given points lies on the
curve r D 21 cos .

21. 1, 22. 1,
3 3

23. 1, 24. 2,
3 2
p p
25. 2 C 2, 26. 2 2,
4 4

2
27. 0, 28. 0,
4 3
Sketch the graph of each equation given in Problems 29–42.
3 3
29. rD 30. r D ,0 2
2 2
p
31. r D 2, 0 2 32. rD4
33. D1 34. D 1, r ½ 0
35. D ,r < 0 36. D

6 2
37. r D 3 cos 3 38. r 2 D 9 cos 2

39. r 2 D 9 sin 2 40. r D 2 cos 2 C
3

41. r D sin 3 C 42. r D 1 C cos
6
In Problems 43–48, graph the given pair of curves on the same
coordinate axes. The first equation uses rectangular coordinates
x, y and the second uses polar coordinates r, .
43. y D cos x and r D cos
44. y D sin x and r D sin
45. y D tan x and r D tan
46. y D sec x and r D sec
47. y D csc x and r D csc

118 Chapter 5
48. y D cot x and r D cot
49. Show that the polar equations r D cos C 1 and r D cos 1

have the same graph in the xy-plane.
50. Show that the graph of the polar equation r D a sin C b cos
is a circle. Find its center and radius.
CHAPTER 6
Conic Sections: The Parabola
Consider the general second-degree equation
Ax 2 C Bxy C Cy 2 C Dx C Ey C F D 0
for any constants A, B, C, D, E, and F. If A D B D C D 0, the

equation is not quadratic, but linear (first degree); but if at least one
of A, B, and C is not zero, then the equation is quadratic. Historically,
second-degree equations in two variables were first considered in a
geometric context and were called conic sections, because the curves
they represent can be described as the intersections of a double-napped
right circular cone with a plane. (See Figure 6.1.)
Figure 6.1 Conic sections
The text assumes that you are familiar with the parabola, circle,
ellipse, and hyperbola in standard position, as well as those
translated to (h, k). In other words, you need to be familiar with
the conic sections in this chapter.
6.1 Standard-Position Parabolas

We shall use the following definition of a parabola:
PARABOLA
A parabola is the set of all points in the plane that are

equidistant from a fixed point (called the focus) and a fixed
line (called the directrix).
119
120 Chapter 6
Figure 6.2 Parabola
Figure 6.3 Graph of the parabola x 2 D 4cy
The line through the focus perpendicular to the directrix is called the
principal axis of the parabola, and the point where the axis intersects
the parabola is called the vertex. The line segment that passes through
the focus perpendicular to the axis and with endpoints on the parabola
is called the focal chord. This terminology is shown in Figure 6.2.
To obtain the equation of a parabola, first consider a special case:
a parabola with focus F 0, c and directrix y D c, where c is any
positive number. This parabola must have its vertex at the origin (the
vertex is halfway between the focus and the directrix) and must open
upward, as shown in Figure 6.3.
Let (x, y) be any point on the parabola. Then, from the definition of
a parabola,
DISTANCE FROM (x, y) to 0, c D DISTANCE FROM (x, y) TO
THE DIRECTRIX

x0 2C yc 2 DyCc
x 2 C y 2 2cy C c2 D y 2 C 2cy C c2 Square both sides.

Chapter 6 121
x 2 D 4cy
This is the equation of the parabola with vertex (0, 0) and directrix
y D c.
You can repeat the preceding argument (see Problems 56–58) for
parabolas that have their vertex at the origin and open downward, to
the left, and to the right to obtain the results summarized next.
STANDARD-FORM EQUATIONS FOR PARABOLAS
Parabola Focus Directrix Vertex

Upward: x 2 D 4cy (0, c) y D c (0, 0)
Downward: x 2 D 4cy 0, c yDc (0, 0)
Right: y 2 D 4cx (c, 0) x D c (0, 0)
Left: y 2 D 4cx c, 0 xDc (0, 0)
The length of the focal chord is the coefficient 4c.
To graph a parabola, find and plot its vertex, determine c (usually by

inspection), and count out c units from the vertex in the appropriate
direction, as determined by the form of the equation. Finally, it is
shown in the problem set that the length of the focal chord is 4c, and
we use this number to determine the width of the parabola, as in the
following example.
EXAMPLE 6.1 Graphing a standard-form parabola
Graph 2y 2 5x D 0.
Figure 6.4 Graph of the parabola 2y 2 5x D 0

122 Chapter 6
Solution First, algebraically change the equation so that it is in

standard form by solving for the second-degree term:
y 2 D 52 x
The vertex is (0, 0) and
4c D 52 , so c D 5
8

Thus, the parabola opens to the right, the focus is 58 , 0 , and the
length of the focal chord is 4c D 52 , as shown in Figure 6.4.
There are two basic types of problems in analytic geometry:

1. Given the equation, draw the graph; this is what we did in
Example 6.1.
2. Given the graph (or information about the graph), write the
equation. The next example is of this type.
EXAMPLE 6.2 Writing the equation of a parabola
Find an equation of a parabola with focus F 0, 2 and directrix

y D 2.
Solution This is the curve drawn in Figure 6.5. We see that the curve
is a parabola which opens downward with vertex at the origin. By
inspection, c D 2. The form of the equation is x 2 D 4cy, so the
desired equation is
x 2 D 8y
6.2 TRANSLATION OF PARABOLAS

If a parabola is not in standard position, but its axis is parallel to
one of the coordinate axes, it can be put into standard form by a
change of variable of the form X D x h, Y D y k. Such a change
in variable is called a translation, and it has the general effect shown
in Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.5 Graph of the parabola with focus 0, 2 and directrix y D 2

Chapter 6 123
Figure 6.6 Translation of a parabola; vertex is at (h, k).
Suppose h, k D 4, 5 ; then the coordinates of P are x, y D 6, 9

and X, Y D 2, 4 ; check:
XDxhD64D2
YDyk D95D4
EFFECT OF A TRANSLATION
Replacing x h by X and y k by Y in an equation has

the effect of translating the graph of the equation
h units horizontally right if h > 0 and left if h < 0
k units vertically up if k > 0 and down if k < 0
This means that the equations for parabolas with vertex (h, k) are as
follows:
2
xh D 4c y k , X2 D 4cY
2
xh D 4c y k , X2 D 4cY
2
yk D 4c x h , Y2 D 4cX
2
yk D 4c x h , Y2 D 4cX
EXAMPLE 6.3 Graphing a parabola by using a translation
Sketch the parabola y D x 2 C 2x C 3. Find the vertex, c, and the length

of the focal chord. Also, find the focus and the equation of the directrix.
Solution First, complete the square:
y D x 2 C 2x C 3
124 Chapter 6
y 3 + 1 D x 2 C 2x + 1
y2D xC1 2
Next, plot the vertex 1, 2 . If we replace y 2 by Y and x C 1 by
X, we have Y D X2 , which tells us that the parabola opens upward.
Also, 4c D 1, so c D 14 . Thus, plot the focus by counting up 14 unit,
and then draw the focal chord with length 1. Because these points are
fairly close on the chosen scale, we plot an additional point, say, the
y-intercept: If x D 0, then y D 02 C 2 0 C 3 D 3. (See Figure 6.7.)
Notice that we do not need to know the coordinates of the focus or
the directrix to draw the graph. We needed to know only the vertex,
the distance c, and the length of the focal chord, 4c. If c is small
relative to the vertex, it may be necessary to plot an additional point.
However, we may need to know the coordinates of the focus and
directrix for further analysis. To find these numbers, we can use the
reverse translation x D X C h, y D Y C k:
XY-coordinates xy-coordinates
Vertex 0, 0 1, 2
1

focus 0, 4 1, 94
directrix Y D 14 yD 7
4
EXAMPLE 6.4 Finding the equation of a translated parabola
Find an equation for the parabola with focus 4, 3 and whose

directrix is the line x C 2 D 0.
Solution Sketch the information as shown in Figure 6.8. The vertex

is 1, 3 , because it must be equidistant from F and the directrix.
Note that c D 3. Thus, substitute into the equation of a parabola that
Figure 6.7 Graph of y D x 2 C 2x C 3

Chapter 6 125
Figure 6.8 Graph of a parabola with focus (4, 3) and directrix x C 2 D 0.
opens to the right, namely y 2 D 4cx, and then translate to the point (h,
k) to obtain the equation
2
yk D 4c x h
Because h, k D 1, 3 , the desired equation is
yC3 2
D 12 x 1
6.3 REPRESENTATION IN POLAR COORDINATES

Next, we shall see how a parabola can be represented in polar
coordinates. Let a parabola be given in the plane. Place the x-axis
along the principal axis of the parabola, and place the pole at the
focus, as shown in Figure 6.9. We refer to this position as standard
polar position for the parabola. Assume that the parabola opens to
the right and that the directrix L is the vertical line x D p, where
p > 0 is the distance from the focus to the directrix.
Figure 6.9 A standard polar position for a parabola

126 Chapter 6
If P is a point on the parabola with rectangular coordinates (x, y)

and polar coordinates r, , we must have
DISTANCE P TO F D DISTANCE P TO L
jrj D jp C r cos j
r D š p C r cos
p p
rD r D
1 cos 1 C cos
It can be shown that these two equations represent the same graph, so
we shall use the one on the left to represent the given parabola. We
can similarly derive equations for parabolas that open downward, left,
or to the right. These graphs are shown in Figure 6.10.
p
Figure 6.10 Standard position polar-form parabolas 0 < <1
2
Chapter 6 127
STANDARD POLAR EQUATIONS FOR PARABOLAS
Directrix Vertex,
Parabola Focus Rectangular-formŁ Polar-form

p p 3
Upward: rD (0, 0) y D p ,
1 sin 2 2
p p
Downward: rD (0, 0) yDp ,
1 C sin 2 2
p p
Right: rD (0, 0) x D p ,
1 cos 2
p p
Left: rD (0, 0) xDp ,0
1 C cos 2
EXAMPLE 6.5 Graphing a polar-form parabola
Describe and sketch the graph of the equation
4
rD
3 3 cos
Solution
1 4
4 3 3
rD Ð 1
D
3 3 cos 3
1 cos
4
3 3 cos
Ł We could, of course, state these equations of lines in polar form. For example, y D p is
r sin D p, but we prefer writing the equation of the directrix in rectangular form.
128 Chapter 6
By inspection, you can now see (Figure 6.11) that the parabola opens
to the right and that p D 43 . Thus, the vertex is
p
2
, D ,
2 3
Plot the vertex and the line x D 43 , as shown in the margin. You can
plot other points that are easy to calculate, such as the points where
3
D and D or D .
2 2
EXAMPLE 6.6 Finding a polar-form equation of a parabola
Find a polar-form equation for the parabola with focus at the origin
and vertex at the polar-form point 3, .
Solution The vertex 3, is on the x-axis and to the left of the focus
(the pole). Thus, the parabola opens to the right and has a polar-form
equation
p
rD
1 cos
where p is the distance from the focus to the directrix. Because the
vertex 3, is halfway between the focus and the directrix, we must
have p D 6, so that the required equation is
6
rD
1 cos
Figure 6.12 The reflection property of parabolas

Chapter 6 129
6.4 PARABOLIC REFLECTORS*
Parabolic curves are used in the design of lighting systems, telescopes,

and radar antennas, mainly because of the property illustrated in
Figure 6.12 and described more formally in Handbook Theorem 3.
HANDBOOK THEOREM 3 Reflection property of parabolas

Let P be a point on a parabola in the plane, and let T be the tangent line
to the parabola at P. Then the angle between T and the line through P
parallel to the principal axis of the parabola equals the angle between
T and the line connecting P to the focus.
As an illustration of how this property is used, let us examine its

application to reflecting telescopes. The eyepiece of such a telescope
is placed at the focus of a parabolic mirror. Light enters the telescope
in rays that are parallel to the axis of the parabola. It is a principle
of physics that when light is reflected, the angle of incidence equals
the angle of reflection. Hence, the parallel rays of light strike the
parabolic mirror so that they all reflect through the focus, which
means that the parallel rays are concentrated at the eyepiece located
at the focus.
Ł Since
these reflectors are three dimensional, the precise word is paraboloidal, but the most
common usage refers to the cross-sectional shape, which is parabolic.
130 Chapter 6
Flashlights and automobile headlights simply reverse the process:

A light source is placed at the focus of a parabolic mirror, the light
rays strike the mirror with angle of incidence equal to the angle of
reflection, and each ray is reflected along a path parallel to the axis,
thus emitting a light beam of parallel rays.
Radar utilizes both of these properties. First, a pulse is transmitted
from the focus to a parabolic surface. As with a reflecting telescope,
parallel pulses are transmitted in this way. The reflected pulses then
strike the parabolic surface and are sent back to be received at the
focus.
6.5 PROBLEM SET 6

Sketch the curves in Problems 1–22. Find the vertex V and c.
1. y 2 D 8x
2. y 2 D 12x
3. y 2 D 20x
4. 4x 2 D 10y
5. 3x 2 D 12y
6. 2x 2 D 4y
7. 2x 2 C 5y D 0
8. 5y 2 C 15x D 0
9. 3y 2 15x D 0
10. 4y 2 C 3x D 12
11. 5x 2 C 4y D 20
12. 4x 2 C 3y D 12
13. y 1 2 D 2 x C 2
14. y C 3 2 D 3 x 1
15. x C 2 2 D 2 y 1
16. x 1 2 D 3 y C 3
17. y 2 C 4x 3y C 1 D 0
18. y 2 4x C 10y C 13 D 0
19. y 2 C 4y 10x C 74 D 0
20. x 2 C 9y 6x C 18 D 0
21. 9x 2 C 6x C 18y 23 D 0
22. 9x 2 C 6y C 18x 23 D 0
23. Graph f x D x 2 4x C 7
From Example 2, Section 3.4, of text.
24. Graph P x D 400 10 x 2 C x
From Example 1, Section 4.7, of text.
Chapter 6 131
Find an equation for each curve in Problems 25–32.

25. Directrix x D 0; focus (5, 0)
26. Directrix y D 0; focus 0, 3
27. Directrix x 3 D 0; vertex 1, 2
28. Directrix y C 4 D 0; vertex 4, 1
29. Vertex 2, 3 ; focus 2, 3
30. Vertex 3, 4 ; focus (1, 4)
31. Vertex 3, 2 and passing through 2, 1 ; axis parallel to
the y-axis
32. Vertex (4, 2) and passing through 3, 4 ; axis parallel to the
x-axis
Sketch the graph of the polar-form parabola in Problems 33–38.

Check your work by finding an equivalent Cartesian equation.
6 4
33. r D 34. r D
1 C cos 1 sin
9 2
35. rD 36. rD
1 C sin 1 cos
8 9
37. rD 38. r D
2 2 cos 3 C 3 cos
In Problems 39–42, find a polar equation for a parabola with its
focus at the pole and with the given property.
39. vertex at the polar-form point (4, 0)
40. vertex at the polar-form point 2,
41. directrix at y D 4 42. directrix at x D 3
In Problems 43–46, find a polar equation for the parabola with the
given Cartesian equation given.
43. y 2 D 4x 44. x 2 D 2y
45. 4x 2 D y 3 46. xC1D2 y3 2
47. Find the point(s) on the parabola y 2 D 9x that is (are) closest to

(2, 0).
48. Find the point(s) on the parabola x 2 D 4cy that is (are) closest
to the focus.
49. Find the equation for the tangent line and the line perpendicular
to the parabola y 2 D 4x at the point 1, 2 .
50. Find the equation of the set of all points with distances from (4,
3) that equal their distances from (0, 3).
51. Find the equation of the set of all points with distances from (4,
3) that equal their distances from 2, 1 .
132 Chapter 6
52. Find an equation for a parabola that opens to the right with focal
chord length 6 if it is known that the parabola has focus 4, 2 .
53. A parabolic archway has the dimensions shown in Figure 6.13.
Find the equation of the parabolic portion.
54. Beams of light parallel to the axis of the parabolic mirror
shown in Figure 6.14 strike the mirror and are reflected. Find
the distance from the vertex to the point where the beams
concentrate if the radius at the top of the dish is 4 ft.
55. A radar antenna is constructed so that a cross section along
its axis is a parabola with the receiver at the focus. Find the
focus if the antenna is 12 m across and its depth is 4 m. (See
Figure 6.15.)
Figure 6.13 A parabolic archway
Figure 6.14 A parabolic mirror
Figure 6.15 Dimensions for a radar antenna

Chapter 6 133
56. Derive the equation of a parabola with F 0, c , where c is a

positive number and the directrix is the line y D c.
57. Derive the equation of a parabola with F c, 0 , where c is a
positive number and the directrix is the line x D c.
58. Derive the equation of a parabola with F c, 0 , where c is a
positive number and the directrix is the line x D c.
59. Show that the length of the focal chord for the parabola y 2 D 4cx
is 4c c > 0 .
60. Show that the polar equations
p p
rD and r D
1 cos 1 C cos
represent the same graph.
61. Show that the vertex is the point on a parabola that is closest to
the focus.
62. Show that the tangents to a parabola at the two ends of the focal
chord intersect on the directrix.
63. Find the area of the triangle formed by the focal chord and the
two tangent lines at the end of the focal chord of the parabola
x 2 D 4cy.
64. Suppose a circle intersects the parabola x 2 D 4cy in four distinct
points x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 , x3 , y3 , and x4 , y4 . Show that
x1 C x2 C x3 C x4 D 0.
65. Reflection property of the parabola. Assume that a parabola

is given by the equation
x2
yD
4c
Figure 6.16 Reflection property

134 Chapter 6
Use Figure 6.16 to prove the reflection property of the parabola

by carrying out the indicated steps.
a. Find an equation for the tangent line T to the parabola at

P x0 , y 0 .
b. Find the coordinates of the point Q where T crosses the
y-axis.
c. If F is the focus of the parabola, show that jFPj D jFQj.
Conclude that  QFP is isosceles.
d. Let L be a line parallel to the y-axis. Show that the angle
between L and T equals D 6 FPQ.
CHAPTER 7
Conic Sections: The Ellipse and the
Hyperbola
7.1 ELLIPSES
In this chapter, we consider two more conic sections: the ellipse and
the hyperbola.
ELLIPSE
An ellipse is the set of all points in the plane, the sum of

whose distances from two fixed points is constant.
The fixed points are called the foci (plural of focus). To see what an
ellipse looks like, we will use the special type of graph paper shown
in Figure 7.1a, where F1 and F2 are the foci.
Let the constant distance be 12. Plot all the points in the plane so
that the sum of their distances from the foci is 12. If a point is 8 units
from F1 , for example, then it is 4 units from F2 , and you can plot
the points P1 and P2 . The completed graph of this ellipse is shown in
Figure 7.1b.
Figure 7.1 Elliptic graph paper
135
136 Chapter 7
Figure 7.2 Developing the equation of an ellipse by using the definition
The line passing through F1 and F2 is called the major axis. The
center is the midpoint of the segment F1 F2 . The semimajor axis is
the distance from the center to a point of intersection of the ellipse with
its major axis. The line passing through the center and perpendicular
to the major axis is called the minor axis. The semiminor axis is the
distance from the center to a point of intersection of the minor axis
with the ellipse. The ellipse is symmetric with respect to the major and
minor axes. The intercepts on the major axis are called the vertices of
the ellipse.
To find the equation of an ellipse, first consider a special case where
the center is at the origin. Let the distance from the center to a focus be
the positive number c; that is, let F1 c, 0 and F2 c, 0 be the foci,
and let the constant sum of distances be 2a (that is, d1 C d2 D 2a), as
shown in Figure 7.2.
If P(x, y) is any point on the ellipse, then, by definition,
jPF1 j C jPF2 j D 2a

x C c2 C y 02 C x c2 C y 02 D 2a
Simplifying (the details are not shown), we obtain
x2 y2
C D1
a2 a2 c 2
x2 y 2
Let b2 D a2 c2 to obtain C 2 D 1. The graph of this equation
a2 b
is shown in Figure 7.3. Notice that the foci are on the major axis and
that the intercepts on the minor axis are (0, b) and 0, b. Notice also
that a > c and a > b.
A similar derivation applies to the ellipse in standard position with
foci on the y-axis.
Chapter 7 137
Figure 7.3 Standard-form ellipses
STANDARD-FORM EQUATIONS FOR ELLIPSES
Orientation Equation Foci Constant Center
x2 y 2
Horizontal C 2 D 1 c, 0, (c, 0) 2a (0, 0)
a2 b
y 2 x2
Vertical C 2 D 1 (0, c), 0, c 2a (0, 0)
a2 b
where b2 D a2 c2 or c2 D a2 b2 with a > b > 0
To sketch an ellipse, plot the center, the intercepts ša on the major

axis, and the intercepts šb on the minor axis. Write the equation in
standard form, so that there is a 1 on the right and coefficients of the
square terms in the numerator are also 1. The center is (0, 0); plot the
intercepts on the x- and y-axes. For the x-intercepts, plot š the square
root of the number under the x 2 term; for the y-intercepts, plot š the
square root of the number under the y 2 term. Finally, draw the ellipse,
using these intercepts. The longer axis is called the major axis; if this
axis is horizontal, then the ellipse is horizontal, and if the major axis
is vertical, then the ellipse is vertical.
EXAMPLE 7.1 Graphing an ellipse centered at the origin
Sketch 9x 2 C 4y 2 D 36. Find the foci.

138 Chapter 7
Solution First, rewrite the equation in standard form by dividing

both sides by 36:
x2 y 2
C D1
4 9
Figure 7.4 Graph of 9x 2 C 4y 2 D 36
Because a2 D 9, and b2 D 4, the foci are found p by calculating

p c:
c2 D a2 b2 D 9 4 D 5. Thus, the foci are 0, 5, 0, 5. The
graph is shown in Figure 7.4.
EXAMPLE 7.2 Parameterize the equation of an ellipse
Graph 2x 2 C 5y 2 D 10 by using a parameterization.
Solution One way to parameterize an ellipse is to recall the identity

cos2 C sin2 D 1. We begin by dividing both sides of the given
equation by 10:
2x 2 C 5y 2 D 10
2x 2 5y 2
C D1
10 10
x2 y 2
C D1
5 2

x 2 y 2
p C p D1
5 2
x y
We know that if cos D p and sin D p , then cos2 C sin2 D
5 2
1. There are, of course, otherpchoices we could p make, but this
observation leads us to let x D 5 cos and y D 2 sin . You can
set up a table of values or use a calculator to obtain the graph shown in
Chapter 7 139
p p
Figure 7.5 Graph of x D 5 cos , y D 2 sin
Figure 7.5. If you use a table of values, you need only consider values

of between 0 and , because we know that the ellipse is symmetric
2
with respect to both the major and minor axes:
The parameterization we obtained p for the ellipse
p in Example 7.2
is not unique. For example, x D 5 sin , y D 2 cos is the same
ellipse, but if you sketch these parametric equations, you will note
that even though the ellipse is the same, the orientation has reversed.
EXAMPLE 7.3 Finding the equation of a given ellipse
Find an equation for the ellipse with foci 1, 0 and (1, 0) and
vertices 2, 0 and (2, 0).
Solution By inspection, the center of the ellipse is (0, 0) and the

distance to a vertex is 2, so a D 2; the distance to a focus is 1, so
c D 1. We find that b2 D a2 c2 D 3. An equation is
x2 y 2
C D1
4 3
If an ellipse is not in standard position, but its axes are parallel to
the coordinate axes, complete the square to determine the translation.
Here is an example of this procedure.
EXAMPLE 7.4 Graphing an ellipse by competing the square
Sketch the graph of the equation 9x 2 C 4y 2 18x C 16y 11 D 0.
Solution Complete the square in both x and y:
9x 2 C 4y 2 18x C 16y 11 D 0
9x 2 2x C 4y 2 C 4y D 11
140 Chapter 7
9x 2 2x C 12 C 4y 2 C 4y C22 D 11 C 9 Ð 1 C4.4

9x 12 C 4y C 22 D 36
x 12 y C 22
C D1
4 9
Figure 7.6 Graph of 9x 2 C 4y 2 18x C 16y 11 D 0
Thus, the graph may be obtained by translating the graph of the ellipse
x2 y 2
C D 1 by 1 unit to the right and 2 units down. This process is
4 9
shown in Figure 7.6. First, plot the center h, k D 1, 2, and then
count out from that point a distance a D š3 (the vertices) on the
major axis and label those vertices. Finally, count out from the center
the distance b D š2 on the minor axis. Using those four points on the
ellipse, you can sketch the graph.
7.2 Hyperbolas
The last of the conic sections to be considered has a definition similar
to that of the ellipse.
HYPERBOLA
A hyperbola is the set of all points in the plane such

that, for each point on the hyperbola, the difference of its
distances from two fixed points is constant.
The fixed points are called the foci. A hyperbola with foci at F1
and F2 , where the given constant distance is 8, is shown in Figure 7.7.
The line passing through the foci is called the transverse axis. The
center is the midpoint of the segment connecting the foci. The line
Chapter 7 141
Figure 7.7 Graph of a hyperbola from the definition
passing through the center and perpendicular to the transverse axis is

called the conjugate axis. The transverse axis intersects the hyperbola
at points called the vertices, and the conjugate axis does not intersect
the hyperbola. The hyperbola is symmetric with respect to both the
transverse and conjugate axes.
If you use the definition, you can derive the equation for a hyperbola
with foci at c, 0 and (c, 0) and constant difference 2a (both c and
a are positive). If (x, y) is any point on the curve, then

x C c2 C y 02 x c2 C y 02 D 2a

The procedure for simplifying this expression is left as a problem.

After several steps, you should obtain
x2 y2
D1
a2 c 2 a2
If b2 D c2 a2 , then
x2 y 2
2 D1
a2 b
which is the standard-form equation. Notice that c2 D a2 b2 for the

ellipse and that c2 D a2 C b2 for the hyperbola. For the ellipse it is
142 Chapter 7
necessary that a2 > b2 , but for the hyperbola, there is no restriction on

the relative sizes of a and b (but c is still less than a for the hyperbola).
Repeat the argument for a hyperbola with foci F1 0, c and
F2 0, c, and you will obtain the other standard-form equation
for a hyperbola with a vertical transverse axis.
STANDARD-FORM EQUATIONS FOR HYPERBOLAS
Orientation Foci Constant Center
x2 y2
Horizontal: D 1 c, 0, c, 0 2a (0, 0)
a2 b2
y2 x2
Vertical: D 1 0, c, 0, c 2a (0, 0)
a2 b2
where b2 D c2 a2 or c2 D a2 C b2
As with the other conics, we shall sketch a hyperbola by deducing

some properties of the curve by inspection of the equation. The
vertices are located ša units from the center. The number 2a is the
length of the transverse axis. The hyperbola does not intersect the
conjugate axis, but if you plot the points located šb units from the
center, you determine a segment on the conjugate axis with length 2b
called the length of the conjugate axis. The endpoints of this segment
are useful in determining the shape of the hyperbola.
EXAMPLE 7.5 Sketching a hyperbola in standard form
x2 y 2
Sketch D 1.
4 9
Solution The center of the hyperbola is (0, 0); a D 2 and b D 3. Plot

the vertices at x D š2, as shown in the margin. From the form of the
equation, we see that the transverse axis is along the x-axis and the
conjugate axis is along the y-axis. Plot the length of the conjugate
axis by plotting š3 units from the origin. We call these points the
pseudovertices, because the curve does not actually pass through
them.
Next, form a rectangle by drawing lines through the vertices and
pseudovertices parallel to the axes of the hyperbola. This rectangle
is called the central rectangle. The diagonal lines passing through
Chapter 7 143
the corners of the central rectangle are oblique asymptotes of the

hyperbola, as shown in Figure 7.8; they aid in sketching the curve.
x2 y2
Figure 7.8 Graph of D1
4 9

For the general hyperbola given by the equation
x2 y 2
2 D1
a2 b
the equations of the oblique asymptotes described are found by
replacing the constant term 1 by 0 and then factoring and solving:
b b
y D x and y D x
a a
To justify this result, you are asked in Problem 57 to show that the
b
branches of the hyperbola approach y D š x as jxj ! 1.
a
EXAMPLE 7.6 Completing the square to sketch a hyperbola
Sketch 16x 2 9y 2 128x 18y C 103 D 0.
Solution Complete the square in both x and y:

! Watch the signs on the second pair of parentheses.
16x 2 9y 2 128x 18y C 103 D 0

16x 2 8x 9y 2 C 2y D 103
16x 2 8x C 42 9y 2 C 2y C 12 D 103 C 16 Ð 42 9 Ð 12
16x 42 9y C 12 D 144
144 Chapter 7
x 42 y C 12
D1
9 16
Figure 7.9 Sketch of 16x 2 9y 2 128x 18y C 103 D 0
The graph is shown in Figure 7.9.
We conclude our discussion of hyperbolas by considering an

example in which information about the graph is given and we are
asked to find the equation of the hyperbola.
EXAMPLE 7.7 Equation of a hyperbola, given information

about the graph
Find the set of points such that, for any point, the difference of its
distances from (6, 2) and 6, 5 is always 3.
Solution From the definition, we see that the set of points is a

hyperbola with center 6, 32 and c D 72 . Also, 2a D 3, so a D 32 .
Because c2 D a2 C b2 , we have
49 9
D C b2 so that b2 D 10
4 4
The desired equation is
y C 32 2 x 62 4y C 32 2 x 62

9
D 1 or D1
4
10 9 10
7.3 ECCENTRICITY AND POLAR COORDINATES

We defined the parabola as the set of all points P equidistant from a
given point F (the focus) and a given line L (the directrix). In other
Chapter 7 145
words, for a parabola,
DISTANCE FROM P TO F
D1
DISTANCE FROM P TO L
This form of the definition of a parabola is part of the following

characterization of conic sections:
ECCENTRICITY
Let F be a point in the plane, and let L be a line in the same

plane. Then the set of all points P in the plane that satisfy
DISTANCE FROM P TO F
D
DISTANCE FROM P TO L
is a conic section, and is a fixed number for each conic,
called the eccentricity of the conic. The conic is
an ellipse if < 1;
a parabola if D 1;
a hyperbola if > 1.
These criteria for a conic are illustrated in Figure 7.10.

Next, we shall examine polar characterizations for the ellipse and
the hyperbola that involve the eccentricity . Consider an ellipse with
one focus F at the origin of a polar coordinate plane. Assume that the
corresponding directrix L is the vertical line x D p, or, in polar-form,
cos D pp > 0, and that the ellipse has eccentricity . Then, if
Pr, is a polar-form point on the ellipse, we have
DISTANCE FROM P TO F r
D D
DISTANCE FROM P TO L p r cos
This relationship is shown in Figure 7.11.

Solving for r, we find that the ellipse has the polar equation
p
rD Because 0 < 1, cos 6D 1.
1 C cos
p
Similarly, if the directrix is x D p, the equation is r D ,
1 cos
and if the directrix is y D p or y D p, the corresponding equations
146 Chapter 7
Figure 7.10 Eccentricity characterization of a conic section
Figure 7.11 Polar representation of an ellipse
are, respectively,
p p
rD and rD
1 C sin 1 sin
These four possibilities are summarized in Figure 7.12.

Chapter 7 147
Figure 7.12 Forms for the equation of an ellipse < 1 in standard polar
form
EXAMPLE 7.8 Describing the graph of an equation in polar

form
2
Discuss the graph of the polar-form equation r D .
2 cos
Solution We begin by writing the equation in standard form: r D

1
1
.
1 2 cos
This form involves a cosine and has D 12 < 1, so by comparing
it with the forms in Figure 7.12, we see that the graph must be a
horizontal ellipse. The form also tells us that p D 1, so p D 2 and
the directrix is x D 2. The focus F1 closer to the directrix is at the
pole, and the vertices occur where D 0 and D . For D 0, we
obtain r D 2, and for D , r D 23 , so the vertices are the polar points
V1 23 , and V2 2, 0. Since the focus F1 0, 0 is 23 units to the left
of V1 2, 0, F2 is the polar point 43 , 0. The center of the ellipse is
midway between the foci, at 32 , 0, so the minor axis is the vertical
line passing through this point. The minor axis is the line x D 23 , or, in
polar form,
2
2
r cos D or r D 3
3 cos
148 Chapter 7
To find the endpoints of the minor axis, we need to solve simulta-

neously the equations for the axis with the equation of the ellipse; that
is, we need to solve the set of equations
2
2 3
D
2 cos cos
2
2 cos D 2 cos
3
1
cos D
2
2
2 cos
we obtain D 3 and 5 4
3 . Then, solving for r, we get r D 3 , which gives
the vertices 3 , 3 and 3 , 3 . The graph is shown in Figure 7.13.
4 4 5
Formulas for hyperbolas in polar coordinates are obtained in essen-

tially the same way as polar formulas for ellipses. The four different
cases that can occur for hyperbolas in standard form are summarized
in Figure 7.14.
EXAMPLE 7.9 Describing the graph of a hyperbola in polar

form
5
Discuss the graph of the polar equation r D .
3 C 4 sin
5
3
Solution The standard form of the equation is r D 4
. The
1C 3
sin
form tells us that the eccentricity is D 43 , and because > 1, the
Chapter 7 149
Figure 7.14 Forms for the equation of a hyperbola > 1 in standard

polar form
graph is a hyperbola. We also see that the transverse axis is the y-axis
and that because p D 53 we have p D 54 . Thus, the graph has one
focus F1 at the pole and directrix y D p D 54 .
The corresponding vertex occurs when D 2 :
5 5
rD D
3 C 4 sin 2 7
So the polar coordinates of this vertex V1 are 57 , 2 . The opposite

vertex occurs where D 3 2 and
5
rD D 5
3 C 4 sin 3
2
So the point is V2 5, 3

2
. Because the vertex V1 is located 57 units
above F1 0, 0, we find that the other focus F2 , is located 5 units
above the vertex V1 . Thus, F2 is the polar point 40
7 , 2 . The graph is
shown in Figure 7.15.
150 Chapter 7
5
3 C 4 cos
7.4 Geometric Properties

Like the parabola, the ellipse has some useful reflection properties.
Let P be any point on an ellipse with foci F1 and F2 , and let T be the
line tangent to the ellipse at P, as shown in Figure 7.16.
Then the line segments F1 P and F2 P (called the focal radii) make
equal angles with the tangent line T at P. The reflection property of an
ellipse has the following physical interpretation:
REFLECTION PROPERTY OF AN ELLIPSE
An elliptic mirror has the property that waves emanating

from one focus are reflected toward the other focus.
The ‘‘whispering room’’ phenomenon found in many science

museums and in famous buildings such as the old U.S. Capitol in
Washington, DC, is an application of this principle. Two people
Figure 7.16 Reflection property of an ellipse

Chapter 7 151
stand at each focus of an elliptic dome. If one person whispers, the

other will clearly hear what is said, but anyone not near a focus
will hear nothing. This is especially impressive if the foci are far
apart.
The elliptic reflection principle is also used in a procedure for
disintegrating kidney stones. A patient is placed in a tub of water
with the shape of an ellipsoid (a three-dimensional elliptic figure) in
such a way that the kidney stone is at one focus of the ellipsoid. A
pulse generated at the other focus is then concentrated on the kidney
stone.
There is also a useful reflection property of hyperbolas. Suppose
an aircraft has crashed somewhere in the desert. A device in the
wreckage emits a ‘‘beep’’ at regular intervals. Two observers, located
at listening posts a known distance apart time the beeps. It turns out
that the difference in time between the two listening posts multiplied
by the velocity of sound gives the value 2a for a hyperbola on
which the airplane is located. A third listening post will determine
two more hyperbolas in a similar fashion, and the airplane must
be at the intersection of these hyperbolas. (See Figure 7.17 and
Problem 52.)
Figure 7.17 LORAN measures the differences in the time of arrival of

signals from two sets of stations. The plane’s position at the intersection
lines is charted on a special map based on a hyperbolic coordinate system.
152 Chapter 7
7.5 Problem Set 7

For each equation in Problems 1–20, sketch each curve.
x2 y2 x2 y2
1. C D1 2. C D1
4 16 16 4
x2 y2 x2 y 2
3. D1 4. D1
25 9 9 4
5. y 2 x2 D 1 6. x 2 y 2 D 8
7. x 12 C 4y 2 D 64 8. 2x 2 C 3y 2 D 12
9. x 2 2y 2 C 2 D 0 10. 5x 2 3y 2 C 15 D 0
x 12 y C 32 x 12 y C 32
11. C D1 12. C D1
4 16 16 4
13. 4x 32 9y C 12 D 36
14. 9x C 12 4y 32 D 36
15. 4x 2 9y 2 8x C 54y 41 D 0
16. x 2 4y 2 C 2x C 8y 7 D 0
17. 4x 2 C y 2 C 8x 2y C 4 D 0
18. x 2 C 4y 2 C 2x 8y C 4 D 0
19. 9x 2 C 4y 2 8y D 32
20. 4x 2 C 9y 2 8x D 32
Find the standard-form equation for Problems 21–34.

p
21. an ellipse with vertices at (0, 8) and (0, 2) and c D 5.
22. an ellipse centered at the origin with focus at (0, 3); semimajor
axis with length 4.
23. an ellipse centered at the origin with focus at 2, 0; minor
axis with length 4.
24. a hyperbola with foci at (0, 3) and 0, 3 and one vertex at
0, 2.
p p
25. a hyperbola with foci at 2, 0 and 2, 0 and one vertex
at (1, 0).
26. a hyperbola with vertices at (5, 0) and 5, 0 and one focus at
7, 0.
27. a conic with major axis 4 x 4 and minor axis 3 y 3.
Chapter 7 153
28. a conic with transverse axis 3 x 3 and conjugate axis

4 y 4.
29. an ellipse with center at (2, 1), semiminor axis with length 3,
and vertices at (2, 6) and 2, 4.
30. a conic with foci at 1, 0 and (1, 0) with major axis with
length 12.
31. a conic with foci at (0, 6) and 0, 6 with transverse axis with
length 4.
32. the set of points such that for any point, the sum of its distances
from 4, 3 and 4, 3 is 12.
33. the set of points such that, for any point, the difference of its
distances from 4, 3 and 4, 3 is 6.
34. a hyperbola with vertices (3, 0), 3, 0 and asymptotes y D 3x
and y D 3x.
Sketch the graph of each polar-form equation in Problems 35–38.

4 4
35. rD 36. r D
6 C cos 2 C 3 cos
5 3
37. rD 38. r D
1 2 sin 2 sin
39. Find an equation for the tangent line to the ellipse 5x 2 C 4y 2 D
56 at the point 2, 3.
40. Find an equation of an ellipse that is tangent to the coordinate
axes and to the line y D 6. Is there only one such ellipse?
x2
41. Find two points on the ellipse C y 2 D 1 where the tangent
4
line also passes through the point 0, 2.
42. Find the smallest distance from the point (2, 0) to the ellipse
3x 2 C 2y 2 C 6x 3 D 0.
43. Find an equation for the hyperbola with vertices 3, 1,
9 13 9 5
1, 1, and asymptotes y D x and y D x C .
4 4 4 4
44. Find an equation for the hyperbola with vertices (9, 0), 9, 0
and whose asymptotes are perpendicular to each other.
45. Find an equation for aphyperbola
in standard position that
5
contains the points 3, and 2, 0.
2
154 Chapter 7
46. Show that x D x0 C a cosh t, and y D y0 C b sinh t are para-

metric equations for one branch of a hyperbola. Find a Cartesian
equation for this hyperbola. Note: This is the reason sinh t and
cosh t are called ‘‘hyperbolic functions.’’ (See Section 7.8 of
the text.)
47. Show that the equations x D x0 C a sinh t and y D y0 C b cosh t
are parametric equations for one branch of a hyperbola. (See
Section 7.8 of the text.)
48. An equilateral hyperbola is a hyperbola with an equation of the
general form y 2 x 2 D a2 . Show that a hyperbola is equilateral
if and only if its asymptotes are perpendicular to each other.
49. The orbit of a planet is an ellipse whose major axis and minor
axis are, respectively, 100 million and 81 million miles long.
Find an equation for the ellipse. How far apart are its foci?
50. The orbit of the earth around the sun is elliptical, with the sun at
one focus. The semimajor axis of this orbit is 9.3 ð 107 mi, and
the eccentricity is about 0.017. Determine the greatest and least
distance of the earth from the sun (correct to two significant
digits). Hint: Use polar coordinates.
51. Consider a person A who fires a rifle at a distant gong B. Assuming
that the ground is flat, where must you stand to hear the sound
of the gun and the sound of the gong simultaneously? Hint: To
answer this question, let x be the distance that sound travels in
the length of time it takes the bullet to travel from the gun to the
gong. Show that the person who hears the sounds simultaneously
must stand on a branch of a hyperbola (the one nearest the target),
so that the difference of the distances from A to B is x.
52. Three LORAN stations are located at (4, 0), (0, 0), and 4, 4
in a polar coordinate system. Radio signals are sent out from all
Figure 7.18 Planetary orbits (Problem 50)

Chapter 7 155
three stations simultaneously. An airplane receiving the signals

notes that the signals from the second and third stations arrive 2c
seconds later than the signal from the first, where c is the velocity
of a radio signal. What is the location (in polar coordinates) of
the airplane?
53. Derive the equation of the ellipse with foci F1 c, 0 and
F2 c, 0 for c > 0 and constant distance 2a.
54. Derive the equation of the hyperbola with foci F1 c, 0 and
F2 c, 0 for c > 0 and constant distance 2a.
55. Find conditions on the coefficients of the equation
Ax 2 C Cy 2 C Dx C Ey C F D 0
with AC > 0 that guarantee that the graph of the equation is

a. a line.
b. an ellipse.
c. a circle.
d. a hyperbola.
e. no graph.
56. a. Show that the tangent line to the ellipse
x2 y 2
C 2 D1
a2 b
at the point x0 , y0 has the equation
x0 x y 0 y
C 2 D1
a2 b
b. Use part a to show that a tangent line to a vertex of an ellipse

in standard form is either vertical or horizontal.
Figure 7.19 Problem 57

156 Chapter 7
b b
57. Prove that the lines y D x and y D x are asymptotes of the
a a
x2 y 2
hyperbola 2 2 D 1. Hint: Show that the vertical distance
a b
bp 2 b
D(x) between y D x a2 and the line y D x tends to zero
a a
as x ! 1, as shown in Figure 7.19.
CHAPTER 8
Curve Sketching
When sketching a curve, we first check to see whether it is a type

of curve we recognize (a line, a conic, a trigonometric function, or
something else). If it is not a curve we recognize, we ultimately sketch
it by plotting some points; but before we plot points, we find out as
much about the curve as we can. To do this, we check (1) symmetry,
(2) extent, (3) asymptotes, and (4) intercepts.
Curve sketching is a major topic in Chapter 4 of the text. In

particular, Section 4.7 and Table 4.1 use many of the techniques
discussed in this chapter.
8.1 Symmetry
One of the most valuable tools in curve sketching is symmetry.
This section deals with recognizing when a curve is symmetric by
performing a simple test on its equation. In general, two points are
symmetric with respect to a line if that line is the perpendicular
bisector of the line segment containing the two points. In this book,
we will check for symmetry with respect to the coordinate axes and
the origin. (See Figure 8.1.)
Figure 8.2 shows an example of a curve that is symmetric with
respect to the x-axis: Whenever (x, y) is on the curve, so is x, y. This
gives us a simple algebraic test: If the equation remains unchanged
when y is replaced by y, then the curve is symmetric with respect to
the x-axis, because (x, y) and x, y must both satisfy the equation.
Figure 8.1 (a) Points P1 and P2 are symmetric with respect to L. (b) The
star is symmetric with respect to L.
157
158 Chapter 8
Figure 8.2 Symmetry with respect to the x-axis
Figure 8.3 Symmetry with respect to the y-axis
Similarly, Figure 8.3 shows a curve that is symmetric with respect

to the y-axis: Whenever (x, y) is on the curve, so is x, y. This
means that if the equation is unchanged when x is replaced by x,
then the curve is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
Finally, Figure 8.4 shows a curve that is symmetric with respect
to the origin: Whenever (x, y) is on the curve, so is x, y. This
means that if the equation is unchanged when x and y are replaced by
x and y, respectively, then the curve is symmetric with respect to
the origin.
Chapter 8 159
SYMMETRY
A curve is symmetric with respect to

the x-axis if the equation remains unchanged when y is
replaced by y;
the y-axis if the equation remains unchanged when x is
replaced by x;
the origin if the equation remains unchanged when x and
y are simultaneously replaced by x and y, respectively.
Also, the curve is symmetric with respect to the origin if it
is symmetric with respect to both the x- and y-axes.
EXAMPLE 8.1 Symmetry of a quadratic function
Check the symmetry of x 2 C 2xy 2 C y 2 D 4.
Solution This curve is symmetric with respect to the x-axis, since
x 2 C 2xy2 C y2 D 4
is the same as the original equation. The curve is not symmetric with
respect to the y-axis or the origin.
EXAMPLE 8.2 Symmetry with a trigonometric function
Check the symmetry of y D cos x.
Figure 8.4 Symmetry with respect to the origin

160 Chapter 8
Solution This curve is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, since
y D cosx
is the same as the original equation. The curve is not symmetric with
respect to the x-axis or the origin.
EXAMPLE 8.3 Symmetry of a third-degree equation
Check the symmetry of x 3 C 2xy 2 C 4x 2 y C 3y D 0.
Solution This curve is symmetric with respect to the origin, since
x3 C 2xy2 C 4x2 y C 3y D 0
is the same as the original equation if we multiply both sides by 1.

The curve is not symmetric with respect to the x- or y-axis.
EXAMPLE 8.4 Symmetry of a fourth-degree equation
Check the symmetry of x 2 C 5x 2 y 2 D 5.
Solution This curve is symmetric with respect to the x-axis, since
x 2 C 5x 2 y2 D 5
is the same as the original equation. The curve is also symmetric with
respect to the y-axis, since
x2 C 5x2 y 2 D 5
is the same as the original equation. If a curve is symmetric with

respect to both the x- and y-axis, then it must also be symmetric with
respect to the origin.
8.2 Extent
By extent, we mean the domain and range of a curve. If certain values
of one or the other variable cause division by zero or imaginary values,
those values must be excluded.
Chapter 8 161
PROCEDURE FOR FINDING THE EXTENT
The domain is the set of all possible replacements for x.

To find the domain:
a. Solve for y (if possible).
b. The domain is the set of all real values for x except
those which
i.lead to division by zero; or

ii.cause a negative number under a square root (or
some other even-indexed root).
The range is the set of all possible replacements for y.
To find the range:
a. Solve for x (if possible).
b. The range is the set of all real values for y except those
which
i. lead to division by zero; or

ii. cause a negative number under a square root (or
some other even-indexed root).
EXAMPLE 8.5 Extent of a rational function
4
Find the domain and range of y D .
x
Solution The domain is the set of all real numbers except zero, since
that value causes division by zero. In such a case, we write ‘‘all reals,
x 6D 0.’’ For the range, solve for x:
4
xD
y
The range is also the set of all real numbers, y 6D 0.
EXAMPLE 8.6 Extent of a rational function
x 3x 2x 4
Find the domain of y D .
x C 2x 4
Solution The domain is the set of all real numbers, x 6D 2 and

x 6D 4.
162 Chapter 8
EXAMPLE 8.7 Extent of a radical function

x
Find the domain and range of y D .
x1
Solution For the domain,
x 6D 1 Exclude values that lead to division by zero.

x
½0 Numbers under a square root must be non-negative.
x1
x: − + +
x − 1: − − +
0 1
Domain: 1, 0] [ 1, 1

For the range, we solve for x:
x
y2 D
x1
y 2 x 1 D x
y2x y2 D x
y2x x D y2
y 2 1x D y 2
y2
xD
y2 1
We must exclude values that lead to division by zero:
y 2 1 6D 0
y 6D 1, 1
But y cannot be negative, since y is a square root, which is

nonnegative. Therefore, the range is the set of all non-negative real
numbers except y D 1.
8.3 Asymptotes
An asymptote is a line such that, as a point P on the curve moves farther
away from the origin, the distance between P and the asymptote tends
toward zero. In this section, we are concerned with finding horizontal,
vertical, and oblique asymptotes. The key to finding horizontal and
vertical asymptotes is to find values that cause division by zero.
Chapter 8 163
VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES
For easy reference, here are the examples of Section 8.2.
4
Example 8.1: y D
x
x 3x 2x 4
Example 8.2: y D
x C 2x 4
x
Example 8.3: y D
x1
Px
Solve the equation for y D , where the fraction is reduced. If
Dx
r is a value for which Dr D 0, then x D r is a vertical asymptote.
In Example 8.1 of Section 8.2, there is a vertical asymptote at x D 0,
and in Example 8.2 of Section 8.2, there are vertical asymptotes at
x D 2. The value x D 4 is a deleted point and not an asymptote. In
Example 8.3, the vertical asymptote has equation x D 1.
HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES
Qy
Solve the equation for x D if possible. If r is a value for which
Sy
Sr D 0, then y D r is a horizontal asymptote. In Example 8.1 of
Section 8.2, it is easy to solve for x to find a horizontal asymptote x D 0.
Sometimes it is not convenient (or possible) to solve an equation for
x, as you can see by looking at Examples 8.2 and 8.3 of Section 8.2.
Using calculus, one can show that if
Px
yD
Dx
where P(x) and D(x) are polynomial functions of x with no common

factors (i.e., where the rational expression is reduced), the asymptotes
depend on the degrees of P and D. Suppose that P(x) has degree M
with leading coefficient p and that D(x) has degree N with leading
coefficient d. The asymptotes can then be found according to the rules
given in the next box.
OBLIQUE ASYMPTOTES
Notice that we included oblique (slanted) asymptotes in the box. A
curve will have an oblique asymptote whenever the degree of the
numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator. Once
again, consider Example 8.2 of Section 8.2:
x 2 5x C 6
yD , x 6D 4
xC2
164 Chapter 8
Notice that M > N, so there is no horizontal asymptote, but M D 2

and N D 1, so the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree
of the denominator. Divide to find
20
y Dx7C
xC2
Disregard the remainder term to find the oblique asymptote, namely,
y D x 7.
PROCEDURE FOR FINDING ASYMPTOTES
Vertical asymptotes: x D r, where r is a value that causes

division by zero when the equation is solved for y and is
reduced.
Horizontal asymptotes: y D r, where r is a value that

causes division by zero when the equation is solved for x
and is reduced. Sometimes it is not possible (or convenient)
to solve for x. If the equation is solved for y and is reduced,
then
y D 0 is a horizontal asymptote if M < N

p
y D is a horizontal asymptote if M D N
d
no horizontal asymptote exists if M > N
oblique asymptotes: Solve the equation for y and reduce;

then
y D mx C b is an oblique asymptote if M D N C 1
where mx C b is the quotient (disregard the remainder)

obtained when P(x) is divided by D(x).
EXAMPLE 8.8 Asymptotes of a rational function
Find the vertical, horizontal, and oblique asymptotes of
6x 2 x 1
yD
4x 2 4x C 1
Chapter 8 165
Solution First, make sure that the rational function is reduced:
6x 2 x 1
yD
4x 2 4x C 1
3x C 12x 1
D
2x 12
3x C 1
D
2x 1
1
Vertical asymptote: can be found when 2x 1 D 0; x D 2 is the
equation of a vertical asymptote.
Horizontal asymptote: y D 32 , which is found by looking at the

leading coefficients of the reduced form.
Oblique asymptotes: do not exist for this curve, since the degree of
the numerator is not one more than the degree of the denominator.
EXAMPLE 8.9 Asymptotes for a rational function
Find the vertical, horizontal, and oblique asymptotes for
3x 3 2x 2 4x C 6
yD
x2 3
Solution If you use long division
3x 2
2 3 2
x 33x 2x 4x C 6
3x 3 9x
2
2x C 5x C 6
2x 2 C6
5x
Since there is a remainder, the rational expression is reduced.

p
Vertical asymptotes: can be found when x 2 3 D 0; x D š 3.
Horizontal asymptotes: none, since the degree of the numerator is

larger than the degree of the denominator.
Oblique asymptotes: exist when the degree of the numerator is one

more than the degree of the denominator. Carry out the long division
166 Chapter 8
as shown, and disregard the remainder; the oblique asymptote is
y D 3x 2
It is possible that a curve crosses its oblique asymptotes. For

Example 8.9, you could find the point of intersection by solving
3x 3 2x 2 4x C 6
3x 2 D
x2 3
x 2 33x 2 D 3x 3 2x 2 4x C 6
0 D 5x
0Dx
The point where the curve crosses its asymptote is 0, 2.
8.4 Intercepts
The intercepts are the places where the curve crosses the coordinate
axes. When finding the intercepts, we are really plotting points on the
curve, but these are generally the easiest points to find.
PROCEDURE FOR FINDING INTERCEPTS
x-intercepts: set y D 0 and solve for x (if possible)

y-intercepts: set x D 0 and solve for y (if possible)
EXAMPLE 8.10 Curve sketching
Sketch the curve x 2 y 2 D 2, given the following information:
Symmetry: with respect to the y-axis

Domain: x 6D 0
Range: y > 2
Asymptotes: x D 0, y D 2
Intercepts: none
Chapter 8 167
Solution Because we have symmetry with respect to the y-axis, we

focus our attention on Quadrants I and II, since the symmetry will
give us the curve in Quadrants III and IV. We draw the asymptotes
and limit our attention to the domain and range. It is customary to
darken the parts of the plane that are not included in the domain or
range, as shown by the shaded portion of Figure 8.5(a). Since there
are no intercepts, we plot the following points:
x D 1; then 1y 2 D 2, so y D 4
5
x D 2; then 4y 2 D 2, so y D
2
Using the fact that x D 0 and y D 2 are asymptotes, we sketch
the part of the curve in the first quadrant, as shown in Figure 8.5(b).
By symmetry, we then sketch the rest of the curve, as shown in
Figure 8.6.
EXAMPLE 8.11 Sketching a rational function
1 C y2
Sketch x 2 D .
1 y2
Figure 8.5 Preliminary sketch
Figure 8.6 Graph of x 2 y 2 D 2

168 Chapter 8
Solution
Symmetry: The curve is symmetric with respect to the x-axis, since
1 C y2
x2 D
1 y2
is the same as the original equation; the curve is also symmetric with
respect to the y-axis and the origin.
Extent: domain: Solve for y.
1 C y2
x2 D
1 y2
x2 x2 y 2 D 1 C y 2
x2 1 D y 2 C x2 y 2
x 2 1 D 1 C x 2 y 2
x2 1
y2 D
x2 C 1

x2 1
yDš
x2 C 1
We must now rule out values of x that cause division by zero, as well
as negative values under the square root radical. Solve
x2 1
½0
x2 C 1
The solution for this inequality gives the domain:
x 1 or x ½ 1
range: Solve for x:

1 C y2
xDš
1 y2
We need to find the y-values that cause division by zero or negative

values under the square root radical. First, solve
1 y2 D 0
Chapter 8 169
FIGURE 8.7
to find y D š1. These are excluded values. Next, solve
1 C y2
½ 0, y 6D š1
1 y2
to find the range: 1 < y < 1

Use the information about extent to darken (shade) the portions of
the plane that cannot contain the graph. The shaded graph is shown in
Figure 8.7.
1 C y2
Figure 8.8 Graph of x 2 D
1 y2
170 Chapter 8
Asymptotes:
p vertical:
x2 1
y D šp No division by zero, so there are no vertical
x2 C 1
asymptotes.
horizontal:

1 C y2
x D š Division by zero when y D š1.
1 y2
Horizontal asymptotes are y D 1, y D 1; draw these as dashed lines
on the coordinate axes.
Intercepts: x-intercepts: if y D 0, then x D š1; so the x-intercepts

are at (1, 0) and 1, 0.
p
y-intercepts: if x D 0, then y D š 1; so there are no y-intercepts.
Plot points: Plot one or more relevant points, and make use of
the information you just obtained to sketch the curve, as shown in
Figure 8.8.
8.5 PROBLEM SET 8

In Problems 1–4, use the given information and plot some points to
sketch the curve.
1. x2 y D 4
Symmetry: with respect to the y-axis
Domain: x 6D 0
Range: y > 0
Asymptotes: x D 0; y D 0
Intercepts: none
2. xy 2 y 2 1 D 0
Symmetry: with respect to the x-axis
Domain: x > 1
Range: y 6D 0
Asymptotes: x D 1; y D 0
Intercepts: none
3. x 2 y 4x C 2y D 0
Symmetry: with respect to the origin
Domain: all prealpnumbers
Range: 2, 2
Asymptotes: y D 0
Intercept: (0, 0)
Chapter 8 171
4. x 2 y 2 4xy 2 C 3y 2 4 D 0
Symmetry: with respect to the x-axis
Domain: 1, 1 [ 3, 1
Range: y 6D 0
Asymptotes: x D 1; x D 3; y D 0
2p 2p
Intercepts: 0, 3, 0, 3
3 3
Find the symmetry, extent, asymptotes, and intercepts for the curves
whose equations are given in problems 5–20.
5. xy D 2 6. xy D 6
xC1 xC1
7. yD 8. yD
x xC2
2x 2 C x 10 3x 2 C 5x 2
9. yD 10. yD
xC2 xC2
2x 3 3x 2 2x x 3 C 6x 2 C 15x C 14
11. yD 12. yD
2x C 1 xC2
2 2 2 2
13. 9x C 4y 36 D 0 14. 6x 2y C 10 D 0
15. 13x 2 10xy C 13y 2 72 D 0 16. y 2 x 2y 2 C 2 D 0
17. x 2 y 4xy C 3y 4 D 0 18. x 3 y 2 4y D 0
19. x 4 x 2 y 2 4x 2 C y 2 D 0 20. 2y 2 xy 2 C x 1 D 0
Graph the curves in Problems 21–36. Note that these curves are the
same curves that are given in Problems 5–20.
21. xy D 2 22. xy D 6
xC1 xC1
23. yD 24. yD
x xC2
2x 2 C x 10 3x 2 C 5x 2
25. yD 26. yD
xC2 xC2
2x 3x 2 2x
3
x C 6x 2 C 15x C 14
3
27. yD 28. yD
2x C 1 xC2
29. 9x 2 C 4y 2 36 D 0 30. 6x 2 2y 2 C 10 D 0
31. 13x 2 10xy C 13y 2 72 D 0 32. y 2 x 2y 2 C 2 D 0
33. x 2 y 4xy C 3y 4 D 0 34. x 3 y 2 4y D 0
35. x 4 x 2 y 2 4x 2 C y 2 D 0 36. 2y 2 xy 2 C x 1 D 0
18 1
37. Graph fx D 1 C 2x C . 38. Graph fx D 2 .
x x C3
x2 x 2 x3 C 1
39. Graph y D . 40. Graph y D 3 .
x3 x 8
CHAPTER 9
Catalog of Special Curves
Boldface curves are fundamental and are listed in Table 1.3 of the text.
For some of these curves, we give the area enclosed (A) and the are
length s. Rectangular curves can be translated to (h, k) by replacing x
by x 0 h and y by y 0 k. Polar-form curves can be rotated through
an angle ˛ by replacing D 0 ˛. The particular values for the
constants used for each graph are shown in parentheses.
Absolute-value function This curve is described by a point

P on a circle of radius a/4 as it
rolls on the inside of a circle of
radius a.
Bifolium
y D ajxj a D 1
Archimedean spiral (see spiral of
Archimedes)
Arccosecant, arccosine, arccotan-
gent, arcsecant, arcsine, and arct-
angent functions (see inverse
functions) x 2 C y 2 2
D ax 2 y or
r D a sin cos2
Astroid a D 12
x 2/3 C y 2/3 D a2/3 a D 8

A D 38 a2 s D 6a
172
Chapter 9 173
Cardioid (this is also a special Cissoid of Diocles

case of an epicycloid)
x3
yD a D 1
r D a1 cos a D 3 2a x
3
AD 2 a2 s D 8a This is a curve described by a
point P such that jOPj D jRSj.
This is the curve described by a The cissoid of Diocles is used in
point P of a circle of radius a as the problem of duplication of a
it rolls on the outside of a fixed cube (i.e., finding the side of a
circle of radius a. This curve is cube that is twice the volume of
also a special case of a limacon. a given cube).
Cassinian curves (see ovals of
Cassini) Cochleoid (or OuijaTM board
curve)
Catenary (see hyperbolic cosine)
Circle

ay y
tan D D a D 4
x C y2
2 x
x 2 C y 2 D r 2 r D 5 Conic section (see circle, ellipse,
A D r2 sD2 r hyperbola, and parabola)
174 Chapter 9
Cosecant function Cube-root function
p
y D a3 x a D 1
y D a csc bx a D b D 1
Cubical parabola
Cosine function
y D ax 3 C bx 2 C cx C d
y D a cos bx a D b D 1
a D 1, b D 3, c D 1, d D 4
Cotangent function
Cubic function
y D a cot bx a D b D 1 y D ax 3 a D 1
Curate cycloid (see trochoid)

Chapter 9 175
Cycloid Ellipse

x D a b sin
y D a b cos a D b D 2 x2 y2
C D 1 a D 2, a D 3
1 a y a2 b2
x D a cos
a
a2 C b2
A D ab s³2
Ý 2ay y 2 2
For one arch, A D 3 a2 , s D 8a Epicycloid
Deltoid

 x D a C b cos



 aCb

 b cos
x D 2a cos C a cos 2 b
y D 2a sin a sin 2 

 y D a C b sin

 aCb
a D 2 
 b sin
b
a D 2, b D 1
This is the curve described by a

point P on a circle of radius b as
it rolls on the outside of a circle
of radius a.
176 Chapter 9
Evolute of an ellipse Four-leaved rose
az 2/3 C by 2/3 D a2 b2 2/3

r D a cos 2 a D 2
a D 2, b D 1

 a2 b2 Gamma function

x D cos3
a
 2 2
 y D a b sin3

b
Exponential curve
1
n D x n1 ex dx n > 0
0
Hyperbola
y D eax a D 1
Folium of Descartes
x2 y 2
2 D 1 a D 2, b D 3
a2 b
x 3 C y 3 D 3axy a D 1
A D 32 a2
Chapter 9 177
Hyperbolic cosecant Hyperbolic secant
y D csch x y D sech x
Hyperbolic cosine (catenary) Hyperbolic sine
y D cosh x y D sinh x
Hyperbolic cotangent Hyperbolic tangent
y D coth x y D tanh x
178 Chapter 9
Hypocycloid Inverse cosecant
y D csc1 x
x D a b cos
Inverse cosine
ab
C b cos
b
y D a b sin

ab
b sin
b
This curve is described by a point

P on a circle of radius b as it rolls
on the inside of a circle of radius
a.
y D cos1 x
Hypocycloid with four cusps (see
astroid) Inverse cotangent
Hypocycloid with three cusps (see
deltoid)
Identity function
y D cot1 x
yDx
Chapter 9 179
Inverse secant Involute of a circle
y D sec1 x
Inverse sine
x D acos C sin
y D asin cos a D 1
Lemniscate (or lemniscate of

Bernoulli)
y D sin1 x
Inverse tangent
x 2 Cy 2 2 D a2 x 2 y 2 a D 2
or r 2 D a2 cos 2
Limaçon of Pascal
y D tan1 x
r D b a cos a D 3, b D 2
180 Chapter 9
Lituus
b<k b D 2, k D 5
2 2 2 2
x C y C b 4b2 x 2 D k 2
r 2 D a2 a D 2 These curves are sections of a
torus on planes parallel to the
Logarithmix curve axis of the torus.
Parabola (standard quadratic)
y D loga x a D 10
y D ax 2 a D 1
OuijaTM board curve (see cochleoid)
Probability curve
Ovals of Cassini
1 2
y D p ex /2
2
b>k b D 2, k D 1
Chapter 9 181
Prolate cycloid (see trochoid) Rose curves (indexed under num-

ber of leaves)
Quadratrix of Hippias
Secant function
by y D a sec bx a D b D 1
y D ax tan a D b D 1
2
Reciprocal function Semicubical parabola
a
yD a D 1
x y D ax 2/3 a D 1
Reciprocal-squared function
Serpentine curve
a
yD a D 1 a2 C x 2 y D abx a D b D 1
x2
182 Chapter 9
Sine function Spiral, logarithmic
y D a sin bx a D b D 1 r D ea or ln r D a a D 1
Sinusoid curve (general sine func- Spiral, parabolic
tion) y D a sinbx C c
Spiral of Archimedes
2
r a D 4ak a D k D 1
r D a a D 1 Square-root function
Spiral, hyperbolic
p
yDa x a D 1
r D a a D 1
Chapter 9 183
Strophoid Tractrix
x D aln cot 12 cos

ax y D a sin a D 2
y 2 D x2 a D 1
aCx
Trechoid
Tangent function
x D a b sin
y D a b cos a D b D 1
y D a tan bx a D b D 1 Two-leaved rose (see lemniscate)
Three-leaved rose Witch of Agnesi
a3
yD 2 2
a D 1
r D a cos 3 a D 4 x C a
x D a cot
or
y D a sin2
CHAPTER 10
Limit Formulas
10.1 Definition of Limit

LIMIT OF A FUNCTION (INFORMAL DEFINITION)
The notation
lim fx D L
x!c
is read ‘‘the limit of f(x) as x approaches c is L’’ and means

that the functional values f(x) can be made arbitrarily close
to L by choosing x sufficiently close to c.
LIMIT OF A FUNCTION (FORMAL DEFINITION)
The limit statement
lim fx D L
x!c
means that for each > 0, there corresponds a number

υ > 0 with the property that
jfx Lj < whenever 0 < jx cj < υ
A FUNCTION DIVERGES TO INFINITY (INFORMAL

DEFINITION)
A function f that increases or decreases without bound as

x approaches c is said to diverge to infinity 1 at c. We
indicate this behavior by writing
(continued)
184
Chapter 10 185
lim fx D C1
x!c
if x increases without bound and by
lim fx D 1
x!c
if x decreases without bound.
INFINITE LIMIT (FORMAL DEFINITION)
We write limx!c fx D C1 if, for any number N > 0

(no matter how large), it is possible to find a number υ > 0
such that fx > N whenever 0 < jx cj < υ.
LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY
The limit statement limx!C1 fx D L means that for any

number > 0, there exists a number N1 such that
jfx Lj < whenever x > N1
for x in the domain of f. Similarly limx!1 fx D M

means that for any > 0, there exists a number N2 such
that
jfx Mj < whenever x < N2
LIMIT OF A FUNCTION OF TWO VARIABLES (INFORMAL

DEFINITION)
The notation
lim fx, y D L
x,y!x0 ,y0
continued
186 Chapter 10
means that the functional values f(x, y) can be made

arbitrarily close to L by choosing the point (x, y) close to
the point x0 , y0 .
LIMIT OF A FUNCTION OF TWO VARIABLES (FORMAL

DEFINITION)
Suppose the point P0 x0 , y0 has the property that every

disk centered at P0 contains at least one point in the domain
of f other than P0 itself. Then the number L is the limit of f
at P if, for every > 0, there exists a υ > 0 such that

jfx, y Lj < whenever 0 < x x0 2 C y y0 2 < υ
In this case, we write
lim fx, y D L
x,y!x0 ,y0
10.2 Rules of Limits

BASIC RULES
For any real numbers a and c, suppose the functions f and g both
have limits at x D c. Suppose also that both limx!C1 fx and
limx!1 fx exist.
Limit of a lim k D k for any constant k

x!c
constant
Limit of x lim x D c
x!c
Scalar rule lim [afx] D a lim fx
x!c x!c
Sum rule lim [fx C gx] D
x!c
lim fx C lim gx
x!c x!c
Difference rule lim [fx gx] D
x!c
lim fx lim gx
x!c x!c
Linearity rule limx!C1 [afx C bgx] D
a limx!C1 fx C b limx!C1 gx
Chapter 10 187
Product rules lim [fxgx] D [lim fx][lim gx]

x!c x!c x!c
limx!C1 [fxgx] D
[limx!C1 fx] [limx!C1 gx]
fx lim fx
Quotient rules lim D x!c if lim gx 6D 0
x!c gx lim gx x!c
x!c
fx
limx!C1 D
gx
limx!C1 fx
if limx!C1 gx 6D 0
limx!C1 gx n
Power rules lim [fx]n D lim fx n is a
x!c x!c
rational number
limx!C1 [fx]n D [limx!C1 fx]n
Limit limitation Suppose lim fx exists and fx ½ 0
x!c
theorem throughout an open interval
containing the number c, except
possibly at c itself. Then
lim fx ½ 0.
x!c
The squeeze rule If gx fx hx for all x in an
open interval containing c (except
possibly at c itself) and if
lim gx D lim hx D L
x!c x!c
then lim fx D L.
x!c
A A
Limits to infinity limx!C1 n D 0 and limx!1 n D 0
x x
Infinite-limit If lim fx D C1 and lim gx D
x!c x!c
theorem A, then
fx
lim [fxgx] D C1 and lim D
x!c x!c gx
C1 if A > 0
fx
lim [fxgx] D 1 and lim D
x!c x!c gx
1 if A < 0
l’HOopital’s rule Let f and g be differentiable functions
on an open interval containing c
(except possibly at c itself).
fx
If lim produces an indeterminate
x!c gx
0 1
form or , then
0 1
188 Chapter 10
fx f0 x
lim D lim 0
x!c gx x!c g x
provided that the limit on the right side
exists.
TRIGONOMETRIC LIMITS
lim cos x D cos c lim sec x D sec c
x!c x!c
lim sin x D sin c lim csc x D csc c
x!c x!c
lim tan x D tan c lim cot x D cot c
x!c x!c
sin x sin ax tan x 1 cos x

lim D 1 lim D a lim D 1 lim D0
x!0 x x!0 x x!0 x x!0 x
MISCELLANEOUS LIMITS

1 n
lim 1 C De lim 1 C n1/n D e
n!C1
n n!0

k n 1 nt
lim 1 C D ek lim p 1 C D pet
n!C1 n n!C1 n
lim n1/n D 1
n!C1
10.3 Limits of a Function of Two Variables

BASIC FORMULAS AND RULES FOR LIMITS OF A
FUNCTION OF TWO VARIABLES
Suppose lim fx, y and lim gx, y both exist, with
x,y!x0 ,y0 x,y!x0 ,y0
lim fx, y D L and lim gx, y D M.
x,y!x0 ,y0 x,y!x0 ,y0
Then the following rules obtain:
Scalar rule lim [afx, y]

x,y!x0 ,y0
Da lim fx, y D aL
x,y!x0 ,y0
Sum rule lim [f C g]x, y

x,y!x0 ,y0

D lim fx, y C lim gx, y
x,y!x0 ,y0 x,y!x0 ,y0
DLCM
Chapter 10 189
Product rule lim [fg]x, y

x,y!x0 ,y0

D lim fx, y lim gx, y
x,y!x0 ,y0 x,y!x0 ,y0
D LM
lim fx, y
f x,y!x0 ,y0 L
Quotient rule lim x, y D D
x,y!x0 ,y0 g lim gx, y M
x,y!x0 ,y0
if M 6D 0
Substitution rule
If f(x, y) is a polynomial or a rational function, limits may be found
by substituting for x and y (excluding values that cause division by
zero).
CHAPTER 11
Differentiation Formulas
11.1 Definition of Derivative

DERIVATIVE
The derivative of f at x is given by
fx C x fx

f0 x D lim
x!0 x
provided that this limit exists.
EXAMPLE 11.1 Derivative using the definition
p
Differentiate ft D t.
Solution
ft C t ft

ft D lim
t!0 t
p p
t C t t
D lim
t!0 t
p p p p
t C t t t C t C t
D lim p p
t!0 t t C t C t
Rationalize the numerator
t C t t
D lim p p
t!0 t t C t C t
1
D lim p p
t!0 t C t C t
1
D p for t > 0
2 t
190
Chapter 11 191
PARTIAL DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION OF TWO

VARIABLES
If z D fx, y, then the first partial derivative of f with

respect to x and y are the functions fx and fy , respectively,
defined by
fx C x, y fx, y
fx x, y D lim
x!0 x
fx, y C y fx, y
fy x, y D lim
y!0 y
provided that the limits exist.
DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVE
Let f(x, y) be a function defined on a disk centered at the

point P0 x0 , y0 , and let u D u1 i C u2 j be a unit vector.
Then the directional derivative of f at P0 in the direction
of u is given by
fx0 C hu1 , y0 C hu2 fx0 , y0

Du fx0 , y0 D lim
h!0 h
provided that the limit exists.
11.2 Procedural Rules of Differentiation

If f and g are differentiable functions of x, u is a differentiable function
of x, and a, b, and c are any real numbers, then the functions cf, f C g,
fg, and f/g (for gx 6D 0) are also differentiable, and their derivatives
satisfy the following formulas:
Rule Derivative
1. Constant-multiple rule cf0 D cf0
2. Sum rule f C g0 D f0 C g0
3. Difference rule f g0 D f0 g0
4. Linearity rule af C bg0 D af0 C bg0
5. Product rule fg0 D fg0 C f0 g
192 Chapter 11
0
f gf0 fg0
6. Quotient rule D
g g2
dy dy du
7. Chain rule D
dx du dx
11.3 Differentiation Rules

EXTENDED-POWER RULE
d n du
8. u D nun1
dx dx
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
d du d du
9. cos u D sin u 10. sin u D cos u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
11. tan u D sec2 u 12. cot u D csc2 u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
13. sec u D sec u tan u 14. csc u D csc u cot u
dx dx dx dx
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

d 1 du
15. cos1 u D p
dx 1 u2 dx
d 1 du
16. sin1 u D p
dx 1 u dx
2
d 1 1 du
17. tan u D
dx 1 C u2 dx
d 1 du
18. cot1 u D
dx 1 C u2 dx
d 1 du
19. sec1 u D p
dx juj u 1 dx
2
d 1 du
20. csc1 u D p
dx juj u 1 dx
2
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

d logb e du
logb juj D
d 1 du dx u dx
21. ln juj D 22.
dx u dx 1 du
D
u ln b dx
d u du d u du
23. e D eu 24. b D bu ln b
dx dx dx dx
Chapter 11 193
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
d du d du
25. cosh u D sinh u 26. sinh u D cosh u
dx dx dx dx
d du d du
27. tanh u D sech2 u 28. cothu D csch2 u
dx dx dx dx
d du
29. sech u D sech u tanh u
dx dx
d du
30. csch u D csch u coth u
dx dx
INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

d 1 du
31. sinh1 u D p
dx u C 1 dx
2
d 1 1 du
32. cosh u D p
dx u2 1 dx
d 1 du
tanh1 u D
33. dx 1 u2 dx
juj < 1
d 1 1 du
coth u D
34. dx 1 u2 dx
juj > 1
d 1 du
35. sech1 u D p ”
dx u 1 u dx2
d 1 du
36. csch1 u D p
dx juj 1 C u dx2
11.4 Functions of Two Variables

Chain Rule for One Independent Variable
Let f(x, y) be a differentiable function of x and y, and let x D xt
and y D yt be differentiable functions of t. Then z D fx, y is a
differentiable function of t, and
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
D C
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
The Chain Rule for Two Independent Variables

Suppose that z D fx, y is differentiable at (x, y) and that the partial
derivatives of x D xu, v and y D yu, v exist at (u, v). Then the
composite function z D f[xu, v, yu, v] is differentiable at (u, v),
with
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
D C
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u
194 Chapter 11
and
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
D C
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
GRADIENT
Let f(x, y) have partial derivatives fx x, y and fy x, y. Then the
gradient of f, denoted by rf, is given by
rfx, y D fx x, yi C fy x, yj
Basic properties of the gradient

assuming the existence of the following gradients:
constant rule rc D 0 for any constant c

linearity rule raf C bg D arf C brg for constants a and b
product rule D frg C grf
rfg
f grf frg
quotient rule r D g 6D 0
g g2
power rule rfn D nfn1 rf
CHAPTER 12
Integration Formulas
12.1 Definition of Integral

DEFINITE INTEGRAL
If f is defined on the closed interval [a, b], we say that f is

integrable on [a, b] if

n
I D lim fxkŁ xk
jPj!0
kD1
exists. This limit, if it exists, is called the definite integral

of f from a to b. The definite integral is denoted by
b
ID fx dx
a
EXAMPLE 12.1 Evaluating a definite integral by using

the definition
1
Evaluate 4x dx
2
Solution The integral exists, since fx D 4x is continuous on

[2, 1]. Because the integral can be computed by any partition
whose norm approaches zero, we shall simplify matters by choosing
a partition in which the points are evenly spaced. Specifically, we
divide the interval [2, 1] into n subintervals, each of width
1 2 3
x D D
n n
For each k, we choose the representative of the kth subinterval to be
the right endpoint of the subinterval; that is,

Ł 3
xk D 2 C kx D 2 C k
n
195
196 Chapter 12
Finally, we form the Riemann sum

1
4x dx
2

n n
3k 3
D lim fxkŁ xk D lim 4 2 C
jPj!0
kD1
n!C1
kD1
n n
n ! C1 as jPj ! 0
n
12
n
12 n
D lim 2 2n C 3k D lim 2 2n C 3k
n!C1 n n!C1 n
kD1 kD1 kD1

12 nn C 1
D lim 2 2nn C 3
n!C1 n 2
2 2
12 4n C 3n C 3n
D lim 2
n!C1 n 2
6n2 C 18n
D lim D 6
n!C1 n2
INDEFINITE INTEGRAL
dy
If D fx, then y is the function whose derivative is
dx
f(x). y is called the antiderivative of f(x) or the indefinite
integral of f(x) and is denoted by

fx dx
DOUBLE INTEGRAL
If f is defined on a closed, bounded region R in the xy-plane,

then the double integral of f over R is defined by

n
fx, y dA D lim fxkŁ , ykŁ Ak
jPj!0
R kD1
provided that the limit exists. If it does, then we say that f

is integrable over R.
Chapter 12 197
TRIPLE INTEGRAL
If f is a continuous function defined over a bounded solid

region S, then the triple integral of f over S is defined to
be the limit
n
fx, y, zdV D lim fxkŁ , ykŁ , zkŁ Vk
jPj!0
S kD1
provided that this limit exists.
12.2 Procedural Rules for Integration

In what follows, u, v, and w are functions of x, and a, b, p, q,
and n are any constants, restricted if indicated. Since the derivative
of a constant is zero, all indefinite integrals differ by an arbitrary
constant. In the formulas that follow, all constants of integration are
omitted, but implied. It is assumed in all cases that division by zero is
excluded.
Properties of integrals
Name of Rule Integral

Constant multiple cfu du D c fu du

Sum rule [fu C gu] du D fu du C gu du

Difference rule [fu gu] du D fu du gu du

Linearity rule [afu C bgu] du

D a fu du C b gu du

By parts u dv D uv v du
Properties of double integrals Assume that all the given integrals

exist.
Linearity rule For constants a and b,

[afx, y C bgx, y] dA D a fx, y dA C b gx, ydA
D D D
198 Chapter 12

[afx, y, z C bgx, y, z] dV
S

Da fx, y, z dV C b gx, y, z dV
S S
Dominance rules If fx, y ½ gx, y throughout a region D, then

fx, y dA ½ gx, y dA
D D
If fx, y, z ½ gx, y, z on S, then

fx, y, z dV ½ gx, y, z dV
S S
Subdivision rules
If the region of integration, D, can be subdivided into two subregions
D1 and D2 , then

fx, y dA D fx, y dA C fx, y dA
D D1 D2
If the solid region of integration, S, can be subdivided into two solid

subregions S1 and S2 , then

fx, y, z dV D fx, y, z dV C fx, y, z dV
S S1 S2
12.3 Integration Rules

BASIC FORMULAS

1. Constant rule 0 du D c

unC1
2. Power rule un du D ; n 6D 1
nC1
un du D ln juj; n D 1

3. Exponential rule eu du D eu
Chapter 12 199

4. Logarithmic rule ln juj du D u ln juj u
Trigonometric rules

5. sin u du D cos u 6. cos u du D sin u

7. tan u du D ln j cos uj 8. cot u du D ln j sin uj

9. sec u du D ln j sec u C tan uj 10. csc u du D
ln j csc u C cot uj

11. sec2 u du D tan u 12. csc2 u du D cot u

13. sec u tan u du D sec u 14. csc u cot u du D csc u
Exponential rule (base b)

bu
15. bu du D b > 0, b 6D 1
ln b
Hyperbolic rules

16. cosh u du D sinh u 17. sinh u du D cosh u

18. tanh u du D ln cosh u 19. coth u du D ln j sinh uj

u
20. sech u du D 2 tan1 eu 21. csch u du D ln tanh
2
Inverse rules

du u
22. p D sin1
a2 u2 a

du u
23. p D cosh1
u2 a2 a

du 1 u
24. 2 2
D tan1
a Cu a a
1 u u

 tanh1 , if <1
du
25. D a a a
a2 u2   1 coth1 u u
, if >1
a a a

du 1 u
26. p D sec1
2
u u a 2 a a
200 Chapter 12
p
du 1 a C a2 u2 1 u
27. p D ln D sech1 ’
2
u a u 2 a u a a

du u
28. p D lnu C a2 C u2 D sinh1
2
a Cu 2 a
p
du 1 a2 C u2 C a 1 u
29. p D ln D csch1
2
u a Cu 2 a u a a
Commonly used reduction formulas (from the table of integrals):
Cosine-squared integration formula (317)

cos2 u du D 12 u C 14 sin 2u
Sine-squared integration formula (348)

sin2 u du D 12 u 14 sin 2u
Secant integration formula (428)

n secn2 u tan u n 2
sec u du D C secn2 u du, n 6D 1
n1 n1
Tangent reduction formula (406)

n tann1 u
tan u du D tann2 u du
n1
12.4 Integral Table

INTEGRALS INVOLVING au C b

au C bnC1
30. au C bn du D
n C 1a
au C bnC2 bau C bnC1
31. uau C bn du D
n C 2a2 n C 1a2

au C bnC3 2bau C bnC2
32. u2 au C bn du D
n C 3a3 n C 2a3
b2 au C bnC1
C
n C 1a3
Chapter 12 201

33. um au C bn du
 umC1 au C bn
 nb

 C um au C bn1 du

 m C n C 1 m C n C 1

 um au C bnC1
mb
D um1 au C bn du

 m C n C 1a m C n C 1a


 umC1 au C bnC1
 mCnC2
 C um au C bnC1 du
n C 1b n C 1b

du 1
34. D ln jau C bj
au C b a

u du u b
35. D 2 ln jau C bj
au C b a a

u2 du au C b2 2bau C b b2
36. D C 3 ln jau C bj
au C b 2a3 a3 a

u3 du au C b3 3bau C b2
37. D
au C b 3a4 2a4
3b2 au C b b3
C 4 ln jau C bj
a4 a

du 1 u
38. D ln
uau C b b au C b

du 1 a au C b
39. D C 2 ln
u2 auC b bu b u

du 2au b a2 u
40. 3
D 2 2
C 3 ln
u au C b 2b u b au C b

du 1
41. 2
D
au C b aau C b

u du b 1
42. 2
D 2 C 2 ln jau C bj
au C b a au C b a

u2 du au C b b2 2b
43. 2
D 3
3
3 ln jau C bj
au C b a a au C b a
202 Chapter 12

u3 du au C b2 3bau C b
44. D
au C b2 2a4 a4
b3 3b2
C C ln jau C bj
a4 au C b a4

du 1 1 u
45. 2
D C 2 ln
uau C b bau C b b au C b

du a 1 2a au C b
46. 2 2
D 2 C 2 C 3 ln
u au C b b au C b b u b u

du au C b2 3aau C b
47. D C
u3 au C b2 2b4 u2 b4 u
a3 u 3a2 au C b
4
4
ln
b au C b b u

du 1
48. 3
D
au C b 2aau C b2

u du 1 b
49. 3
D 2 C 2
au C b a au C b 2a au C b2

u2 du 2b b2 1
50. 3
D 3
3 2
C 3 ln jau C bj
au C b a au C b 2a au C b a

u3 du u 3b2
51. D
au C b3 a3 a4 au C b
b3 3b
C 4 2
4 ln jau C bj
2a au C b a

du a2 u2 2au 1 au C b
52. 3
D 3 2
3 3 ln
uau C b 2b au C b b au C b b u

du a 2a
53. D 2 3
u2 au
C b 3 2b au C b 2 b au C b
1 3a au C b
C ln
b3 u b4 u

du a4 u2 4a3 u
54. D
u3 au C b3 2b5 au C b2 b5 au C b
au C b2 6a2 au C b
5 2
5 ln
2b u b u
Chapter 12 203
INTEGRALS INVOLVING u2 C a2

du 1 u
55. 2 2
D tan1
u Ca a a
u du 1
56. D lnu2 C a2
u2 C a2 2
2
u du u
57. 2 2
D u a tan1
u Ca a

u3 du u2 a2
58. D lnu2 C a2
u2 C a2 2 2

du 1 u2
59. D 2 ln 2
uu2 C a2 2a u C a2

du 1 1 u
60. 2 2 2
D 2 3 tan1
u u C a a u a a

du 1 1 u2
61. D 2 2 4 ln 2
u3 u2 C a2 2a u 2a u C a2

du u 1 u
62. 2 2 2
D 2 2 2
C 3 tan1
u C a 2a u C a 2a a

u du 1
63. D
u2 C a2 2 2u2 C a2
2
u du u 1 u
64. 2 2 2
D 2 2
C 3 tan1
u C a 2u C a 2a a
3 2
u du a 1
65. 2 2 2
D 2 2
C lnu2 C a2
u C a 2u C a 2

du 1 1 u2
66. D C ln
uu2 C a2 2 2a2 u2 C a2 2a4 u2 C a2

du 1 u 3 u
67. 2 2 2 2
D 4 4 2 2
5 tan1
u u C a a y 2a u C a 2a a

du 1 1
68. D
u3 u2 C a2 2 2a4 u2 2a4 u2 C a2

1 u2
6 ln 2
a u C a2

du u
69. 2 2
D
u C a n 2n 1a u2 C a2 n1
2

2n 3 du
C 2
2n 2a u C a2 n1
2

u du 1
70. 2 2
D
u C a n 2n 1u2 C a2 n1
204 Chapter 12

du 1
71. D
uu2
Ca 2 n 2n 1a u2 C a2 n1
2

1 du
C 2
a uu C a2 n1
2
m m2
u du u du 2 um2 du
72. D a
u 2 C a 2 n u2 C a2 n1 u2 C a2 n

du 1 du
73. 2 2
D 2
m
u u C a n a u u C a2 n1
m 2

1 du
2
a um2 u2 C a2 n
INTEGRALS INVOLVING u2 a2 , u2 > a2

du 1 ua 1 u
74. D ln or coth1
u2 a 2 2a uCa a a

u du 1
75. D ln ju2 a2 j
u2 a2 2
2
u du a ua
76. 2 2
D u C ln
u a 2 uCa

u3 du u2 a2
77. D C ln ju2 a2 j
u2 a2 2 2

du 1 u2 a2
78. D ln
uu2 a2 2a2 u2

du 1 1 ua
79. 2 2 2
D 2 C 3 ln
u u a a u 2a uCa

du 1 1 u2
80. D ln
u3 u2 a2 2a2 u2 2a4 u2 a2

du u 1 ua
81. 2 2 2
D 2 2 2
3 ln
u a 2a u a 4a uCa

u du 1
82. D
u2 a2 2 2u2 a2

u2 du u 1 ua
83. 2 2 2
D 2 2
C ln
u a 2u a 4a uCa

u3 du a2 1
84. D C ln ju2 a2 j
u2 a2 2 2u2 a2 2

du 1 1 u2
85. D C ln
uu2 a2 2 2a2 u2 a2 2a u2 a2
Chapter 12 205

du 1 u 3 ua
86. D 4 4 2 5 ln
u2 u2a 2 2 a u 2a u a 4a 2 uCa

du 1 1 1 u2
87. D C ln
u3 u2 a2 2 2a4 u2 2a4 u2 a2 a6 u2 a2

du u
88. D
u2 a2 n 2n 1a2 u2 a2 n1

2n 3 du
2
2n 2a u a2 n1
2
u du 1
89. 2 2
D
u a n 2n 1u2 a2 n1

du 1
90. 2 2
D
uu a n 2n 1a u2 a2 n1
2

1 du
2 2 2 n1
m a m2uu a
u du u du 2 um2 du
91. D C a
u2 a2 n u2 a2 n1 u2 a2 n

du 1 du
92. 2 2
D 2
m
u u a n a u u2 a2 n
m2

1 du
2
a u u a2 n1
m 2
INTEGRALS INVOLVING a2 u2 , u2 < a2

du 1 aCu 1 u
93. D ln or tanh1
a2 u 2 2a au a a

u du 1
94. D ln ja2 u2 j
a2 u2 2
2
u du a aCu
95. 2 2
D u C ln
a u 2 au
3 2 2
u du u a
96. 2 2
D ln ja2 u2 j
a u 2 2

du 1 u2
97. D ln
ua2 u2 2a2 a2 u2

du 1 1 aCu
98. 2 2 2
D 2 C 3 ln
u a u a u 2a au

du 1 1 u2
99. D C ln
u3 a2 u2 2a2 u2 2a4 a2 u2
206 Chapter 12

du u 1 aCu
100. D 2 2 C 3 ln
a2 u 2 2 2
2a a u 4a au

u du 1
101. D
a2 u2 2 2a2 u2

u2 du u 1 aCu
102. 2 2 2
D 2 2
ln
a u 2a u 4a au
3 2
u du a 1
103. 2 2 2
D 2 2
C ln ja2 u2 j
a u 2a u 2

du 1 1 u2
104. D C ln
ua2 u2 2 2a2 a2 u2 2a4 a2 u2

du 1 u 3 aCu
105. D C C ln
u2 a2 u2 2 a4 u 2a4 a2 u2 4a5 au

du 1 1 1 u2
106. D C C ln
u3 a2 u2 2 2a4 u2 2a4 a2 u2 a6 a2 u2

du u
107. D
a2
u 2 n 2n 1a a2 u2 n1
2

2n 3 du
C

2n 2a2 a2 u2 n1
u du 1
108. D
a2 u2 n 2n 1a2 u2 n1

du 1
109. 2 2
D
ua u n 2n 1a a2 u2 n1
2

1 du
C 2
a ua u2 n1
2
m m2
u du 2 u du um2 du
110. D a
a2 u2 n a2 u2 n a2 u2 n1

du 1 du
111. 2 2
D 2
m
u a u n a u a u2 n1
m 2

1 du
C 2
a um2 a2 u2 n
INTEGRALS INVOLVING au C b AND pu C q

du 1 pu C q
112. D ln
au C bpu C q bp aq au C b
u du
113.
au C bpu
C q
1 b q
D ln jau C bj ln jpu C qj
bp aq a p
Chapter 12 207

du
114.
au C b2 pu C q

1 1 p pu C q
D C ln
bp aq au C b bp aq au C b

u du
115.
au C b2 pu C q

1 q au C b b
D ln
bp aq bp aq pu C q aau C b
2 2
u du b
116. D
au C b2 pu C q bp aqa2 au C b
2
1 q bbp 2aq
C ln jpu C qj C ln jau C bj
bp aq2 p a2

du
117.
au C b pu C qn
m

1 1
D
n 1bp aq au C bm1 pu C qn1

du
Cam C n 2
au C bm pu C qn1

au C b au bp aq
118. du D C ln jpu C qj
pu C q p p2

au C bm
119. du
pu C qn

 1 au C bmC1



 n 1bp aq pu C qn1





 au C bm

 Cn m 2a du

 pu C qn1


 1 au C bm
D

 n m 1p pu C qn1



 au C bm1

 Cmbp aq

 du

 pu C qn



 au C bm au C bm1


1
ma du
n 1p pu C qn1 pu C qn1
208 Chapter 12
INTEGRALS INVOLVING au2 C bu C c


 2 2au C b

 p tan1 p
du  4ac b 2 4ac b2
120. D p
au2 C bu C c   1 2au C b b2 4ac

p 2 ln p
b 4ac 2au C b C b2 4ac

u du 1
121. 2
D ln jau2 C bu C cj
au C bu C c 2a

b du
2
2a au C bu C c

u2 du u b
122. 2
D 2 ln jau2 C bu C cj
au C bu C c a 2a

b2 2ac du
C 2 2
2a au C bu C c

um du um1 c um2 du
123. D
au2 C bu C c m 1a a au2 C bu C c

b um1 du

a au2 C bu C c

du 1 u2
124. D ln
uau2 C bu C c 2c au2 C bu C c

b du
2
2c au C bu C c

du b au2 C bu C c
125. D ln
u2 au2 C bu C c 2c2 u2

1 b2 2ac du
C 2 2
cu 2c au C bu C c
du
126.
un au2 C bu C c
1 b du
D
n 1cu
n1 c un1 au2 C bu C c
a du

c un2 au2 C bu C c

du 2au C b
127. 2
D
au C bu C c 4ac b au2 C bu C c
2

2a du
C 2 2
4ac b au C bu C c
Chapter 12 209

u du bu C 2c
128. D
au2 C bu C c 2 4ac b au2 C bu C c
2

b du
2 2
4ac b au C bu C c

u2 du b2 2acu C bc
129. D
au2 C bu C c2 a4ac b2 au2 C bu C c

2c du
C 2 2
4ac b au C bu C c

um du um1
130. D
au2 C bu C cn 2n m 1aau2 C bu C cn1

m 1c um2 du
C
2n m 1a au2 C bu C cn

n mb um1 du

2n m 1a au2 C bu C cn

u2n1 du 1 u2n3 du
131. D
au2 C bu C cn a au2 C bu C cn1

c u2n3 du

a au2 C bu C cn

b u2n2 du

a au2 C bu C cn

du 1
132. 2 2
D 2
uau C bu C c 2cau C bu C c

b du

2c au C bu C c2
2

1 du
C 2
c uau C bu C c

du 1
133. 2 2 2
D 2
u au C bu C c cuau C bu C c

3a du

c au2 C bu C c2

2b du

c uau C bu C c2
2
210 Chapter 12

du 1
134. D
um au2
C bu Cc n m 1cu au2 C bu C cn1
m1
m C 2n 3a du
2
m 1c u au C bu C cn
m2
m C n 2b du
2
m 1c u au C bu C cn
m1
p
INTEGRALS INVOLVING au C b
p
du 2 au C b
135. p D
au C b a

u du 2au 2b p
136. p D au C b
au C b 3a2

u2 du 23a2 u2 4abu C 8b2 p
137. p D 3
au C b
au C b 15a
 p p

 1 au C b b

 p ln p p
du b au C b C b
138. p D
u au C b  
 2 au C b
 p tan 1
b b
p
du au C b a du
139. p D p
u2 au C b
bu 2b u au C b
p 3
2 au C b
140. au C b du D
p 3a
23au 2b
141. u au C b du D au C b3
15a2
p 215a2 u2 12abu C 8b2
142. u2 au C b du D 3
au C b3
105a
p p
au C b du
143. du D 2 au C b C b p
u u au C b
p p
au C b au C b a du
144. 2
du D C p
u u 2 u au C b
m m
p
u 2u au C b 2mb um1
145. p du D p du
au C b 2m C 1a 2m C 1a au C b
p
du au C b
146. p D
um au C b m 1bum1

2m 3a du
p
2m 2b u m1 au C b
Chapter 12 211
p 2um
147. um au C b du D au C b3/2
2m C 3a
p
2mb
um1 au C b du
2m C 3a
p p
au C b au C b
148. m
du D
u m 1um1

a du
C p
2m 1 um1 au C b
p
au C b au C b3/2
149. du D
um m 1bum1
p
2m 5a au C b
du
2m 2b um1

2au C bmC2/2
150. au C bm/2 du D
am C 2

2au C bmC4/2 2bau C bmC2/2
151. uau C bm/2 du D
a2 m C 4 a2 m C 2

2au C bmC6/2 4bau C bmC4/2
152. u2 au C bm/2 du D
a3 m C 6 a3 m C 4
2b2 au C bmC2/2
C
a3 m C 2

au C bm/2 2au C bm/2 au C bm2/2
153. du D Cb du
u m u

au C bm/2 au C bmC2/2
154. du D
u2 bu

ma au C bm/2
C du
2b u

du 2
155. m/2
D
uau C b m 2bau C bm2/2

1 du
C
b uau C bm2/2
p

pu C q 2apu C 3aq 2bp p
156. p du D au C b
au C b 3a2
212 Chapter 12

du
157. p
pu C q au C b
 p p
 1 pau C b bp aq

 p ln p p
 bp aqpp pau C b C bp aq
D

 2 pau C b

p p tan1
aq bp p aq bp
p
au C b
158. du
pu C q
 p p p p
 2 au C b bp aq pau C b bp aq

 C p ln p p
 p p p pau C b C bp aq
D p p

 2 au C b 2 aq bp pau C b

 p tan1
p p p aq bp
p
n
p 2pu C qnC1 au C b
159. pu C q au C b du D
2n C 3p

bp aq pu C qn
C p du
2n C 3p au C b

du
160. p
pu C qn au C b
p
au C b
D
n 1aq bppu C qn1

2n 3a du
C p
2n 1aq bp pu C qn1 au C b
p
pu C qn 2pu C qn au C b
161. p du D
au C b 2n C 1a

2naq bp pu C qn1 du
C p
2n C 1a au C b
p p
au C b au C b
162. du D
pu C qn n 1ppu C qn1

a du
C p
2n 1p pu C q n1 au C b
Chapter 12 213
p p

du
163. p
au C bpu C q
 2 p p


 pap ln j apu C q C pau C bj
D

 2 pau C b
p tan1
ap apu C q
p
du au C bpu C q
164. p D
au C bpu C q ap

bp C aq du
p
2ap au C bpu C q
165. au C bpu C q du
2apu C bp C aq p
D au C bpu C q
4ap

bp aq2 du
p
8ap au C bpu C q
p
pu C q au C bpu C q
166. du D
au C b a

aq bp du
C p
2a au Cpbpu C q

du 2 au C b
167. p D p
pu C q au C bpu C q aq bp pu C q
p
p

2 2
u u2 C a2 a2
168. u C a du D C lnu C u2 C a2
2 2
2 2 3/2
u C a
169. u u2 C a2 du D
3

p
2 2 2
uu2 C a2 3/2 a2 u u2 C a2
170. u u C a du D
4 8
a4 p
lnu C u2 C a2
8
u2 C a2 5/2 a2 u2 C a2 3/2
171. u3 u2 C a2 du D
5 3
214 Chapter 12

du u
172. p D lnu C u2 C a2 or sinh1
2
u Ca 2 a

u du
173. p D u2 C a2
u2 C a2
p

u2 du u u2 C a2 a2
174. p D lnu C u2 C a2
u2 C a2 2 2

u3 du u2 C a2 3/2
175. p D a2 u2 C a2
u2 C a2 3
p
du 1 a C u2 C a2
176. p D ln
u u2 C a2 a u
p
du u2 C a2
177. p D
u2 u2 C a2 a2 u
p p
du u2 C a2 1 a C u2 C a2
178. p D C 3 ln
u3 u2 C a2 2a2 u2 2a u
p 2
p
u C a2 a C u2 C a2
179. du D u2 C a2 a ln
u u
p p

u2 C a2 u2 C a2
180. du D C lnu C u2 C a2
u2 u
p 2 p p
u C a2 u2 C a2 1 a C u2 C a2
181. du D ln
u3 2u2 2a u

du u
182. 2 2 3/2
D p
u C a a2 u2 C a2

u du 1
183. 2 2 3/2
Dp
u C a u2 C a2

u2 du u
184. D p C ln u C u2 C a2
u2 C a2 3/2 u2 C a2

u3 du 2 C a2 C p
a2
185. D u
u2 C a2 3/2 u2 C a2
p
du 1 1 a C u2 C a2
186. D p ln
uu2 C a2 3/2 a2 u2 C a2 a3 u
Chapter 12 215
p
du u2 C a2 u
187. 2 2 2 3/2
D 4
p
u u C a a u a u2 C a2
4

du 1 3
188. D p p
u3 u2 C a2 3/2 2a2 u2 u2 C a2 2a4 u2 C a2
p
3 a C u2 C a2
C 5 ln
2a u
p
2 2 3/2 uu2 C a2 3/2 3a2 u u2 C a2
189. u C a du D C
4 8
3 p
C a4 ln u C u2 C a2
8

u2 C a2 5/2
190. uu2 C a2 3/2 du D
5

uu2 C a2 5/2 a2 uu2 C a2 3/2
191. u2 u2 C a2 3/2 du D
6 24
p
a4 u u2 C a2

16
a6 p
ln u C u2 C a2
16

u C a2 7/2 a2 u2 C a2 5/2
2
192. u3 u2 C a2 3/2 du D
7 5

u2 C a2 3/2 u2 C a2 3/2 p
193. du D C a2 u2 C a2
u 3
p
3 a C u2 C a2
a ln
u

u2 C a2 3/2 u2 C a2 3/2
194. du D
u2 u
p
3u u2 C a2 3 2
C C a lnu2 C a2
2 2

u2 C a2 3/2 u2 C a2 3/2 3 p 2
195. du D C u C a2
u3 2u2 2
p
3 a C u2 C a2
a ln
2 u
216 Chapter 12
p
INTEGRALS INVOLVING u2 a2

du
196. p D ln u C u2 a2
u2 a2
u du
197. p D u2 a2
u2 a2
p

u2 du u u2 a2 a2
198. p D C ln u C u2 a2
u2 a2 2 2

u3 du u2 a2 3/2
199. p D C a2 u2 a2
u2 a2 3
du 1 u
200. p D sec1
u u2 a2 a a
p
du u a2
2
201. p D
u2 u2 a2 a2 u
p
du u2 a2 1 u
202. p D 2 2
C 3 sec1
3
u u a 2 2 2a u 2a a
p
2 2 2
u u a a
203. u2 a2 du D ln u C u2 a2
2 2
2 2 3/2
u a
204. u u2 a2 du D
3

p
2 2 2
uu2 a2 3/2 a2 u u2 a2
205. u u a du D C
4 8
a4 p
ln u C u2 a2
8
u2 a2 5/2 a2 u2 a2 3/2
206. u3 u2 a2 du D C
5 3
p

u2 a2 u
207. du D u2 a2 a sec1
u a
p
2 2
p
2 2
u a u a
208. 2
du D C ln u C u2 a2
u u
p
u2 a2 u2 a2 1 1 u
209. du D C sec
u3 2u2 2a a
du u
210. D p

u2 a2 3/2 a2 u2 a2
u du 1
211. D p
u2 a2 3/2 u2 a2
2
u du u
212. D p C ln u C u2 a2
u2 a2 3/2 u2 a2
Chapter 12 217

u3 du 2 a2 p
a2
213. D u
u2 a2 3/2 u2 a2

du 1 1 u
214. 2 2 3/2
D p 3 sec1
uu a 2 2
a pu a 2 a a
2 2
du u a u
215. 2 2 2 3/2
D 4
p
u u a a u a u2 a2
4

du 1 3
216. D p p
u3 u2 a2 3/2 2a2 u2 u2 a2 2a4 u2 a2
3 u
5
sec1
2a a
p
2 2 3/2 uu2 a2 3/2 3a2 u u2 a2
217. u a du D
4 8
3 p
C a4 ln u C u2 a2
8

u2 C a2 5/2
218. uu2 a2 3/2 du D
5

uu2 a2 5/2 a2 uu2 a2 3/2
219. u2 u2 a2 3/2 du D C
6 24
p
a4 u u2 a2

16
a 6
C ln u C u2 a2
16

u2 a2 7/2 a2 u2 a2 5/2
220. u3 u2 a2 3/2 du D C
7 5

u2 a2 3/2 u2 a2 3/2
221. du D a2 u2 a2
u 3
u
C a3 sec1
a
p
u2 a2 3/2 u2 a2 3/2 3u x 2 a2
222. du D C
u2 u 2
3
a2 ln u C u2 a2
2
218 Chapter 12
p
u2 a2 3/2 u2 a2 3/2 3 x 2 a2
223. du D C
u3 2u2 2
3 u
a sec1
2 a
p
INTEGRALS INVOLVING a2 u2

du u
224. p D sin1

2
a u 2 a
u du
225. p D a2 u2
a 2 u2
p
u2 du u a2 u2 a2 1 u
226. p D C sin
a2 u2 2 2 a

u3 du a2 u2 3/2
227. p D a2 a2 u2
a2 u2 3
p
du 1 a C a2 u2 1 u
228. p D ln or sech1
u a u2 2 a u a a
p
2 2
du a u
229. p D 2
pa u
2
u a u 2 2
p
du a2 u2 1 a C a2 u2
230. p D 3 ln
u3 a2 u2 2a2 u2 2a u
p
2 2 2
u a u a u
231. a2 u2 du D C sin1
2 2 a
2 2 3/2
a u
232. u a2 u2 du D
3
2 2 3/2 2
p
2 ua u a u a2 u2
233. u a2 u2 du D C
4 8
a4 1 u
C sin
8 a
a2 u2 5/2 a2 a2 u2 3/2
234. u3 a2 u2 du D
5 p3
p
2 2
a u a C a2 u2
235. du D a2 u2 a ln
u u
p 2 p
a u2 a2 u2 u
236. 2
du D sin1
u p u a
p 2 p
a u2 a2 u2 1 a C a2 u2
237. du D C ln
u3 2u2 2a u
Chapter 12 219

du u
238. D p
a2u 2 3/2
a a2 u2
2

u du 1
239. 2 2 3/2
Dp
a u a2 u2
2
u du u u
240. 2 2 3/2
Dp sin1
a u 2
a u 2 a
3 2
u du a
241. 2 2 3/2
D a2 u2 C p
a u a u2
2
p
du 1 1 a C a2 u2
242. D p ln
ua2 u2 3/2 a2 a2 u2 a3 u
p
du a2 u2 u
243. 2 2 2 3/2
D 4
C p
u a u a u a a2 u2
4

du 1 3
244. D p C p
u3 a2 u2 3/2 2 2
2a u a u 2 2 2a a2 u2
4
p
3 a C a2 u2
5 ln
2a u
p
2 2 3/2 ua2 u2 3/2 3a2 u a2 u2
245. a u du D C
4 8
3 u
C a4 sin1
8 a

a2 u2 5/2
246. ua2 u2 3/2 du D
5

ua2 u2 5/2 a2 ua2 u2 3/2
247. u2 a2 u2 3/2 du D C
6 24
p
a4 u a2 u2 a6 u
C C sin1
16 16 a

a2 u2 7/2 a2 a2 u2 5/2
248. u3 a2 u2 3/2 du D
7 5

a2 u2 3/2 a2 u2 3/2
249. du D C a2 a2 u2
u 3
p
3 a C a2 u2
a ln
u
220 Chapter 12
p
a2 u2 3/2 a2 u2 3/2 3u a2 x 2
250. du D
u2 u 2
3 u
a2 sin1
2 a
p
a2 u2 3/2 a2 u2 3/2 3 a2 x 2
251. du D
u3 2u2 2
p
3 a C a2 u2
C a ln
2 u
p
INTEGRALS INVOLVING au2 C bu C c

252. au2 C bu C c du
p
2au C b au2 C bu C c 4ac b2 du
D C p
4a 8a 2
au C bu C c
253. 2
u au C bu C c du
au2 C bu C c3/2 b2ac C b 2

D au C bx C c
3a 8a2

b4ac b2 du
2
p
16a 2
au C bu C c
6au 5b 2
254. u2 au2 C bu C c du D 2
au C bx C c3/2
24a

5b2 4ac 2
C au C bu C c du
16a2

255. au2 C bu C cnC1/2 du
2au C bau2 C bu C cnC1/2

D
4an C 1

2n C 14ac b2
C au2 C bu C cn1/2 du
8an C 1

au2 C bu C cnC3/2
256. uau2 C bu C cnC1/2 du D
a2n C 3

b
au2 C bu C cnC1/2 du
2a
Chapter 12 221
 1 p p 2

 p ln j2 a au C bu C c

 a






C2au C bj
du
257. p D 1 1 2au C b
au2 C bu C c 

p sin p

 a b2 4ac




 or p1 sinh1 p2au C b
a 4ac b2
p
u du au2 C bu C c
258. p D
au2 C bu C c a

b du
p
2a au2 C bu C c

u2 du 2au 3b 2
259. p D au C bu C c
au2 C bu C c 4a2

3b2 4ac du
C 2
p
8a 2
au C bu C c
du
260. p
u au2 C bu C c
 p p 2
 1 2 c au C bu C c C bu C 2c

 p ln

 c u




1 1 bu C 2c
D p sin p

 c b2 4ac

 juj



 1 bu C 2c
 or p sinh1 p
c juj 4ac b2
p
du au2 C bu C c
261. p D
u2 au2 C bu C c cu

b du
p
2c u au2 C bu C c
p 2
au C bu C c
262. du
u

2
b du
D au C bu C c C p
2 au2 C bu C c

du
Cc p
2
u au C bu C c
222 Chapter 12
p 2
au C bu C c
263. du D
u2
p
au2 C bu C c du
Ca p
u 2
au C bu C c

b du
C p
2 2
u au C bu C c

du 22au C b
264. D p
au2
C bu C c 3/2
4ac b2 au2 C bu C c

u du 2bu C 2c
265. 2 3/2
D p
au C bu C c b 4ac au2 C bu C c
2

u2 du 2b2 4ac u C 2bc
266. D p
au2 C bu C c3/2 a4ac b2 au2 C bu C c

1 du
C p
a au2 C bu C c

du
267.
uau2 C bu C c3/2

1 1 du
D p C p
c au C bu C c c
2 2
u au C bu C c

b du

2c au2 C bu C c3/2

du
268. D
u au C bu C c3/2
2 2

au2 C 2bu C c b2 2ac du
p C
c2 u au2 C bu C c 2c2 au2 C bu C c3/2
3b du
2 p
2c 2
u au C bu C c

du
269. 2
D
au C bu C cnC1/2
22au C b
2n 14ac b2 au2 C bu C cn1/2

8an 1 du
C 2 2
2n 14ac b au C bu C cn1/2
Chapter 12 223

du 1
270. D
uau2 C bu C c nC1/2 2
2n 1cau C bu C cn1/2

1 du
C 2
c uau C bu C cn1/2

b du
2
2c au C bu C cnC1/2

du 1 u C a2 1 2u a
271. 3 3
D 2
ln 2 2
C p tan1 p
u Ca 6a u au C a 2
a 3 a 3

u du 1 u2 au C a2 1 2u a
272. 3 3
D ln 2
C p tan1 p
u Ca 6a u C a a 3 a 3
2
u du 1
273. 3 3
D ln ju3 C a3 j
u Ca 3

du 1 u3
274. D ln
uu3 C a3 3a3 u3 C a3

du 1 1 u2 au C a2
275. D ln
u2 u3 C a3 a3 u 6a4 u C a2
1 2u a
p tan1 p
a4 3 a 3

du u 1 u C a2
276. D C ln
u3 C a3 2 3a3 u3 C a3 9a5 u2 au C a2
2 2u a
C p tan1 p
3a5 3 a 3

u du u2 1 u2 au C a2
277. D C ln
u3 C a3 2 3a3 u3 C a3 18a4 u C a2
1 2u a
C p tan1 p
3a4 3 a 3

u2 du 1
278. 3 3 2
D 3
u C a 3u C a3
du 1 1 u3
279. D C ln
uu3 C a3 2 3a3 u3 C a3 3a6 u3 C a3
224 Chapter 12

du 1 u2 4 u du
280. D
u2 u3 C a3 2 a6 u 3a6 u3 C a3 3a6 u3 C a3

um du um2 3 um3 du
281. D a
u3 C a3 m2 u3 C a3

du 1 1 du
282. 3 3
D 3 3
n
u u C a a n 1u n1 a u u3 C a3
n3
INTEGRALS INVOLVING u4 š a4
p
du 1 u2 C ax 2 C a2
283. D p ln p
u4 C a4 4a3 2 u2 au 2 C a2
p
1 1 au 2
p tan
2a3 2 u2 a2
2
u du 1 1 u
284. D tan
u4 C a4 2a2 a2
p
u2 du 1 u2 ax 2 C a2
285. D p ln p
u4 C a4 4a 2 u2 C au 2 C a2
p
1 1 au 2
p tan
2a 2 u2 a2
3
u du 1
286. 4 4
D lnu4 C a4
u Ca 4

du 1 u4
287. D 4 ln 4
uu4 C a4 4a u C a4
p
du 1 1 u2 ax 2 C a2
288. D 4 p ln p
u2 u4 C a4 a u 4a5 2 u2 C au 2 C a2
p
1 1 au 2
C p tan
2a5 2 u2 a2
2
du 1 1 1 u
289. D tan
u3 u4 C a4 2a4 u2 2a6 a2

du 1 ua 1 u
290. D 3 ln 3 tan1
u4 a 4 4a uCa 2a a

u du 1 u2 a2
291. D ln
u4 a4 4a2 u2 C a2
Chapter 12 225

u2 du 1 ua 1 1 u
292. D ln C tan
u4 a4 4a uCa 2a a
3
u du 1
293. D ln ju4 a4 j
u4 a4 4

du 1 u4 a4
294. D ln
uu4 a4 4a4 u4

du 1 1 ua 1 u
295. 2 4 4
D 4 C 5 ln C 5 tan1
u u a a u 4a uCa 2a a

du 1 1 u2 a2
296. D C ln
u3 u4 a4 2a4 u2 4a6 u2 C a2
INTEGRALS INVOLVING un š an

du 1 un
297. D ln
uun an nan un C an
n1
u du 1
298. n n
D ln jun C an j
u Ca n

um du umn du n umn du
299. D a
un C an r un C an r1 un C an r

du 1 du
300. m n n r
D n
u u C a a u u C an r1
m n

1 du
n mn
a u un C an r
p n p
du 1 u C an an
301. p D p n ln p n p
u un C an n a u C an C an

du 1 un an
302. D ln
uun an nan un
n1
u du 1
303. n n
D ln jun C an j
u Ca n

um du n umn du umn du
304. D a C
un C an r un C an r un C an r1

du 1 du
305. D
um un an r an umn un an r

1 du
n
a u u an r1
m n
226 Chapter 12

du 2 an
306. p n D p n cos1
u u a n n a un

up1 du
307.
u2m C a2m

m
1 2k 1p u C a cos[2k 1 /2m]
D sin tan1
ma2mp kD0
2m a sin[2k 2 /2m]
1 m
2k 1p 2k 1
2mp
cos ln u2 C 2au cos C a2
2ma kD0
2m 2m
where 0 < p 2m.

up1 du
308.
u2m a2m

m1
1 kp 2 k 2
D cos u 2au cos Ca
2ma2mp kD1 m m

m1
1 kp u a cosk /m
sin tan1
ma2mp kD1
m a sink /m
where 0 < p 2m.

up1 du
309.
u2mC1 C a2mC1
m
21p1 2kp 1 u C a cos[2k /2m C 1]
D sin tan
2m C 1a2mpC1 kD1 2m C 1 a sin[2k /2m C 1]
1p1 m
2kp 2k
2mpC1
cos ln u2 C 2au cos C a2
2m C 1a kD1
2m C 1 2m C 1
1p1 ln ju C aj
C
2m C 1a2mpC1
where 0 < p 2m C 1
Chapter 12 227

up1 du
310.
u2mC1 C a2mC1
m
2 2kp 1 u a cos[2k /2m C 1]
D sin tan
2m C 1a2mpC1 kD1 2m C 1 a sin[2k /2m C 1]
1 m
2kp 2k
C 2mpC1
cos ln u2 2au cos C a2
2m C 1a kD1
2m C 1 2m C 1
ln ju aj
C where 0 < p 2m C 1
2m C 1a2mpC1
INTEGRALS INVOLVING cos au

sin au
311. cos au du D
a

cos au u sin au
312. u cos au du D C
a2 a
2
2 2u u 2
313. u cos au du D 2 cos au C 3 sin au
a a a
2 3
3 3u 6 u 6u
314. u cos au du D 4 cos au C 3 sin au
a2 a a a
n
u sin au n
315. un cos au du D un1 sin au du
a a

un sin au nun1
316. un cos au du D C cos au
a a2

nn 1
un2 cos au du
a2

u sin 2au
317. cos2 au du D C
2 4a

u2 u sin 2au cos 2au
318. u cos2 au du D C C
4 4a 8a2

sin au sin3 au
319. cos3 au du D
a 3a

3u sin 2au sin 4au
320. cos4 au du D C C
8 4a 32a
228 Chapter 12

cosn1 au sin au n 1
321. cosn au du D C cosn2 au du
an n

cos au au2 au4 au6
322. du D ln juj C C ÐÐÐ
u 2 Ð 2! 4 Ð 4! 6 Ð 6!
cos au cos au sin au
323. 2
du D a du
u u u
cos au cos au a sin au
324. n
du D n1
du

u n 1u n1 un1
du 1 1 au
325. D ln j sec au C tan auj D ln tan C
cos au a a 4 2

u du 1 au2 au4 5au6
326. D 2 C C C ÐÐÐ
cos au a 2 8 144

En au2nC2
C C ÐÐÐ
2n C 22n!

du tan au
327. 2
D
cos au a

du sin au 1 au
328. 3
D C ln tan C
cos au 2a cos2 au 2a 4 2
du sin au n2 du
329. n
D n1
C n2
cos au an 1 cos au n 1 cos au

u du u sin au
330. D
cosn au an 1 cosn1 au
1

a2 n
1n 2 cosn2 au

n2 u du
C
n1 cosn2 au

sina bu sina C bu
331. cos au cos bu du D C

2a b 2a C b
du 1 au
332. D cot
1 cos au a 2
u du u au 2 au
333. D cot C 2 ln sin
1 cos au a 2 a 2
du 1 au
334. D tan
1 C cos au a 2
u du u au 2 au
335. D tan C 2 ln cos
1 C cos au a 2 a 2
du 1 au 1 au
336. 2
D cot cot3
1 cos au 2a 2 6a 2
Chapter 12 229

du 1 au 1 au
337. 2
D tan C tan3
1 C cos au 2a 2 6a 2

du
338.
p C q cos au
 2 p 1

 tan1 p q/p C q tan au

 a p q 2


2 2
1 p
D tan au C q C p/q p

 1 2

 ln

 a q 2 p2 1 p
tan au q C p/q p
2

du q sin au
339. 2
D
p C q cos au aq p2 p C q cos au
2

p du
2
q p2 p C q cos au

du 1 p tan au
340. D tan1
p2 2 2
C q cos au 2
ap p C q 2 p2 C q 2

du
341.
p2 q2 cos2 au
 1 p tan au

 tan1
 ap p2 q2 p2 q2
D

 1 p tan au q2 p2
 ln
2ap q2 p2 p tan au C q2 p2
INTEGRALS INVOLVING sin au

cos au
342. sin au du D
a
sin au u cos au
343. u sin au du D
a2 a

2 2u 2 u2
344. u sin au du D 2 sin au C cos au
a a3 a
2
3 3u 6 6u u3
345. u sin au du D 4 sin au C cos au
a2 a a3 a

n un cos au n
346. u sin au du D C un1 cos au du
a a
230 Chapter 12

un cos au nun1 sin au
347. un sin au du D C
a a2

nn 1
un2 sin au du
a2

u sin 2au
348. sin2 au du D
2 4a

u2 u sin 2au cos 2au
349. u sin2 au du D
4 4a 8a2

cos au cos3 au
350. sin3 au du D C
a 3a

3u sin 2au sin 4au
351. sin4 au du D C
8 4a 32a
n1
n sin au cos au n 1
352. sin au du D C sinn2 au du
an n
3 5
sin au au au
353. du D au C ÐÐÐ
u 3 Ð 3! 5 Ð 5!

sin au sin au cos au
354. 2
du D Ca du
u u u

sin au sin au a cos au
355. n
du D n1
C du
u n 1u n1 un1

du 1 1 au
356. D ln j csc au cot auj D ln j tan j
sin au a a 2

u du 1 au3 7au5
357. D 2 au C C C ÐÐÐ
sin au a 18 1800

222n1 1Bn au2nC1
C C ÐÐÐ
2n C 1!

du 1
358. 2
D cot au
sin au a

du cos au 1 au
359. 3
D 2
C ln j tan j
sin au 2a sin au 2a 2

du cos au n2 du
360. n D n1
C n2
sin au an 1 sin au n 1 sin au

u du u cos au n2 du
361. n D n1
C n2
sin au an 1 sin au n 1 sin au
Chapter 12 231

sinp qu sinp C qu
362. sin pu sin qu du D
2p q 2p C q

du 1 au
363. D tan C
1 sin au a 4 2

u du u au 2 au
364. D tan C C 2 ln sin
1 sin au a 4 2 a 4 2

du 1 au
365. D tan
1 C sin au a 4 2

u du u au 2 au
366. D tan C 2 ln sin C
1 C sin au a 4 2 a 4 2

du 1 au 1 3 au
367. D tan C C tan C
1 sin au2 2a 4 2 6a 4 2

du 1 au 1 3 au
368. D tan tan
1 C sin au2 2a 4 2 6a 4 2

du
369.
p C q sin au
 1

 p tan au C q

 2

 tan1 2

 a p2 q 2 p2 q 2
D 1

 p tan au C q q2 p2

 1 2

 ln

a q p2 2 1
p tan au C q C q2 p2
2
du q cos au
370. 2
D
p C q sin au ap q2 p C q sin au
2

p du
C 2
p q2 p C q sin au

du 1 p2 C q2 tan au
371. 2
D tan 1
p2 C q2 sin au ap p2 C q2 p

du
372.
p2 q2 sin2 au


 1 p2 q2 tan au

 ap p2 q2 tan 1
p
D

 1 q p2 tan au C p
2

 ln
2ap q2 p2 q2 p2 tan au p
232 Chapter 12
INTEGRALS INVOLVING sin au AND cos au

sin2 au
373. sin au cos au du D
2a

cosp qu cosp C qu
374. sin pu cos qu du D
2p q 2p C q
nC1
sin au
375. sinn au cos au du D
n C 1a

cosnC1 au
376. cosn au sin au du D
n C 1a

u sin 4au
377. sin2 au cos2 au du D
8 32a

du 1
378. D ln j tan auj
sin au cos au a

du 1 au 1
379. 2
D ln tan C
sin au cos au a 4 2 a sin au

du 1 au 1
380. 2
D ln tan C
sin au cos au a 2 a cos au

du 2 cot 2au
381. 2
D
sin au cos2 au a
au
sin2 au sin au 1
382. du D C ln tan C
cos au a a 2 4
2
cos au cos au 1 au
383. du D C ln tan

sin au a a 2
du 1
384. DÝ
cos au1 š sin au 2a1 š sin au
1 au
C ln tan C
2a 2 4

du 1 1 au
385. Dš C ln tan
sin au1 š cos au 2a1 š cos au 2a 2
au
du 1
386. D p ln tan š
sin au š cos au a 2 2 8

sin au du u 1
387. D Ý ln j sin au š cos auj
sin au š cos au 2 2a
Chapter 12 233

cos au du u 1
388. DÝ C ln j sin au š cos auj
sin au š cos au 2 2a

sin au du 1
389. D ln jp C q cos auj
p C q cos au aq

cos au du 1
390. D ln jp C q sin auj
p C q sin au aq

sin au du 1
391. D
p C q cos aun aqn 1p C q cos aun1

cos au du 1
392. n
D
p C q sin au aqn 1p C q sin aun1

du
393.
p sin au C q cos au

1 au C tan1 q/p
D ln tan
a p2 C q 2 2

du
394. D
p sin au C q cos au Cr


 2 p C rq tanau/2

 tan1
a r 2 p2 q2 r 2 p2 q 2


 1 p p2 C q2 r 2 C rq tanau/2

 ln
a p2 C q2 r 2 p C p2 C q2 r 2 C rq tanau/2

du 1 au
395. D ln q C p tan
p sin au C q1 C cos au ap 2

du
396. D
p sin au C q cos au š p2 C q2

1 au C tan1 q/p
tan Ý
a p2 C q 2 4 2

du 1 1 p tan au
397. D tan
p2 sin2 au C q2 cos2 au apq q

du 1 p tan au q
398. D tan
p2 sin2 au q2 cos2 au 2apq p tan au C q
234 Chapter 12

399. sinm au cosn au du

 sinm1 au cosnC1 au m 1

 sinm2 au cosn au du
 am C n
C
mCn
D

 mC1
au cosn1 au

 sin n1
C sinm au cosn2 au du
am C n mCn

sinm au
400. du
cosn au

 sinm1 au m1 sinm2 au

 du

 an 1 cosn1 au n1 cosn2 au




sinmC1 au mnC2 sinm au
D du

 an 1 cosn1 au n1 cosn2 au





 sinm1 au m1 sinm2 au
 C du
am n cosn1 au n1 cosn au

cosm au
401. du
sinn au



cosm1 au m1 cosm2 au

 du

 an 1 sinn1
au n1 sin n2
au




cosmC1 au mnC2 cosm au
D du

 an 1 sinn1 au n1 sinn2 au





 cosm1 au m1 cosm2 au

 C du
am n sinn1 au n1 sinn au

du
402. m D
sin au cosn au

1 mCn2 du


 an 1 sinm1 au cosn1 au n 1 m
sin au cosn2 au


 1 mCn2 du
 C
m1 m2
am 1 sin au cosn1 au m1 sin au cosn au
Chapter 12 235
INTEGRALS INVOLVING cot au

1
414. cot au du D ln j sin auj
a

cot au
415. cot2 au du D u
a

cot2 au 1
416. cot3 au du D ln j sin auj
2a a

n cotn1 au
417. cot au du D cotn2 au du
n 1a

cotnC1 au
418. cotn au csc2 au du D
n C 1a

csc2 au 1
419. du D ln j cot auj
cot au a

du 1
420. D ln j cos auj
cot au a

1 au3 au5
421. u cot au du D 2 au ÐÐÐ
a 9 225

22n Bn au2nC1
ÐÐÐ
2n C 1!

cot au 1 au au3
422. du D ÐÐÐ
u au 3 135
22n Bn au2n1
ÐÐÐ
2n 12n!

u cot au 1 u2
423. u cot2 au du D C 2 ln j sin auj
a a 2

du pu
424. D 2
p C q cot au p C q2
q
ln jp sin au C q cos auj
ap C q2
2
236 Chapter 12
INTEGRALS INVOLVING sec au

au
1 1
425. sec au du D ln j sec au C tan auj D ln tan C
a a 2 4

tan au
426. sec2 au du D
a

sec au tan au 1
427. sec3 au du D C ln j sec au C tan auj
2a 2a

n secn2 au tan au n 2
428. sec au du D C secn2 au du
an 1 n1

secn au
429. secn au tan au du D
na

du sin au
430. D
sec au a

1 au2 au4 5au6
431. u sec au du D 2 C C C ÐÐÐ
a 2 8 144

En au2nC2
C C ÐÐÐ
2n C 22n!

sec au au2 5au4 61au6
432. du D ln juj C C C C ÐÐÐ
u 4 96 4320
En au2n
C C ÐÐÐ
2n2n!

u 1
433. u sec2 au du D tan au C 2 ln j cos auj
a a

du u p du
434. D
q C p sec au q q p C q cos au
INTEGRALS INVOLVING csc au

1 1 au
435. csc au du Dln j csc au cot auj D ln tan
a a 2
2 cot au
436. csc au du D
a
Chapter 12 237

csc au cot au 1 au
437. csc3 au du D C ln tan
2a 2a 2
n2
csc au cot au n 2
438. cscn au du D C cscn2 au du
an 1 n1
cscn au
439. cscn au cot udu D
na
du cos au
440. D
csc au a

1 au3 7au5
441. u csc au du D 2 au C C C ÐÐÐ
a 18 1800

222n1 1Bn au2nC1
C C ÐÐÐ
2n C 1!

csc au 1 au 7au3
442. du D C C C ÐÐÐ
u au 6 1080
222n1 1Bn au2n1
C C ÐÐÐ
2n 12n!

u cot au 1
443. u csc2 au du D C 2 ln j sin auj
a a

du u p du
444. D
q C p csc au q q p C q sin au
INTEGRALS INVOLVING INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS

u u
445. cos1 du D u cos1 a2 u2
a a
2 p
1 u u a2 1 u u a2 u2
446. u cos du D cos
a 2 4 a 4
p
u u3 u u2 C 2a2 a2 u2
447. u2 cos1 du D cos1
a 3 a 9
1 1
cos u/a sin u/a
448. du D ln juj du
u 2 u
p
cos1 u/a cos1 u/a 1 a C a2 u2
449. du D C ln
u2 u a u

u 2 u 2 u
450. cos1 du D u cos1 2u 2 a2 u2 cos1
a a a
238 Chapter 12

u u
451. sin1du D u sin1 C a2 u2
a a
2 p
1 u u a2 1 u u a2 u2
452. u sin du D sin C
a 2 4 a 4
p
u u3 1 u u2 C 2a2 a2 u2
453. u2 sin1 du D sin C
a 3 a 9

sin1 u/a u u/a3 1 Ð 3u/a5
454. du D C C
u a 2Ð3Ð3 2Ð4Ð5Ð5
1 Ð 3 Ð 5u/a7
C C ÐÐÐ
2Ð4Ð6Ð7Ð7
p
sin1 u/a sin1 u/a 1 a C a2 u2
455. du D ln
u2 u a u

u 2 u 2 u
456. sin1 du D u sin1 2u C 2 a2 u2 sin1
a a a

u u a
457. tan1 du D u tan1 lnu2 C a2
a a 2

u 1 u au
458. u tan1 du D u2 C a2 tan1
a 2 a 2

u u3 u au2 a3
459. u2 tan1 du D tan1 C lnu2 C a2
a 3 a 6 6

tan1 u/a u u/a3 u/a5 u/a7
460. du D C C ÐÐÐ
u a 32 52 72
2
tan1 u/a 1 1 u 1 u C a2
461. du D tan ln
u u a 2a u2

u u a
462. cot1 du D u cot1 C lnu2 C a2
a a 2

u 1 u au
463. u cot1 du D u2 C a2 cot1 C
a 2 a 2
3 2
u u u au a3
464. u2 cot1 du D cot1 C lnu2 C a2
a 3 a 6 6

cot1 u/a tan1 u/a
465. du D ln juj du
u 2 u
2
cot1 u/a cot1 u/a 1 u C a2
466. du D C ln
u2 u 2a u2
Chapter 12 239
 p
1 u

 u sec a ln ju C u2 a2 j,

 a



 u

 0 < sec1 <
u a 2
467. sec1 du D p
a 
 u

 u sec1 C a ln ju C u2 a2 j,

 a



 u
< sec1 <
2 a
 2 p

 u u a u2 a2

 sec1 ,

 2 a 2



 u

 0 < sec1 <
u a 2
468. u sec1 du D p
a 
 u2 a u2 a2

 1 u

 sec C ,

 2 a 2



 u
< sec1 <
2 a
u
469. u2 sec1 du D
a
 3 p

 u 1 u au u2 a2 a3 p

 sec ln ju C u2 a2 j,

 3 a 6 6



 u

 0 < sec1 <
a 2
 p

 u 3
u au u2 a2 a 3 p

 sec1 C C ln ju C u2 a2 j,

 3 a 6 6



 u
 < sec1 <
2 a

sec1 u/a a u/a3 1 Ð 3u/a5
470. du D ln juj C C C
u a u 2Ð3Ð3 2Ð4Ð5Ð5
1 Ð 3 Ð 5u/a7
C C ÐÐÐ
2Ð4Ð6Ð7Ð7
 1
p

 sec u/a u2 a2

 C ,

 u au



 u
1

 0 < sec1 <
sec u/a a 2
471. du D p
u 
 1 2 2


sec u/a u a

 ,

 u au



 u
< sec1 <
2 a
240 Chapter 12
 p
 1 u


u csc C a ln ju C u2 a2 j,

 a

 u

 0 < csc1 <
u a 2
472. csc1 du D u p
a 
 1

 u csc a C a ln ju C u a j,
2 2



 u
 < csc1 < 0
2p a
 2 2 a2
 u u a u

 csc1 C ,

 2 a 2



 u
u  0 < csc1 <
473. u csc1 du D p a 2
a 
 u 2
u a u a 2 2

 csc1


,

 2 a 2

 u
< csc1 < 0
2 a

u
474. u2 csc1 du D
a
 3 p
 u u au u2 a2 a3 p

 csc
1
ln ju C u2 a2 j,

 3 a 6 6



 u
 0 < csc1 <
p a 2

 u 3
u au u a2 2 a 3 p

 csc1 C ln ju C u2 a2 j,


C

 3 a 6 6

 u
< csc1 < 0
2 a

csc1 u/a a a/u3 1 Ð 3a/u5
475. du D C C
u u 2Ð3Ð3 2Ð4Ð5Ð5

1 Ð 3 Ð 5a/u7
C C ÐÐÐ
2Ð4Ð6Ð7Ð7
 u p

 csc1

 a u2 a2

 ,

 u au



 u
csc1 u 
 0 < csc1 <
a du D a 2
476.
u 2 
 u p

 csc1 u2 a2

 a

 C ,

 u au



 u
< csc1 < 0
2 a
Chapter 12 241

u unC1 u 1 unC1
477. un sin1 du D sin1 p du
a nC1 a nC1 a2 u2

n 1 u unC1 u 1 unC1
478. u cos du D cos1 C p du
a nC1 a nC1 a2 u2

n 1 u unC1 u a unC1
479. u tan du D tan1 du
a nC1 a nC1 u2 C a2

n u1 unC1 1 u a unC1
480. u cot du D cot du
a nC1 a nC1 u2 C a2
 nC1
 u sec1 u/a a un du

 p ,

 nC1 nC1 u2 a2





 u

 0 < sec1 <
u a 2
481. un sec1 du D
a 
 unC1 sec1 u/a un du


a

 C p ,

 nC1 nC1 u2 a2



 u
 < sec1 <
2 a
 nC1 1 n
 u csc u/a a u du

 p

 nC1 nC1 u2 a2





 u
u  0 < csc1 <
482. un csc1 du D a 2
a 
 u nC1
csc 1
u/a a u n
du

 p

 nC1 nC1 u2 a2





 u
< csc1 < 0
2 a
INTEGRALS INVOLVING eau

eau
483. eau du D
a

au eau 1
484. ue du D u
a a

2 au eau 2 2u 2
485. u e du D u C 2
a a a

un eau n
486. un eau du D un1 eau du
a a
242 Chapter 12

eau nun1 nn 1un2
D un C ÐÐÐ
a a a2

1n n!
C , if n D positive integer
an

eau au au2 au3
u 1 Ð 1! 2 Ð 2! 3 Ð 3!
au
e eau a eau
488. du D C du
un n 1un1 n 1 un1

du u 1
489. au
D ln p C qeau
p C qe p ap

du u 1 1
490. au 2
D 2C au
2 ln p C qeau
p C qe p app C qe ap

 1 p au

 tan1
e
du  appq q
491. D p
peau C qe au   1 eau q/p

 p ln au p
2a pq e C q/p
au
e a sin bu b cos bu
492. eau sin bu du D
a2 C b2
au
e a cos bu C b sin bu
493. eau cos bu du D
a2 C b2

ueau a sin bu b cos bu
494. ueau sin bu du D
a2 C b2
eau fa2 b2 sin bu 2ab cos bug

a2 C b2 2

ueau a cos bu C b sin bu
495. ueau cos bu du D
a2 C b2
eau fa2 b2 cos bu C 2ab sin bug

a2 C b2 2

eau ln juj 1 eau
496. eau ln juj du D du
a a u

eau sinn1 bu
497. eau sinn bu du D 2 a sin bu nb cos bu
a C n2 b 2

nn 1b2
C 2 eau sinn2 bu du
a C n2 b 2
Chapter 12 243

eau cosn1 bu
498. eau cosn bu du D a cos bu C nb sin bu
a 2 C n2 b 2

nn 1b2
C 2 eau cosn2 bu du
a C n2 b 2
INTEGRALS INVOLVING ln juj

499. ln jujdu D u ln juj u

500. ln juj2 du D uln juj2 2u ln juj C 2u

501. ln juj du D uln juj n ln jujn1 du
n n

u2 1
502. u ln juj du D ln juj
2 2
mC1
m u 1
503. u ln juj du D ln juj
mC1 mC1

ln juj 1
504. du D ln2 juj
u 2

ln juj ln juj 1
505. du D
u2 u u

ln jujn du ln jujnC1
506. D
u nC1

du
507. D ln jln jujj
u ln juj

du ln juj2 ln juj3
508. D ln jln jujj C ln juj C C C ÐÐÐ
ln juj 2 Ð 2! 3 Ð 3!
m
u du m C 12 ln juj2
509. ln jln jujj C m C 1 ln juj C
ln juj 2 Ð 2!
m C 13 ln juj3
C C ÐÐÐ
3 Ð 3!

umC1 ln jujn n
510. um ln jujn du D um ln jujn1 du
mC1 mC1

u
511. lnu2 C a2 du D u lnu2 C a2 2u C 2a tan1
a
244 Chapter 12

uCa
512. ln u2 a2 du D u ln u2 a2 2u C a ln
ua

umC1 ln u2 š a2 2
513. um ln u2 š a2 du D
mC1 mC1

umC2
du
u2 š a2
INTEGRALS INVOLVING cosh au

sinh au
514. cosh au du D
a

u sinh au cosh au
515. u cosh au du D
a a2
2
2 2u cosh au u 2
516. u cosh au du D C C 3 sinh au
a2 a a
2 4
cosh au ax au au6
u 2 Ð 2! 4 Ð 4! 6 Ð 6!

cosh au cosh au sinh au
518. 2
du D C a du
u u u

du 2
519. D tan1 eau
cosh au a

u du 1 au2 au4 5au6
520. D 2 C C ÐÐÐ
cosh au a 2 8 144

1n En au2nC2
C C ÐÐÐ
2n C 22n!

u sinh au cosh au
521. cosh2 au du D C
2 2a

u2 u sinh 2au cosh 2au
522. u cosh2 au du D C
4 4a 8a2

du tanh au
523. 2
D
cosh au a

sinha pu sinha C pu
524. cosh au cosh pu du D C
2a p 2a C p

a sinh au sin pu p cosh au cos pu
525. cosh au sin pu du D
a 2 C p2
Chapter 12 245

a sinh au cos pu C p cosh au sin pu
526. cosh au cos pu du D
a 2 C p2

du 1 au
527. D tanh
cosh au C 1 a 2

du 1 au
528. D coth
cosh au 1 a 2

u du u au 2 au
529. D tanh 2 ln cosh
cosh au C 1 a 2 a 2

u du u au 2 au
530. D coth C 2 ln sinh
cosh au 1 a 2 a 2

du 1 au 1 au
531. 2
D tanh tanh3
cosh au C 1 2a 2 6a 2

du 1 au 1 au
532. 2
D coth coth3
cosh au 1 2a 2 6a 2
 2 au
qe C p

 tan1
du  a q p 2 2 q2 p 2
533. D
p C q cosh au   1 qeau C p p2 q2
 ln
a p2 q 2 qeau C p C p2 q2

du q sinh au p
534. 2
D 2
p C q cosh au aq p p C q cosh au q p2
2 2

du
p C q cosh au

du
535. D
p2 q2 cosh2 au

 1 p tanh au C p2 q2

 2app2 q2 ln p tanh au p2 q2


 1 p tanh au

 tan1
2
ap q p 2 q 2 p2

du
536. D
p2 C q2 cosh2 au

 1 p tanh au C p2 C q2

 ln
2ap p2 C q2 p tan au C q2 p2

 1 p tanh au
 tan1
ap p2 C q2 p2 C q 2
246 Chapter 12

m um sinh au m
537. u cosh au du D um1 sinh au du
a a

coshn1 au sinh au
538. coshn au du D
an

n1
C coshn2 au du
n

cosh au cosh au a sinh au
539. n
du D n1
C du
u n 1u n1 un1

du sinh au n2 du
540. n D n1
C

cosh au an 1 cosh au n 1 coshn2 au
u du
541.
coshn au
u sinh au 1
D n1
C
an 1 cosh au n 1n 2a2 coshn2 au

n2 u du
C
n1 coshn2 au
INTEGRALS INVOLVING sinh au

cosh au
542. sinh au du D
a

u cosh au sinh au
543. u sinh au du D
a a2
2
2 u 2 2u
544. u sinh au du D C 3 cosh au 2 sinh au
a a a
3 5
sinh au au au
545. du D au C C C ÐÐÐ
u 3 Ð 3! 5 Ð 5!

sinh au sinh au cosh au
546. 2
du D C a du
u u u

du 1 au
547. D ln tanh
sinh au a 2

u du 1 au3 7au5
548. D 2 au C ÐÐÐ
sinh au a 18 1800

21n 22n 1Bn au2nC1
C C ÐÐÐ
2n C 1!

sinh au cosh au u
549. sinh2 au du D
2a 2
Chapter 12 247

u sinh 2 au cosh 2 au u2
550. u sinh2 au du D
4a 8a2 4

du coth au
551. 2
D
sinh au a

sinha C pu sinha pu
552. sinh au sinh pu du D
2a C p 2a p

a cosh au sin pu p sinh au cos pu
553. sinh au sin pu du D
a 2 C p2

a cosh au cos pu C p sinh au sin pu
554. sinh au cos pu du D
a 2 C p2

du 1 qeau C p p2 C q2
555. D ln
p C q sinh au a p2 C q 2 qeau C p C p2 C q2

du q cosh au
556. 2
D
p C q sinh au ap C q2 p C q sinh au
2

p du
C 2 2
p Cq p C q sinh au

du
557. D
p2 C q2 sinh2 au


 1 q2 p2 tanh au

 tan 1
 ap q2 p2 p


 p C p2 q2 tanh au


1

 2 2
ln
2ap p q p p2 q2 tanh au
du
558. D
p2 q2 sinh2 au

1 p C p2 C q2 tanh au
ln
2ap p2 C q2 p p2 C q2 tanh au

m um cosh au m
559. u sinh au du D um1 cosh au du
a a

n sinhn1 au cosh au n 1
560. sinh au du D sinhn2 au du
an n

sinh au sinh au a cosh au
561. n
du D n1
C du
u n 1u n1 un1

du cosh au n2 du
562. n D n1

sinh au an 1 sinh au n 1 sinhn2 au
248 Chapter 12

u du
563.
sinhn au
u cosh au 1
D n1
2
an 1 sinh au a n 1n 2 sinhn2 au

n2 u du

n1 sinhn2 au
INTEGRALS INVOLVING sinh au AND cosh au

sinh2 au
564. sinh au cosh au du D
2a

coshp C qu coshp qu
565. sinh pu cosh qu du D C
2p C q 2p q

sinhnC1 au
566. sinhn au cosh au du D
n C 1a

coshnC1 au
567. coshn au sinh au du D
n C 1a

sinh 4au u
568. sinh2 au cosh2 au du D
32a 8

du 1
569. D ln j tanh auj
sinh au cosh au a

du 1 cosh au
570. 2
D tan1 sinh au
sinh au cosh au a a

du sech 1 au
571. 2
D C ln tanh
sinh au cosh au a a 2

du 2 coth 2au
572. 2 2
D
sinh au cosh au a
2
sinh au sinh au 1 1
573. du D tan sinh au
cosh au a a

cosh2 au cosh au 1 au
574. du D C ln tanh
sinh au a a 2

du 1 1 C sinh au 1
575. D ln C tan1 eau
cosh au1 C sinh au 2a cosh au a
Chapter 12 249

du 1 au 1
576. D ln tanh C
sinh aucosh au C 1 2a 2 2acosh au C 1

du 1 au 1
577. D ln tanh
cosh au1 C sinh au 2a 2 2acosh au 1
INTEGRALS INVOLVING tanh au

1
578. tanh au du D ln cosh au
a

tanh au
579. tanh2 au du D u
a

1 tanh2 au
580. tanh3 au du D ln cosh au
a 2a
nC1
tanh au
581. tanhn au sech2 au du D
n C 1a
2
sech au 1
582. du D ln j tanh auj
tanh au a

du 1
583. D ln j sinh auj

tanh au a
584. u tanh au du

1 au3 au5 2au7
D 2 C ÐÐÐ
a 3 15 105

1n1 22n 22n 1Bn au2nC1
C C ÐÐÐ
2n C 1!

u2 u tanh au 1
585. u tanh2 au du D C 2 ln cosh au
2 a a
3 5
tanh au au 2au
586. du D au C ÐÐÐ
u 9 75
1n1 22n 22n 1Bn au2nC1
C C ÐÐÐ
2n 1!2n!

du pu
587. D 2
p C q tanh au p q2
q
ln jp sinh au C q cosh auj
ap q2
2
250 Chapter 12

n tanhn1 au
588. tanh au du D C tanhn2 au du
an 1
INTEGRALS INVOLVING coth au

1
589. coth au du D ln j sinh auj
a
2 coth au
590. coth au du D u
a
3 1 coth2 au
591. coth au du D ln j sinh auj
a 2a
n 2 cothnC1 au
592. coth au csch au du D
n C 1a

csch2 au 1
593. du D ln j cosh auj
coth au a

du 1
594. D lncosh au
coth au a

1 au3 au5
595. u coth au du D 2 au C C ÐÐÐ
a 9 225

1n1 22n Bn au2nC1
C C ÐÐÐ
2n C 1!

u2 u coth au 1
596. u coth2 au du D C 2 ln j sinh auj
2 a a

coth au 1 au au3
u au 3 135
1n 22n Bn au2n1
C C ÐÐÐ
2n 12n!
du
598.
p C q coth au
pu q
D 2 2
ln jp sinh au C q cosh auj
p q ap q2
2

cothn1 au
599. cothn au du D C cothn2 au du
an 1
INTEGRALS INVOLVING sech au

2
600. sech au du D ln j tan1 eau j
a
2 tanh au
601. sech au du D
a
Chapter 12 251

sech au tanh au 1
602. sech3 au du D C tan1 sinh au
2a 2a

sechn au
603. sechn au tanh au du D
na

du sinh au
604. D
sech au a

1 au2 au4 5au6
605. u sech au du D 2 C C ÐÐÐ
a 2 8 144

1n En au2nC2
C C ÐÐÐ
2n C 22n!

u tanh au 1
606. u sech2 au du D 2 ln cosh au
a a

sech au au2 5au4 61au6
607. du D ln juj C
u 4 96 4320
1n En au2n
C ÐÐÐ C C ÐÐÐ
2n2n!

du u p du
608. D
q C p sech au q q p C q cosh au
n2
sech au tanh au n 2
609. sechn au du D C sechn2 au du
an 1 n1
INTEGRALS INVOLVING csch au

1 au
610. csch au du D ln tanh
a 2

coth au
611. csch2 au du D
a

csch au coth au 1 au
612. csch3 au du D ln tanh
2a 2a 2
n
csch au
613. cschn au coth au du D
na

du 1
614. D cosh au
csch au a

1 au3 7au5
615. u csch au du D 2 au C C ÐÐÐ
a 18 1800

21n 22n1 1Bn au2nC1
C C ÐÐÐ
2n C 1!
252 Chapter 12

u csch au 1
616. u csch2 au du D C 2 ln j sinh auj
a a

csch au 1 au 7au3
u au 6 1080
1n 222n 1Bn au2n1
C C ÐÐÐ
2n 12n!

du u p du
618. D
q C p csch au q q p C q sinh au

cschn2 au coth au
619. cschn au du D
an 1

n2
cschn2 au du
n1
INTEGRALS INVOLVING INVERSE HYPERBOLIC

FUNCTIONS

u u
620. sinh1 du D u sinh1 u2 C a2
a a
2 p
1 u u a2 1 u u u2 C a2
621. u sinh du D C sinh
a 2 4 a 4
p
u u3 u 2a2 u2 u2 C a2
622. u2 sinh1 du D sinh1 C
a 3 a 9
1
sinh u/a
623. du
u

 u u/a3 1 Ð 3u/a5

 C

 a 2Ð3Ð3 2Ð4Ð5Ð5



 1 Ð 3 Ð 5u/a7

 C ÐÐÐ, juj < a

 2Ð4Ð6Ð7Ð7





 ln2 j2u/aj a/u23 1 Ð 3a/u4

D 2 2Ð2Ð2 2Ð4Ð4Ð4

 1 Ð 3 Ð 5a/u6

 C ÐÐÐ, u>a

 2Ð4Ð6Ð6Ð6





 ln2 j 2u/aj a/u2 1 Ð 3a/u4

 C

 2 2Ð2Ð2 2Ð4Ð4Ð4



 1 Ð 3 Ð 5a/u6
C ÐÐÐ, u > a
2Ð4Ð6Ð6Ð6
Chapter 12 253
p
sin1 u/a sinh1 u/a 1 a C u2 C a2
624. du D ln
u2 u a u
p
 u cosh1 u/a u2 a2 ,


 cosh1 u/a > 0
1 u p
625. cosh du D
a 
 u cosh1 u/a C u2 a2 ,

cosh1 u/a < 0

u
626. u cosh1 du
a
1 p
 2u2 a2 cosh1 u/a 14 u u2 a2 ,


4
 cosh1 u/a > 0
D 1 2 p

 2u a2 cosh1 u/a C 14 u u2 a2 ,

4
cosh1 u/a < 0
u
627. u2 cosh1 du
a
1 3 1 1 2 2
p
 u cosh u/a u C 2a u2 a2 ,


3 9
 cosh1 u/a > 0
D 1 3 p

 u cosh1 u/a C 19 u2 C 2a2 u2 a2 ,

3
cosh1 u/a < 0

cosh1 u/a
628. du
u

a/u2 1 Ð 3a/u4
D š 12 ln2 j2u/aj C C
2Ð2Ð2 2Ð4Ð4Ð4

1 Ð 3 Ð 5a/u6
C C ÐÐÐ
2Ð4Ð6Ð6Ð6
C if cosh1 u/a > 0, if cosh1 u/a < 0

cosh1 u/a
629. du
u2
p
cosh1 u/a 1 aC u2 C a2
D Ý ln
u a u
if cosh1 u/a > 0, C if cosh1 u/a < 0

u u a
630. tanh1 du D u tanh1 C ln ja2 u2 j
a a 2
254 Chapter 12

u au 1 2 u
631. u tanh1 du D C u a2 tanh1
a 2 2 a

u au2 u3 u a3
632. u2 tanh1 du D C tanh1 C ln ja2 u2 j
a 6 3 a 6

tanh1 u/a u u/a3 u/a5
u a 32 52

tanh1 u/a tanh1 1 u2
634. du D C ln
u2 u 2a a2 u2

u u a
635. coth1 du D u coth1 C ln ju2 a2 j
a a 2

u au 1 2 u
636. u coth1 du D C u a2 coth1
a 2 2 a

u au2 u3 u a3
637. u2 coth1 du D C coth1 C ln ju2 a2 j
a 6 3 a 6

coth1 u/a a a/u3 a/u5
u u 32 52

coth1 u/a coth1 u/a 1 u2
639. du D C ln
u2 u 2a u2 a2
 u sech1 u/a C a sin1 u/a,


u  sech1 u/a > 0
1
640. sech du D
a 
 u sech1 u/a a sin1 u/a,

sech1 u/a < 0
1 2 1 1
p
 u sech u/a a a2 u2 ,


2 2
u  sech1 u/a > 0
641. u sech1 du D 1 2 p
a 
 u sech1 u/a C 12 a a2 u2 ,

 2
sech1 u/a < 0
1
sech
642. du
u

 a 4a u/a2 1 Ð 3u/a4

 1
ln ln ÐÐÐ,

 2


sech1 u/a > 0
D

 a 4a u/a2 1 Ð 3u/a4


1
ln ln C C ÐÐÐ,

 2

sech1 u/a < 0
Chapter 12 255

u u u
643. csch1 du D u csch1 š a sinh1
a a a
[‘‘ C ’’ p
if u > 0, ‘‘ ’’ if u < 0]
2
u u u a u2 C a2
644. u csch1 du D csch1 š
a 2 a 2
[‘‘ C ’’ if u > 0, ‘‘ ’’ if u < 0]
1
csch u/a
645. du
u

 a 4a 1u/a2 1 Ð 3u/a4


1
ln ln C C ÐÐÐ,

 2 u u 2Ð2Ð2 2Ð4Ð4Ð4



 0<u<a

1 u u u/a2 1 Ð 3u/a4
D 2 ln a ln 4a 2 Ð 2 Ð 2 C 2 Ð 4 Ð 4 Ð 4 Ð Ð Ð ,



 a < u < 0

 a/u3 1 Ð 3a/u5


a

 C C ÐÐÐ,
 u 2Ð3Ð3 2Ð4Ð5Ð5
juj > a
mC1 mC1
u u u 1 u
646. um sinh1 du D sinh1 p du
a mC1 a mC1 u2 C a2

u
647. um cosh1 du
a
 mC1
 u u 1 umC1

 cosh 1
p du,

 mC1 a mC1 u2 a2


cosh1 u/a > 0
D

 u mC1
u 1 u mC1

 cosh1 C p du,

 m C 1 a m C 1 u 2 a2

cosh1 u/a < 0

u umC1 u a umC1
648. um tanh1 du D tanh1 du
a mC1 a mC1 a2 u2

m 1 u umC1 1 u a umC1
649. u coth du D coth du
a mC1 a mC1 a2 u2

u
650. um sech1 du
a
 mC1
 u u a um du

 sech 1
C p ,
mC1
 a mC1 a2 u2


sech1 u/a > 0
D

 umC1 u a um du

 sech1 p ,


mC1 a mC1 a2 u2
sech1 u/a < 0
256 Chapter 12

u umC1 u a um du
651. um csch1 du D csch1 š p ,
a mC1 a mC1 u2 C a2
[‘‘ C ’’ if u > 0, ‘‘ ’’ if u < 0]
12.5 Bernoulli and Euler Numbers; Gamma and Beta

Functions
Bernoulli and Euler Numbers
The Bernoulli numbers B1 , B2 , B3 , . . . are defined by the series
x x B1 x 2 B2 x 4 B3 x 6
D 1 C C Ð Ð Ð jxj < 2
ex 1 2 2! 4! 6!
The Euler numbers E1 , E2 , E3 , . . . are defined by the series
E1 x 2 E 2 x 4 E 3 x 6
sec x D 1 C C C C Ð Ð Ð jxj <
2! 4! 6! 2
TABLE OF FIRST FEW BERNOULLI AND EULER NUMBERS
Bernoulli numbers Euler numbers

B1 D 1/6 E1 D 1
B2 D 1/30 E2 D 5
B3 D 1/42 E3 D 61
B4 D 1/30 E4 D 1, 385
B5 D 5/66 E5 D 50, 521
B6 D 691/2730 E6 D 2, 702, 765
B7 D 7/6 E7 D 199, 360, 981
B8 D 3617/510 E8 D 19, 391, 512, 145
B9 D 43, 867/798 E9 D 2, 404, 879, 675, 441
B10 D 174, 611/330 E10 D 370, 371, 188, 237, 525
B11 D 854, 513/138 E11 D 69, 348, 874, 393, 137, 901
B12 D 236, 364, 091/2730 E12 D 15, 514, 534, 163, 557, 086, 905
GAMMA FUNCTION
1
For n > 0, n D tn1 et dt; n C 1 D nn
0
For n D 0, 1, 2, . . . n C 1 D n!
n C 1
For n < 0 n D
n
Chapter 12 257
BETA FUNCTION
1
Bm, n D tm1 1 tn1 dt m > 0, n > 0
0
mn
Bm, n D
m C n
12.6 Definite Integral Formulas

DEFINITE INTEGRAL AT A POINT or EQUAL LIMITS
a
1. fx dx D 0
a
OPPOSITE OF A DEFINITE INTEGRAL or LIMIT REVERSAL

b a
2. fx dx D fx dx
a b
SUM/DIFFERENCE
b b b
3. ffx š gxg dx D fx dx š gx dx
a a a
CONSTANT
b b
4. cfx dx D c fx dx where c is any constant
a a
INTERIOR POINT (subdivision rule)

b c b
5. fx dx D fx dx C fx dx
a a c
MEAN-VALUE THEOREM
b
6. fx dx D b afc where c is between a and b
a
IMPROPER INTEGRALS
1 b
7. fx dx D lim fx dx
b!1 a
a 1 c b
8. fx dx D lim fx dx C lim fx dx
1 a!1 a b!1 c
258 Chapter 12
b b&
9. fx dx D lim fx dx if b is a singular point
&!0 a
a b b
10. fx dx D lim
fx dx if a is a singular point
&!0 aC&
b a
b
11. fxgx dx D fc gx dx where c is between a and b
a a
This is a generalization of formula 6 and is valid if f(x) and g(x) are

continuous in a x b and gx ½ 0.
APPROXIMATION FORMULAS FOR DEFINITE INTEGRALS

In the following formulas, the interval from x D a to x D b is subdi-
vided into n equal parts by the points a D x0 , x1 , x2 , Ð Ð Ð , xn1 , xn D b,
and we let y0 D fx0 , y1 D fx1 , y2 D fx2 , Ð Ð Ð , yn D fxn , h D
b a/n.
Rectangular formula
b
12. fx dx ³ hy0 C y1 C y2 C Ð Ð Ð C yn1
a
Trapezoidal formula
b
h
13. fx dx ³ y0 C 2y1 C 2y2 C Ð Ð Ð C 2yn1 C yn
a 2
Simpson’s formula (or parabolic formula) for n even
b
h
14. fx dx ³ y0 C 4y1 C 2y2 C 4y3 C Ð Ð Ð
a 3
C 2yn2 C 4yn1 C yn
DEFINITE INTEGRALS INVOLVING RATIONAL OR

IRRATIONAL EXPRESSIONS
1
dx
15. 2 2
D
x
1 p1
0 C a 2a
x dx
16. D ,0 < p < 1
1Cx sin p
1 m
0
x dx amC1n
17. n n
D ,0 < m C 1 < n
0 1 x C a m n sin[m C 1 /n]
x dx sin mˇ
18. 2
D
0 a 1 C 2x cos ˇ C x sin m sin ˇ
dx
19. p D
0 a2 x 2 2
Chapter 12 259
a
a2
20. a2 x 2 dx D
0 a 4
amC1Cnp [m C 1/n]p C 1
21. x m an x n p dx D
0 1 n[m C 1/n C p C 1]
x m dx
22.
0 x n C an r
1r1 amC1nr [m C 1/n]
D ,
n sin[m C 1 /n]r 1![m C 1/n r C 1]
0 < m C 1 < nr
DEFINITE INTEGRALS INVOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS
All variables are considered positive unless otherwise indicated.

0, m, n integers and m 6D n
23. sin mx sin nx dx D
0 /2, m, n integers and m D n

0 , m, n integers and m 6D n
24. cos mx cos nx dx D
0 /2, m, n integers and m D n
25. sin mx cos nx dx
0

0, m, n integers and m C n even
D
2m/m2 n2 , m, n integers and m C n odd
/2 /2
2
26. sin x dx D cos2 x dx D
0 0 4
/2 /2
1 Ð 3 Ð 5 Ð Ð Ð 2m 1
27. sin2m x dx D cos2m x dx D ,
0 0 2 Ð 4 Ð 6 Ð Ð Ð 2m 2
m D 1, 2, Ð Ð Ð
/2 /2
2 Ð 4 Ð 6 Ð Ð Ð 2m
28. sin2mC1 x dx D cos2mC1 x dx D ,
0 0 1 Ð 3 Ð 5 Ð Ð Ð 2m C 1
/2 m D 1, 2, Ð Ð Ð
pq
29. sin2p1 x cos2q1 x dx D
0 2p C q
1
sin px /2, p > 0
30. dx D 0, pD0
0 x /2, p < 0
1
sin px cos qx 0, q>p>0
31. dx D /2, 0 < q < p
0 x /4, p D q > 0
1
sin px sin qx p/2, 0 < p q
32. dx D
0 x 2 q/2, p ½ q > 0
260 Chapter 12
1
sin2 px p
33. 2
dx D
x 2
0 1
x sin mx
34. dx D ema
x 2 C a2 2
1
0
1 cos px p
35. 2
dx D
x 2
0 1
sin mx
36. dx D 2 1 ema
0 xx 2 C a2 2a
1
cos px cos qx q
37. dx D ln
0 x p
2
dx 2
38. Dp
a C b sin x a2 b2
0 1
cos px cos qx q p
39. 2
dx D
0 x 2
2
dx 2
40. Dp
0 a C b cos x a2 b2
1
cos mx
41. dx D ema
0 x 2 C a2 2a
/2
dx cos1 b/a
42. D p
0 a C b cos x a2 b2
2 2
dx dx 2 a
43. 2
D 2
D 2
0 a C b sin x 0 a C b cos x a b2 3/2
2
dx 2
44. D ,0 < a < 1
1 2a cos x C a2 1 a2
0

x sin x dx /a ln j1 C aj, jaj < 1
45. D
1 2a cos x C a 2 ln j1 C 1/aj, jaj > 1
0
cos mx dx am
46. 2
D 2
, a2 < 1, m D 0, 1, 2, Ð Ð Ð
0 1 2a cos x C a 1 a
1 1
2 2 1
47. sin ax dx D cos ax dx D
2 2a
1
0 0
1
48. sin ax n dx D 1/n 1/n sin , n > 1
na 2n
0 1
1
49. cos ax n dx D 1/n 1/n cos , n > 1
0 na 2n
1 1
sin x cos x
50. p dx D p dx D
0 x 0 x 2
1
sin x
51. dx D ,0 < p < 1
0 xp 2p sinp /2
Chapter 12 261
1
cos x
52. dx D ,0 < p < 1
0 xp 2p cosp /2
1
2 1 b2 b2
53. sin ax cos 2bx dx D cos sin
0 2 2a a a
1 2
1 b b2
54. cos ax 2 cos 2bx dx D cos C sin
0 2 2a a a
1
sin3 x 3
55. 3
dx D
0 x 8
1 4
sin x
56. dx D
0 x4 3
1
tan x
57. dx D
0 x 2
/2
dx
58. D
0 1 C tanm x 4
/2
x 1 1 1 1
59. dx D 2 C C ÐÐÐ
0 sin x 12 32 52 72
1
tan1 x 1 1 1 1
60. dx D 2 2 C 2 2 C Ð Ð Ð
0 x 1 3 5 7
1
sin1 x
61. dx D ln 2
0 x 2
1 1
1 cos x cos x
62. dx dx D )
0 x 1 x
1
1 dx
63. 2
cos x D)
0 1Cx x
1
tan1 px tan1 qx p
64. dx D ln j j
0 x 2 q
DEFINITE INTEGRALS INVOLVING EXPONENTIAL

FUNCTIONS
1
a
65. eax cos bx dx D 2
0 a C b2
1
b
66. eax sin bx dx D 2
0 a C b2
1 ax
e sin bx b
67. dx D tan1
0 x a
262 Chapter 12
1
eax ebx b
68. dx D ln j j
0 x a
1
2 1
69. eax dx D
0 2 a
1
ax 2 1 2
70. e cos bx dx D eb /4a
0 2 a
1
ax 2 CbxCc 1 b2 4ac/4a b
71. e dx D e erfc p
0 2 a 2 a
1
2 2
where erfcp D p ex dx
p
1

2 2
72. eax CbxCc
dx D eb 4ac/4a
0 a
1
n C 1
73. x n eax dx D
0 anC1
1
2 [m C 1/2]
74. x m eax dx D
0 2amC1/2
1 p
ax 2 Cb/x 2 1
75. e dx D e2 ab
0 2 a
1 2
x dx 1 1 1 1
76. D Ð Ð Ð C Ð Ð Ð D
0 ex 1 12 22 32 42 6
1 n1
x 1 1 1
77. dx D n n C n C n C Ð Ð Ð
0 ex 1 1 2 3
1 2
x dx 1 1 1 1
78. D C C Ð Ð Ð D
0 ex C 1 12 22 32 42 12
1 n1
x 1 1 1
79. dx D n C Ð Ð Ð
0 ex C 1 1n 2n 3n
1
sin mx 1 m 1
80. 2 x
dx D coth
0 e 1 4 2 2m
1
1 dx
81. ex D)
0 1Cx x
1 x2
e ex 1
82. dx D )
0 x 2
1 x
1 e
83. x
dx D )
0 e 1 x
Chapter 12 263
2
1
eax ebx 1 b C p2
84. dx D ln 2
0 x sec px 2 a C p2
1
eax ebx b a
85. dx D tan1 tan1
0 x csc px p p
1
eax 1 cos x a
86. 2
dx D cot1 a lna2 C 1
0 x 2
DEFINITE INTEGRALS INVOLVING LOGARITHMIC

FUNCTIONS
1
1n n!
87. x m ln jxjn dx D m > 1, n D 0, 1, 2, Ð Ð Ð
0 m C 1nC1
If n 6D 0, 1, 2, . . . replace n! by n C 1
1 2
ln jxj
88. dx D
0 1Cx 12
1 2
ln jxj
89. dx D
0 1x 6
1 2
ln j1 C xj
90. dx D
0 x 12
1 2
ln j1 xj
91. dx D
0 x 6
1 2
92. ln jxj ln j1 C xj dx D 2 2 ln 2
0 12
1 2
93. ln jxj ln j1 xj dx D 2
0 6
1 p1
x ln jxj
94. dx D 2 csc p cot p 0<p<1
0 1 C x
1 m
x xn mC1
95. dx D ln
0 ln jxj nC1
1
96. ex ln jxj dx D )
0
1
p
x 2
97. e ln jxj dx D ) C 2 ln 2
0 4
2
1
ex C 1
98. ln dx D
0 ex 1 4
264 Chapter 12
/2 /2
99. ln j sin xj dx D ln j cos xj dx D ln 2
0 0 2
/2 /2 3
2
100. ln j sin xj dx D ln j cos xj2 dx D ln 22 C
0 0 2 24
2
101. x ln j sin xj dx D ln 2
0 2
/2
102. sin x ln j sin xj dx D ln 2 1
0
2 2
103. ln ja C b sin xj dx D ln ja C b cos xj dx
0 0
p
D 2 ln ja C a2 b2 j
p
a C a2 b2
104. ln ja C b cos xj dx D ln
0 2

2 ln jaj, a ½ b > 0
105. ln ja2 2ab cos x C b2 j dx D
0 2 ln jbj, b ½ a > 0
/4
106. ln j1 C tan xj dx D ln 2
0 8
/2
1 C b cos x 1
107. sec x ln dx D fcos1 b2 g
0 1 C a cos x 2
a
x sin a sin 2a sin 3a
108. ln 2 sin dx D C C C ÐÐÐ
0 2 12 22 32
DEFINITE INTEGRALS INVOLVING HYPERBOLIC

FUNCTIONS
1
sin ax a
109. dx D tanh
0 sinh bx 2b 2b
1
cos ax a
110. dx D sech
0 cosh bx 2b 2b
1 2
x dx
111. D 2
0 sinh ax 4a

1
x n dx 2nC1 1 1 1 1
112. D n nC1 n C 1 nC1 C nC1 C nC1 CÐ Ð Ð
0 sinh bx 2 a 1 2 3
Chapter 12 265
1
sinh ax a 1
113. bx
dx D csc
0 e C1 2b b 2a
1
sinh ax 1 a
114. bx
dx D cot
0 e 1 2a 2b b
MISCELLANEOUS DEFINITE INTEGRALS

1
fax fbx b
115. dx D ff0 f1g ln
0 x a
0
Thisis called Frullani’s integral. It holds if f x is continuous
1
fx f1
and dx converges.
0 x
1
dx 1 1 1
116. x
D 1 C 2 C 3 C ÐÐÐ
0 x 1 2 3
a
mn
117. a C xm1 a xn1 dx D 2amCn1
a m C n
CHAPTER 13
Series
13.1 Series of Constants
1. 1 C 2 C 3 C Ð Ð Ð C n D 12 nn C 1
2. 1 C 3 C 5 C Ð Ð Ð C 2n 1 D n2
nn C 12n C 1
3. 12 C 22 C 32 C Ð Ð Ð C n2 D
6
n n C 12
2
4. 13 C 23 C 33 C Ð Ð Ð C n3 D
4
D 1 C 2 C 3 C Ð Ð Ð C n2
nn C 12n C 13n2 C 3n 1
5. 14 C 24 C 34 C Ð Ð Ð C n4 D
30
n6 n5 5n4 n2
6. 15 C 25 C 35 C Ð Ð Ð C n5 D C C
6 2 12 12
7. 12 C 32 C 52 C Ð Ð Ð C 2n 12 D 13 n4n2 1
8. 13 C 33 C 53 C Ð Ð Ð C 2n 13 D n2 2n2 1
2nn C 12n C 1
9. 22 C 42 C 62 C 82 C Ð Ð Ð C 2n2 D
3
nn C 1n C 2
10. 1 Ð 2 C 2 Ð 3 C 3 Ð 4 C Ð Ð Ð C nn C 1 D
3
11. 1 Ð 2 Ð 3 C 2 Ð 3 Ð 4 C 3 Ð 4 Ð 5 C Ð Ð Ð C nn C 1n C 2
D 14 nn C 1n C 2n C 3
1 1 1 1
12. 1 C C Ð Ð Ð D ln 2
2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1
13. 1 C C ÐÐÐ D
3 5 7 9 4
1 1 1 1 1
14. C C C C ÐÐÐ D
1Ð3 3Ð5 5Ð7 7Ð9 2
1 1 1 1 3
15. C C C C ÐÐÐ D
1Ð3 2Ð4 3Ð5 4Ð6 4
266
Chapter 13 267
13.2 Taylor Series

TAYLOR SERIES FOR FUNCTIONS OF ONE VARIABLE
f00 cx c2

16. fx D fc C f0 cx c C C ÐÐÐ
2!
fn1 cx cn1
C C Rn
n 1!
where Rn , the remainder after n terms, is given by either of the
following forms:
fn zx an

Lagrange’s form Rn D
n!
fn zx zn1 x a
Cauchy’s form Rn D
n 1!
The value z, which may be different in the two forms, lies between
c and x. The result holds if f(x) has continuous derivatives of at least
order n.
lim Rn D 0, the infinite series obtained is called the Taylor
If n!1
Series for f(x) about x D a. If c D 0, the series is often called a
Maclaurin series. Both series, often called power series, generally
converge for all values of x in some interval called the interval of
convergence and diverge for all x outside this interval.
BINOMIAL SERIES
nn 1 n2 2
17. a C xn D an C nan1 x C a x
2!
nn 1n 2 n3 3
C a x C ÐÐÐ
3!
n n n1 n n2 2 n n3 3
Da C a xC a x C a x CÐ Ð Ð
1 2 3
18. a C x2 D a2 C 2ax C x 2
19. a C x3 D a3 C 3a2 x C 3ax 2 C x 3
20. a C x4 D a4 C 4a3 x C 6a2 x 2 C 4ax 3 C x 4
21. 1 C x1 D 1 x C x 2 x 3 C x 4 Ð Ð Ð 1 < x < 1
22. 1 C x2 D 1 2x C 3x 2 4x 3 C 5x 4 Ð Ð Ð 1 < x < 1
23. 1 C x3 D 1 3x C 6x 2 10x 3 C 15x 4 Ð Ð Ð 1 < x < 1
1 1Ð3 2 1Ð3Ð5 3
24. 1 C x1/2 D 1 x C x x C ÐÐÐ
2 2Ð4 2Ð4Ð6
1 < x 1
268 Chapter 13
1 1 2 1Ð3 3
25. 1 C x1/2 D 1 C x x C x ÐÐÐ
2 2Ð4 2Ð4Ð6
1 < x 1
1 1Ð4 2 1Ð4Ð7 3
26. 1 C x1/3 D 1 x x x C ÐÐÐ
3 3Ð6 3Ð6Ð9
1 < x 1
1 2 2 2Ð5 3
27. 1 C x1/3 D 1 C x x C x ÐÐÐ
3 3Ð6 3Ð6Ð9
1 < x 1
SERIES FOR EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC

FUNCTIONS
x2 x3
28. ex D 1 C x C C C ÐÐÐ 1 < x < 1
2! 3!
x ln jaj2 x ln jaj3
29. ax D ex ln jaj D 1 C x ln jaj C C C ÐÐÐ
2! 3!
1 < x < 1
x2 x3 x4
30. ln j1 C xj D x C C ÐÐÐ 1 < x 1
2 3 4
1 1Cx x3 x5 x7
31. ln j jDxC C C C ÐÐÐ 1 < x < 1
2 1x 3 5 7

x1 1 x1 3 1 x1 5
32. ln jxj D 2 C C C ÐÐÐ
xC1 3 xC1 5 xC1
x>0
2 3
x1 1 x1 1 x1
33. ln jxj D C C C ÐÐÐ
x 2 x 3 x
1
x½
2
SERIES FOR TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

x3 x5 x7
34. sin x D x C C ÐÐÐ 1 < x < 1
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
35. cos x D 1 C C ÐÐÐ 1 < x < 1
2! 4! 6!
x 3 2x 5 17x 7
36. tan x D x C C C C ÐÐÐ
3 15 315
22n 22n 1Bn x 2n1
C C ÐÐÐ jxj <
2n! 2
1 x x3 22n Bn x 2n1
37. cot x D ÐÐÐ ÐÐÐ 0 < jxj <
x 3 45 2n!
Chapter 13 269
x 2 5x 4 61x 6 En x 2n
38. sec x D 1 C C C C ÐÐÐ C C ÐÐÐ jxj <
2 24 720 2n! 2
1 x 7x 3 31x 5
39. csc x D C C C C ÐÐÐ
x 6 360 15, 120
222n1 1Bn x 2n1
C C ÐÐÐ 0 < jxj <
2n!
1 x3 1 Ð 3 x5 1 Ð 3 Ð 5 x7
40. sin1 x D x C C C C ÐÐÐ jxj < 1
23 2Ð4 5 2Ð4Ð6 7

1 1 1 x3 1 Ð 3 x5
41. cos x D sin x D x C C C ÐÐÐ
2 2 2 3 2Ð4 5
jxj < 1
 x 3
x 5
x 7

 x C C ÐÐÐ, if x 2 < 1 or



 3 5 7
1 1 1
42. tan1 x D C 3 5 C ÐÐÐ, if x ½ 1

 2 x 3x 5x

 1

 1 1
C 3 5 C Ð Ð Ð , if x > 1
2 x 3x 5x

43. cot1 x D tan1 x
2
 x3 x5


 x C Ð Ð Ð , if x 2 < 1 or

2 3 5
D 1 1 1

 p C 3 C 5 Ð Ð Ð , [p D 0 if x > 1,

 x 3x 5x
p D 1 if x < 1]

1 1 1 1 1 1Ð3
44. sec x D cos D C C C ÐÐÐ
x 2 x 2 Ð 3x 3 2 Ð 4 Ð 5x 5
jxj > 1
1 1 1 1 Ð 3
45. csc1 x D sin1 D C C C ÐÐÐ jxj > 1
x x 2 Ð 3x 3 2 Ð 4 Ð 5x 5
SERIES FOR HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

x3 x5 x7
46. sinh x D x C C C C ÐÐÐ 1 < x < 1
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
47. cosh x D 1 C C C C ÐÐÐ 1 < x < 1
2! 4! 6!
x 3 2x 5 17x 7
48. tanh x D x C C ÐÐÐ
3 15 315
1n1 22n 22n 1Bn x 2n1
ð C ÐÐÐ jxj <
2n! 2
270 Chapter 13
1 x x3 2x 5
49. coth x D C C C ÐÐÐ
x 3 n1 45 2n 9452n1
1 2 Bn x
2n!
x 2 5x 4 61x 6
50. sech x D 1 C C ÐÐÐ
2 n 24 2n 720
1 En x
C C ÐÐÐ jxj <
2n! 2
1 x 7x 3 31x 5
51. csch x D C C ÐÐÐ
x 6 360 15, 120
1n 222n1 1Bn x 2n1
2n!
52. sinh1 x


 x3 1 Ð 3x 5 1 Ð 3 Ð 5x 7
x C C Ð Ð Ð , jxj < 1 or
D 2 Ð 3 2 Ð 4 Ð 5 2 Ð 4 Ð 6 Ð 7

 1 1Ð3 1Ð3Ð5
 š ln j2xj C C ÐÐÐ
2 Ð 2x 2 2 Ð 4 Ð 4x 4 2 Ð 4 Ð 6 Ð 6x 6
‘‘ C ’’ if x ½ 1
‘‘ ’’ if x 1
1
53. cosh x

1 1Ð3 1Ð3Ð5
D š ln j2xj C C C ÐÐÐ
2 Ð 2x 2 2 Ð 4 Ð 4x 4 2 Ð 4 Ð 6 Ð 6x 6
‘‘ C ’’ if cosh1 x > 0, x ½ 1
‘‘ ’’ if cosh1 x < 0, x ½ 1
3 5 7
x x x
54. tanh1 x D x C C C C ÐÐÐ jxj < 1
3 5 7
1 1 1 1
55. coth1 x D C 3 C 5 C 7 C Ð Ð Ð jxj > 1
x 3x 5x 7x
MISCELLANEOUS SERIES
x2 x4 x5
56. esin x D 1 C x C C ÐÐÐ 1 < x < 1
2 8 15

cos x x 2 x 4 31x 6
57. e De 1 C C ÐÐÐ 1 < x < 1
2 6 720
x 2 x 3 3x 4
58. etan x D 1 C x C C C C ÐÐÐ jxj <
2 2 8 2
Chapter 13 271
2x 3 x5 x6
59. ex sin x D x C x 2 C C ÐÐÐ
3 30 90
2n/2 sinn/4x n
C C ÐÐÐ 1 < x < 1
n!
3 4
x x 2 cosn/4x n
n/2
60. ex cos x D 1 C x C ÐÐÐ C C ÐÐÐ
3 6 n!
1 < x < 1
2 4 6
x x x
61. ln j sin xj D ln jxj ÐÐÐ
6 180 2835
22n1 Bn x 2n
C ÐÐÐ 0 < jxj <
n2n!
x2 x4 x6 17x 8
62. ln j cos xj D ÐÐÐ
2 12 45 2520
22n1 22n 1Bn x 2n
C ÐÐÐ jxj <
n2n! 2
x 2 7x 4 62x 6
63. ln j tan xj D ln jxj C C C C ÐÐÐ
3 90 2835
22n 22n1 1Bn x 2n
n2n! 2
ln j1 C xj
64. D x 1 C 12 x 2 C 1 C 12 C 13 x 3 Ð Ð Ð jxj < 1
1Cx
APPENDICES
A. Mathematical Symbols
š Plus or minus Ý Minus or plus
D Equal to 6D Not equal to
Identically equal to 6 Not identically equal to
ð Multiplication ł, / Division
> Greater than < Less than
½ Greater than or equal to Less than or equal to
' Congruent to ³ Approximately equal to
¾ Similar to ! Approaches
/ Varies (proportional to) ln Natural logarithm
? Perpendicular to jj Parallel to
p Square root p
n nth root
p
i Imaginary unit 1 1 Infinity
n!
n D
n Cr or r n Pr D n!/n r !
r!n r !
jaj Absolute value of a ÐÐÐ And so on
B. Greek Alphabet
A ˛ Alpha N Nu
B ˇ Beta  Xi
 Gamma O o Omicron
 υ Delta  Pi
E Epsilon P Rho
Z Zeta  Sigma
H Eta T Tau
 Theta  ! Upsilon
I " Iota  $ Phi
K % Kappa X & Chi
 ( Lambda  Psi
M + Mu , ω Omega
272
Appendices 273
C. Answers
Problem Set 1, Pages 11–15
15. similar
1. a. jTIj D jAGj, jRIj D 16. similar
jNGj 17. 4
b. jRIj D jNGj 18. 6
c. 6 T ' 6 A 16
2. a. jCBj D jFEj, jABj D 19.
3
jDEj 40
b. jABj D jDEj 20.
7
c. 6 C ' 6 F 8
3. AB ' ED; AC ' EF; CB ' 21. 3
FD; 6 A ' 6 E; 6 B ' 10
6 D; 6 C ' 6 F
22.
0 0 0 0
9
4. GH ' G H ; GI ' G I ; HI ' 23. 24
p ft
0 0 24. 640 ³ 25ft
H I ; 6 G ' 6 G0 ; 6 H '
6 H0 ; 6 I ' 6 I0 25. 10
pft
5. RS ' TU; RT ' RT; ST ' 26. 2p2
UR; 6 SRT ' 6 UTR; 6 S ' 27. 3 2
6 U; 6 STR ' 6 URT 28. 29pft
6. WX ' YZ; WZ ' YX; XZ ' 29. 5p 13 ft; 18 ft; 55 ft
XZ; 6 W ' 6 Y; 6 WXZ ' 30. 3
6 YZX; 6 WZX ' 6 YXZ
20
31.
7. congruent, ASA 3
32. 260 ft
8. congruent, SAS (or 33. 125
possibly SSS) 34. 24 ft
9. congruent, SAS 35. 29 ft
10. congruent, ASA 36. 9.19 cm3
11. similar 37. 4 ft
12. not similar 38. 3 ft
13. not similar 32
14. similar 39.
3
13. a5 b8 c 7
1. 212 7. 23
14. b1 c3
2. 510 8. 213
15. a4 b8 c12
3. 56 9. 2
16. a10 b15 c10
4. 224 10. 23
17. a2 b2 c2
5. 33 11. 22
18. a2 b2 c 2
6. 33 12. 2
19. a4 b4 c4
274 Appendices
p
2 2 1 š 8y 47
x Cy 50.
20. 4
x2 y 2
3t C 2
x4 y 4 51. 2,
21. 4
x 2 C y 2 2
52. x D 3 š 4 y 2 2
22. a15/2 b10 c3
53. 1, 52 [ 1, 73
23. a1/2 b1/2 2a C 3b
24. a1/2 4a 3b 54. 23 , 32 [ 2, 1
25. a1/2 ba C b 55. 1, 0 [ 12 , 5
26. a1/2 b1/3 a C b2/3 56. 1, 32 [ 0, 2
27. x 12 3 x 14 57. 1,p1 p
28. 6u2u2 u 4 58. [1 7, 1 C 7]
29. 6x2x C 3 x C 1 59. 6
30. 10x4x C 5 2 2x C 1 60. 1
31. x C 1 2 2x C 3 61. 9
10x C 13 62. 7
32. 2xx 2 2 4 2x 2 C 1 3 63. 2
18x 2 11 64. 1
33. [7, 1 65. 3
34. 1, 36 66. 17i C 8j C 14k
35. [ 12 , 1 67. 1
36. 1, 2 68. 2
37. [1, 5] 69. 0
38. 8, 3] 70. 0
39. 73 , 1] 71. a4 C 4a3 b C 6a2 b2 C 4ab3 C
15 b4
40. , 4] 72. a3 C 6a2 b C 12ab2 C 8b3
2
41. f1, 6g 73. 27x 3 C 54x 2 y C 36xy 2 C 8y 3
42. f2, 3g 74. x 5 C 10x 4 y 40x 3 y 2 C
43. f0, 7 g
3 80x 2 y 3 80xy 4 C 32y 5
p
14 1 4y 6y 2 4y 3
44. 2
š 7 or š 75. C C 2 C C y4
7 x4 x3 x x
p 76. a5/2 C 10a2 b C 40a3/2 b2 C
5 š 73 80ab3 C 80a1/2 b4 C 32b5
45.
8 77. f1, 2, 2g
3
46. 78. f3, 3, 12 g
2 p 79. f2, 3, 3g
1 š 8w C 1
47. 80. f1, 2, 3g
4 81. f2, 2, 3g
p
w š w2 40 82. f2, 3, 12 g
48.
4 83. f3, 5, 12 g
84. f3g
1št
49. 85. f1, 1, 3, 6g
2
86. f2, 2, 3, 3g
Appendices 275
p p
87. f3, 5, 7g 90. f0, 1, 3, 1 2, 1 C 2g
88. f1, 2, 3, 4g 91. 2 sin $
89. f1, 1g

1. (3, 4) 19. 32 , 12 , 12
2. 5, 3 32. a. 3, 2
20. (2, 0, 1) b. 1, 4
3. (4, 3)
4. (3, 1) 21. 1, 2, 2 c. 3, 5
5. 2, 5 22. (3, 2, 5) d. 5, 2
6. (3, 1) 23. 1, 2, 3 33. a. (3, 1)
7. (3, 1) 24. 2, 3, 1 b. 4, 2
8. 4, 1 25. 1, 3, 5 c. 2, 2
26. 2, 3, 2 d. 12, 5
9. 32 , 3
27. (5, 3, 2) 34. a. (5, 6, 1)
10. 13 , 23 28. 1, 2, 12 b. 2, 4, 3
11. (3, 8) c. 26, 52, 15
29. 15 , 25 , 25
12. (1, 1) d. 3, 5, 2
13. (2, 200) 30. A1 , A2 , A3 D 35. a. (1, 1, 1)
14. inconsistent 1, 1, 12 b. 5, 4, 1
31. a. (3, 2) c. 2, 4, 1
15. d, q D 63, 84
b. 4, 7 d. 54, 53, 16
16. (8, 2)
c. 5, 4
17. (3, 15)
d. (25, 14)
8 21
18. ,
5 5
36. mix three containers of Spray I with four containers of Spray II
37. four units of Candy I, five units of Candy II, and six units of
Candy III
38. three units of Candy I, seven units of Candy II, and five units of
Candy III

2
1. 4.
30 90
3 5. 120°
2.
2 6. 45n°
5 756 °
3. 7. ³ 240.64°
9
21,600 °
8. ³ 6,875.49° (This is about 19 revolutions.)

276 Appendices
9. a. 1 15.
b. 0
c. 1
d. 0
e. 1
p
2
10. a.
2
p
2 16.
b.
2
p
2
c.
2
p
2
d.
2
e. 0
11. 1 17.
12.
18.
13.
19.
14.
Appendices 277
20. 21.
p p p p
6 2 2C 6
22. 24.
p 4p p 4p
6 2 2 6
23. 25.
4 4
26. sin 2x D sinx C x
D sin x cos x C cos x sin x
D 2 sin x cos x
27. sinx C n D sin x cos n C cos x sin n

n
D 1 sin x
n
since sin n D 0 and cos n D 1
28. cosx C n D cos x cos n sin x sin n

n
D 1 cos x
n
since sin n D 0 and cos n D 1
29. sinx C y D sin x cos y C cos x sin y

sinx y D sin x cos y cos x sin y
Thus, sinx C y C sinx y D 2 sin x cos y
30. From the work in Problem 29,

sinx C y sinx y D 2 cos x sin y
ACB AB
31. Let A D x C y and B D x y; then x D and y D
2 2
By substitution into Problem 29, we have sin A C sin B D
ACB AB
2 sin cos
2 2
278 Appendices
32. Let ˛ D sin1 15 , so sin ˛ D 15 ; and ˇ D cos1 15 , so cos ˇ D 15 .

2 p p
Then cos ˛ D 1 15 D 25 6 and sin ˇ D 25 6.
cos˛ C 2ˇ D cos ˛ cos 2ˇ sin ˛ sin 2ˇ

D cos ˛cos2 ˇ sin2 ˇ sin ˛2 sin ˇ cos ˇ
p
D 25 6
33. Let ˛ D sin1 15 , so sin ˛ D 15 ; and ˇ D cos1 14 , so cos ˇ D 14 .

p
Then cos ˛ D 25 6 and

2
1 1p
sin ˇ D 1 D 15.
4 4
sin˛ C ˇ D sin ˛ cos ˇ C cos ˛ sin ˇ
p
1 1 2p 1p 1 C 6 10
D Ð C 6Ð 15 D
5 4 5 4 20
5
34. ,
6 6
7 11
35. ,
6 6
3
36. 0, , ,
2 2
37. 0,
3 5 5
38. , , ,
3 4 4 3
5 7 11
39. , , ,
6 6 6 6
5
40. 0, , ,
4 4
4
41. 0, , ,
3 3
42. 2.24, 4.05
43. 4.71
44. 0.36, 1.21, 3.51, 4.35
45. 0.67, 2.48
46. 0.52, 1.57, 1.83, 2.62, 2.88, 3.67, 4.71, 4.97, 5.76, 6.02
47. 0.00, 1.57, 2.09, 3.14, 4.19, 4.71
48. 0.68, 2.08, 2.78, 4.17, 4.87, 6.27
49. 0.02, 1.59, 3.17, 4.74
50. 0.41, 1.16, 3.55, 4.30
Appendices 279
51. 0.00, 1.05, 1.22, 1.92, 2.09, 3.14, 3.32, 4.01, 4.19, 5.24, 5.41,
6.11
52. 0.00, 1.05, 1.22, 1.92, 2.09, 3.14, 3.32, 4.01, 4.19, 5.24, 5.41,
6.11

p p
1. a. 2 2, p2 2
b. 3, 3 3
p
c. 52 , 52 3
p
3 3
2. a. 3,
2 p 2
b. 34 3, 34
c. (2.61, 3.03)
3. a. 1, 0
b. 0, 2
c. (0, 0)
p
4. a. 5 2,
4
2
b. 2,
3
5
c. 4,
3
p 5
5. a. 2 2,
4
p 7
b. 3 2,
p 4
c. 58, tan1 73 ³ 7.6, 1.2
5
6. a. 6,
3
11
b. 2,
6
c. 3, 0
7. x 2 C y 2 2 D 4 8. x 2 C y 2 D 256
9. x 2 C y 2 D x 2 C y 2 C y 2 10. x 1 2 C y 2 D 1
11. x D 1 12. x 2 x 2 C y 2 D 16y 2
13. x 2 C 2y 2 D 2 14. 2x 2 y 2 D 2
15. yes 16. no
17. no 18. yes
19. yes 20. no
21. yes 22. yes
23. no 24. yes 25. no
26. yes 27. yes 28. yes
280 Appendices
29. 30.
31. 32.
33. 34.
35. 36.
37. 38.
Appendices 281
39. 40.
41. 42.
43.
y = cos x
r = cos θ
44.
y = sin x
r = sin θ
45.
y = tan x
r = tan θ
282 Appendices
46.
y = sec x
r = sec θ
47.
y = csc x
r = csc θ
48.
y = cot x
r = cot θ
49. Let Pr, be a point

on r D cos C 1.
Then r, C is
the same point:
r D cos C C 1
r D cos cos
sin C 1
So r D cos 1. The
graph shows that both
graphs are the same.
50. r D a sin C b cos

r 2 D ar sin C br cos
x 2 C y 2 D ay C bx
Appendices 283
x 2 bx C y 2 ay D 0
b2 a2 a2 b2
x 2 bx C C y 2 ay C D C
4 4 4 4
b 2 a 2 a 2 C b 2
x C y D
2 2 4
We recognize this as a circle with center
p
b b a2 C b2
, and radius .
2 2 2

1. V0, 0 ; c D 2 2. V0, 0 ; c D 3
3. V0, 0 ; c D 5 4. V0, 0 ; c D 5/8
5. V0, 0 ; c D 1 6. V0, 0 ; c D 1/2

284 Appendices
7. V0, 0 ; c D 5/8 8. V0, 0 ; c D 3/4
9. V(0, 0); c D 5/4 10. V(4, 0); c D 3/16
11. x 2 D 45 y 5 12. x 2 D 34 y 4
V0, 5 ; c D 1/5 V0, 4 ; c D 3/16
13. V2, 1 ; c D 1/2 14. V1, 3 ; c D 3/4

Appendices 285
15. V2, 1 ; c D 1/2 16. V1, 3 ; c D 3/4
2
17. y 32 D 4 x 5
16 18. y C 5 2 D 4x C 3
5 3
V 16 , 2 ;c D 1 V3, 5 ; c D 1
19. y C 2 2 D 10x 7 20. x 3 2 D 9y C 1

V7, 2 ; c D 52 V3, 1 ; c D 94
2
21. x C 13 D 2 y 43 22. x C 1 2 D 23 y 16
3
V 13 , 43 ; c D 12 V 1, 163 ;c D 6
1
286 Appendices
23. 24.
5
3

25. y 2 D 10 x 2 26. x 2 D 6 y 2
2
27. y 2 D 16x C 1
2
28. x 4 D 12y C 1
2
29. x C 2 D 24y C 3
2
30. y 4 D 16x C 3
31. x C 3 2
D 13 y 2
32. y 2 2
D 36
7 x 4
33. y 2 D 12x 3 34. x 2 D 8y C 2
35. x 2 D 18y C 9/2 36. y 2 D 4x 1

Appendices 287
37. y 2 D 8x C 2 38. y 2 D 6x 3/2
8 4
39. rD 40. rD
1 C cos 1 cos
4 3
41. rD 42. rD
1 sin 1 C cos
43. r sin2 D 4 cos 44. r cos2 D 2 sin
45. 4r 2 cos2 D r sin 3
2
46. r cos C 1 D 2r sin 3
47. (0, 0) 48. (0, 0)
49. tangent line: y C 2 D x 1 or
xCyC1D0
normal line: y C 2 D x 1 or
xy3D0
50. xD2 51. 3x C y 5 D 0

2 5

52. y C 2 D6 x 2
2 2
53. x D 6y C 3 54. 3 ft or 8 in.

55. F 94 , 0 56. x 2 D 4cy
57. y 2 D 4cx 58. y 2 D 4cx
59. V(0, 0); F(c, 0) or y 2 D 4cx; Pc, y0 , so y02 D 4c2 , which implies
that y0 D š2c.
dD c c 2 C 2c 0 2 D 2c
The focal chord has length 2d or 4c.

288 Appendices
p
60. Let Pr, be a point on r D . The alternate primary
1 cos
form is Pr, C . Thus,
p
r D
1 cos C
p
rD
1 cos cos C sin sin
p
D
1 C cos
61. y 2 D 4cx, x ½ 0 and c > 0. The distance from the vertex to P(x,
y) is
x c 2 C y 2 D d2
x c 2 C 4cx D d2
62. y 2 D 4cx, x ½ 0 and c > 0. The derivative is 2yy 0 D 4c; at

P1 c, 2c , we have
m1 D y 0 D 2c/y; at c, 2c , m1 D 1
The tangent line is T1 : y 2c D x c, or y D x C c. At

P2 c, 2c ,
m2 D y 0 D 2c/y; at c, 2c , m2 D 1
The tangent line is T2 : y C 2c D x C c, or y D x c. These

tangents intersect when
x C c D x c
x D c
If x D c, then y D 0, and the ends of the focal chord intersect

on the directrix.
63. A D 4c2
64. Let x h 2 C y k 2 D R2 be the equation of the circle and

x 2 D 4cy the equation of the parabola. The abscissas of the
common points satisfy
2
2 x2
x h C k D R2
4c
Appendices 289
x4 kx 2
x 2 2hx C h2 C C k 2 D R2
16c2 2c
Note that the coefficient of x 3 is 0. Suppose the polynomial in

the left member has roots x1 , x2 , x3 , and x4 . Then
x x1 x x2 x x3 x x4 D 0
If we expand the left member, the coefficient of x 3 is

x1 C x2 C x3 C x4 , which is 0, as previously found.
x0
65. a. y y0 D x x0
2c
x0 2
b. Q 0, y0
2c
c. For jFPj2 , we have
2
x0 2
x0 2 C y0 c 2 D Cc
4c
For jFQj2 , we have
2 2
x0 2 x0 2
y0 c D Cc
2c 4c
Thus, jFPj D jFQj so QFP is isosceles.
d. $ D 6 FQP D D 6 FPQ; since L is parallel to FQ,

6 LPT D also.
Problem Set 7
1. 2.
290 Appendices
3. 4.
5. 6.
7. 8.
9. 10.
Appendices 291
11. 12.
13. 14.
2 2 2 2
y 3 x 1 x C 1 y 1
15. D1 16. D1
4 9 4 1
292 Appendices
2 2 2 2
x C 1 y 1 x C 1 y 1
17. C D1 18. C D1
1/4 1 1 1/4
x 2 y 1 2
x 1 2
y2
19. C D1 20. C D1
4 9 9 4
x 2 y 5 2 y2 x2
21. C D1 22. C D1
4 9 16 7
x2 y 2 y 2 x2
23. C D1 24. D1
8 4 4 5
x2 y2
25. x2 y 2 D 1 26. D1
25 24
x2 y2 x2 y2
27. C D1 28. D1
16 9 9 16
x 2 2 y 1 2 x2 y2
29. C D1 30. C D1
9 25 36 35
y2 x2 x2 y C 3 2
31. D1 32. C D1
4 32 36 20
x 2 y C 3 2 x2 y2
33. D1 34. D1
9 7 9 81
Appendices 293
35. 36.
37. 38.
39. y 3 D 56 x C 2 or 5x 6y C 28 D 0
40. There are two cases.
2 2
x b y 3
C D1
9 b2
2 2
x a y 3
C D1
a2 9
p
41. Pš 3, 12
p
42. dD3 2
x 1 2 4y C 1 2
43. D1
4 81
2 2
x y
44. D1
81 81
x2 y 2
45. D1
4 1
294 Appendices
x x0 y y0
46. cosh t D and sinh t D
a b
Since cosh2 t sinh2 t D 1, we have
2 2
x x0 y y0
D1
a2 b2
provided that x ½ x0 C a, because cosh t ½ 1.
x x0 y y0
47. sinh t D and cosh t D
a b
Since cosh2 t sinh2 t D 1, we have
2 2
y y0 x x0
D1
b2 a2
provided that y ½ y0 C b, because cosh t ½ 1.
48. y D šx are the asymptotes, which are perpendicular to each

other. (Their slopes are negative reciprocals.) If the asymptotes
are perpendicular to each other, their slopes are negative recip-
rocals and m1 D 1/m2 D m. Since the asymptotes make an
angle of š/4 with the positive x-axis, m D 1. The equations
of the asymptotes, then, are y D x C b and y D x C b, with
b D 0 because of standard position. Then y C x y x D K is
the equation of the hyperbola y 2 x 2 D K. The point (a, 0) is a
vertex, so K D a2 and x 2 y 2 D a2 .
x2 y2
49. C D 1; The foci are 2c ³ 58.643 million miles apart.
502 40.52
50. 9.2 ð 107 mi and 9.5 ð 107 mi.
51. Let d1 be the distance that sound travels from the gun at A to
the person at P. Let d2 be the distance that sound travels from
the gong at B to the person at P. Let x be the distance that it
takes the bullet to reach the gong at B. Then d1 d2 D x, and
the person should stand on a branch of the hyperbola with foci
at A and B.

52. The airplane is located at the point (3.5387, ).
8
53. Let d1 be the distance from P(x, y) to F1 c, 0 and d2 be the
distance from P(x, y) to F2 c, 0 . By definition,
d1 C d2 D 2a
Appendices 295
d1 D 2a d2
d1 2 D 4a2 4ad2 C d2 2
x C c 2 C y 2 D 4a2 4ad2 C 4x c 2 C y 2
2cx D 4a2 4ad2 2cx
cx D a2 ad2
ad2 D a2 cx
a2 [x c 2 C y 2 ] D a4 2a2 cx C c2 x 2
a2 x 2 2a2 cx C a2 c2 C a2 y 2 D a4 2a2 cx C c2 x 2
a2 c2 x 2 C a2 y 2 D a2 a2 c2
b2 x 2 C a2 y 2 D a2 b2
x2 y 2
C 2 D1
a2 b
54. Let d1 be the distance from P(x, y) to F1 c, 0 and d2 be the
distance from P(x, y) to F2 c, 0 . By definition,
d1 d2 D 2a
d1 D 2a C d2
d1 2 D 4a2 C 4ad2 C d2 2
x C c 2 C y 2 D x c 2 C y 2 C 4a2 C 4ad2
2cx D 4a2 C 4ad2 2cx
cx D a2 C ad2
ad2 D a2 C cx
a2 [x c 2 C y 2 ] D a4 2a2 cx C c2 x 2
a2 x 2 2a2 cx C a2 c2 C a2 y 2 D a4 2a2 cx C c2 x 2
a2 c2 x 2 C a2 y 2 D a2 a2 c2
b2 x 2 C a2 y 2 D a2 b2
x2 y2
D1
a2 b2
55. a. A D C D 0
b. A and C have the same signs
296 Appendices
c. A D C
d. A and C have opposite signs
e. A > 0 and
D2 E2
C <F
4A 4C
or
A < 0 and
D2 E2
C >F
4A 4C
56. a.
x2 y 2
C 2 D1
a2 b
2x 2yy 0
C 2 D0
a2 b
b2 x
y0 D
a2 y
The slope at P0 x0 , y0 is
b 2 x0
m D y0 D
a 2 y0
The equation of the tangent line is
b 2 x0
y y0 D x x0
a 2 y0
y 0 y y 0 2 x0 x x0 2
2 C 2 2 D0
b2 b a a
x0 x y 0 y x0 2 y 0 2
C D C 2
a2 b2 a2 b
x0 x y 0 y
C 2 D1
a2 b
(since P0 x0 , y0 lies on the ellipse).
b. At P0 ša, 0 ,
šax
D1
a2
or x D ša, a vertical tangent line.
Appendices 297
At P0 0, šb
šby
D1
b2
or y D b, a horizontal tangent line.
57. From the hyperbola,
b
yDš x 2 a2
a
b
and from the asymptote y D š x. Let d be the vertical distance
a
between points on the hyperbola and points on the asymptote x.
Then
b
lim x 2 a2 x
x!1 a
p p
b x 2 a2 x x 2 a2 C x
D lim p x
x!1 a x 2 a2 C x

b x 2 a2 x 2
D lim p
x!1 a x 2 a2 C x
1
D ab lim p D0
x!1 x 2 a2 C x
1. 2.
298 Appendices
3. 4.
5. Symmetric with respect to the origin.

Extent: domain, all x 6D 0; range, all y 6D 0.
Asymptotes: x D 0, y D 0.
No intercepts.
6. Symmetric with respect to the origin.

No intercepts.
7. No symmetry with respect to the x-axis, y-axis, or origin.

Intercept: 1, 0 .

Extent: domain, all x 6D 2; range, y 6D 1.
Asymptotes: x D 2, y D 1
Intercepts: 0, 12 , 1, 0 .

Extent: domain, all x 6D 2; range, all real numbers.
Asymptotes: x D 2, y D 2x 3.
5
Intercepts: 0, 5 , 2 , 0 , 2, 0 .

Extent: domain, all x 6D 2;
range, all y 6D 7.
1
Intercepts: 0, 1 , 3 , 0 .

Extent: domain, all x 6D 12 ; range, y ½ 1, y 6D 54 .
Intercepts: (0, 0), (2, 0).
Appendices 299

Intercept: (0, 7).
13. Symmetric with respect to the x-axis, y-axis, and origin.

Extent: domain, 2 x 2; range 3 y 3;
Intercepts: 2, 0 , 2, 0 , 0, 3 , 0, 3 .
14. Symmetric with respect to the x-axis, y-axis, and origin.

Extent: domain, all real numbers; range,
p p
y½ 5 or y 5.
p
Asymptotes: y pD š 3x p
Intercepts: 0, 5 , 0, 5 .
p
26
15. Symmetric with respect to the origin. Extent: domain,
p p p 2
26 26 26
x ; range, y .
2 2 2
6p 6p
Intercepts: 0, š 26 , š 26, 0 .
13 13
16. Symmetric with respect to the x-axis.

Extent: domain, x < 2; range, all reals, y 6D 0.

Extent: domain, all reals x 6D 3, x 6D 1; range, y < 4 or y > 0.
Asymptotes: x D 3, x D 1, y D 0.
Intercept: 0, 43 .

Extent: domain, x ½ 22/3 ; range, all real numbers.
Asymptotes: no horizontal or vertical asymptotes.
300 Appendices
19. Symmetric with respect to the x-axis; y-axis, and origin.

Extent: domain, x 2 or 1 < x < 1 or x ½ 2; range, all real
numbers.
Asymptotes: x D 1, x D 1.
Intercepts: (0, 0), (2, 0), 2, 0 .
20. Symmetric with respect to the x-axis.

Extent: domain, x 1 or x > 2; range, all reals, y 6D 1, y 6D 1.
Asymptotes: x D 2, y D 1, y D 1.
1p 1p
Intercepts: 0, 2 , 0, 2 , (1, 0).
2 2
21. rotated hyperbola; D 45°
22. rotated hyperbola; D 45°
23. rational function y D 1/x, which has been translated to the point
(0, 1)
Appendices 301
24. rational function y D 1/x, which has been translated to the point
2, 1
25. rational function
26. the line y D 3x 1, with a deleted point at x D 2
27. a parabola y D x 2 2x, with a deleted point at x D 12

302 Appendices
28. a parabola y D x 2 C 4x C 7, with a deleted point at x D 2
x2 y 2
29. Recognize as an ellipse: C D 1.
4 9
y 2 x2
30. Recognize as a hyperbola: 5 D 1.
5 3
31. vertical ellipse with 45° rotation; if you carry through the
x 02 y 02
rotation, the equation is C D 1.
9 4
Appendices 303
32. See answer to Problem 16 for a description.

304 Appendices
37.
38.
39.
Appendices 305
40.
INDEX
A Arcsecant
function, 81
AAA, 90 graph, 84, 179
AAS, 91 Arcsine
Absolute value function, 51, 172, function, 81
272 graph, 84, 179
Addition laws, 86 Arctangent
Addition, matrices, 73 function, 81
Algebra, review of, 24 graph, 84, 179
Algebraic expression, 25 Area, 1
Algebraic functions, 50 cardioid, 173
Alpha ˛, 272 circle, 3, 4
Altitude, 1 cycloid, 175
Angle ellipse, 175
geometric, 80 equilateral triangle, 2
negative, 80 folium of Descartes, 176
polar, 97 parallelogram, 2
positive, 80 polygon, 3
standard position, 80 rectangle, 2
Angle-side-angle property (ASA), sector, 4
12 sector, 90
Answers, 273 segment, 4
Antiderivative, 151 square, 3
Approaches, 272 trapezoid, 2
Approximation formulas for triangle, 1, 89
definite integrals, 258 Arithmetic sequence, 33
Arc, 3 Arithmetic series, 33
Arccosecant Array, 65
function, 81 Astroid, 172
graph, 84, 179 Asymptotes, 162
Arccosine horizontal, 163
function, 81 oblique, 143, 163
graph, 84, 179 procedure for finding, 164
Arccotangent vertical, 163
function, 81 Axis:
graph, 84, 179 conjugate, 141
Archimedian spiral, 172 major, 136
Arc length, 6 minor, 136
cardioid, 173 principal, 120
circle, 173 semimajor, 136
cycloid, 175 semiminor, 136
ellipse, 175 transverse, 140
307
308 INDEX
B Cochleoid, 173
Cofunction identities, 86
Base 1, 32
Column, 47
e, 32
Column, 65
10, 32
Combination, 272
Bernoulli numbers, 256
Common factor, 26
Beta ˇ, 272
Completing the square, 39
Beta function, 256, 257
graphing ellipses, 140
Between relationship, 43
graphing hyperbolas, 143
Bifolium, 172
graphing parabolas, 123
Binomial series, 267
Complex numbers, 24
Binomial theorem, 28
Cone, 6
Box, 5
frustum, 6, 7
Congruent, 11
C properties of, 13
Cap (of a sphere), 7 triangle, 11
Cardioid, 105, 173 Conic section, 119
rotated, 107 polar form, 127
standard position, 106 Conjugate axis, 141
Cassinian curve, 173 length of, 142
Cassinian curve, 180 Constant formula for definite
Catalog of curves, 172 integrals, 257
Catenary, 177 Constant function, 50
Center: Constant multiple rule:
circle, 3, 4 for differentiation, 191
ellipse, 135 for integration, 197
hyperbola, 140 Constant rule:
Central angle, 1 for gradient, 194
Central rectangle, 142 for integration, 198
Chain rule for differentiation, 192 Corresponding angles, 13, 14
one independent variable, 193 Corresponding parts, 11
two independent variables, 193 Corresponding sides, 13
Chi , 272 Cosecant, 80
Chord, 3 derivative, 192
Circle, 3, 4 function, 80
circumscribed, 4 graph, 84, 174
graph of, 172 integral, 199
sector, 4 Cosine squared integration formula,
segment, 4 200
Circular cone, 6 Cosines, law of, 89
frustum, 6, 7 Cosine, 80
Circular cylinder, 6 derivative, 192
Circumference, 1, 6 function, 80
formula, 5 graph, 83, 174
Circumscribed circle, 4 integral, 199
Circumscribed polygon, 4 Cotangent, 80
Cissoid of Diocles, 173 derivative, 192
Closed interval, 42 function, 80
INDEX 309
Cotangent (continued) partial, 191

graph, 84, 174 power, 192
integral, 199 procedural rules, 191
Counter-clockwise rotation, 107 rules for, 192
Counting numbers, 24 secant, 193
Critical values, 44 sine, 193
Cube root function, 174 tangent, 193
Cube, perfect, 28 Descartes’ rule of signs, 52
Cubes, sum and difference, Determinants, 47
28, 29 definition 2 ð 2, 48
Cubic function, 174 evaluate, 48
Cubic function, 51 properties of, 49
Cubical parabola, 174 Diagonal:
Curate cycloid, 174 box, 5
Curve sketching, 157 parallelepiped, 5
Curves, catalog of, 122 rectangle, 2
Cycloid, 175 square, 2
Cylinder, 6, 8 Diameter, 3
Difference formula for definite
integrals, 192
D
Difference of cubes, 28, 29
Decagon, 1 Difference of squares, 28, 29
Decimal, 24 Difference rule:
Definite integral, 195 for differentiation, 191
at a point, 257 for integration, 197
exponential functions, 261 for limits, 186
integral formulas, 198, 199 Differentiation formulas, 192
involving hyperbolic functions, Differentiation, procedural rules,
264 191
irrational expressions, 258 Dimension of a matrix, 65
logarithmic functions, 263 Directional derivative, 191
miscellaneous, 265 Directrix, 119
rational expressions, 258 Division, 272
trigonometric functions, 259 Dodecagon, 1
Degree, 81 Domain, 161
Delta υ, 272 Dominance rules for integration,
Deltoid, 175 198
Dependent system, 59 Double-angle identities, 86
Derivative: Double integral, 196
chain rule, 192 Double subscript, 65
cosecant, 192
cosine, 192
cotangent, 192
E
definition, 190 e, 188
directional, 191 Eccentricity, 144, 145
hyperbolic functions, 193 Elementary row operations, 68
inverse trigonometric functions, row plus, 67, 68
192 row swap, 66
310 INDEX
Elementary row operations Exponential function, 51

(continued) Exponential rule:
times row plus, 68 for differentiation, 192
times row, 67 for integration, 198
Ellipse, 135, 175 Exponential series, 268
eccentricity, 145 Exponents:
parameterize, 138 definition, 27
reflection property, 150 laws of, 28
standard form equations, 137 Expression:
Ellipsoid, 9 algebraic, 24
Elliptic graph paper, 135 numerical, 25
Elliptic paraboloid, 9 simplify, 26
Entries (of a matrix), 47 Extended order of operations, 26
Epicycloid, 175 Extended power rule for
Epsilon , 272 differentiation, 192
Equal: Extent, 160
matrices, 73
symbol, 272
F
Equal limit theorem, 257
Equality of coefficients methods, Factor, 26
75, 76 procedure, 29
Equations: Factor theorem, 52
definition, 35 Factorial, 27
linear, 35 False equation, 34, 35
matrix, 65, 72 Focal chord, 120, 121
polynomial, 52, 53 length of, 120, 121
quadratic, 35 Focal radii, 150
solve, 34 Focus:
systems of, 59 ellipse, 135
trigonometric, 91 hyperbola, 140
Equilateral hyperbola, 154 parabola, 119
Equilateral triangle, 2 Folium of Descartes, 176
Equivalent: 45° -45° -90° triangle theorem, 1
equations, 34, 35 Four-leaved rose, 176
matrices, 65 Fraction, 24
systems, 61 Frame, 85
Eta , 272 Frustum:
Euler numbers, 256 of a pyramid, 7
Evaluate: of a right circular cone, 6
determinant, 49 Functions, 37
expression, 27 absolute value, 172
trigonometric functions, 81 absolute value, 51
Even integer, 28 algebraic, 50
Evolute of an ellipse, 176 beta, 256, 257
Exact values, trigonometric constant, 50
functions, 83 cubic, 51, 174
Expand, 26 exponential, 51
Exponential curve, 176 gamma, 256
INDEX 311
Functions (continued) Horizontal line, 51

greatest integer, 51 Hyperbola, 140, 176
inverse trigonometric, 81 eccentricity, 145
linear, 51 equilateral, 154
logarithmic, 51 standard form equations, 142
miscellaneous, 51 Hyperbolic cosecant, 177
polynomial, 50 Hyperbolic cosine, 177
power, 51 Hyperbolic cotangent, 177
quadratic, 51 Hyperbolic graph paper, 135
rational, 51 Hyperbolic identities, 87
transcendental, 51 Hyperbolic paraboloid, 10
trigonometric, 52, 80 Hyperbolic rule for integration,
Fundamental identities, 86 199
Fundamental theorem of algebra, Hyperbolic rules for differentiation,
52 193
Hyperbolic secant, 177
Hyperbolic series, 269
G
Hyperbolic sine, 177
Gamma , 272 Hyperbolic spiral, 182
Gamma function, 176, 256 Hyperbolic tangent, 177
Gauss-Jordan elimination, 66, 70, Hyperboloid of one sheet, 9
71 Hyperboloid of two sheets, 10
Geometric sequence, 33 Hypocycloid, 178
Geometric series, 34 Hypotenuse, 1, 2
Geometry, review, 1
Geometry, solid, 5
I
Gradient, 194
properties of, 194 Identically equal, 272
Graph paper, ellipse, 135 Identities, 86
Graph paper, hyperbola, 135 Identity function, 178
Graphing method for solving a Imaginary unit, 272
system of equations, 59 Improper integral formulas, 257
Graphs, catalog of, 172 Inconsistent system, 59
Greater than or equal to, 272 Indefinite integral, 196
Greater than, 272 Index of a radical, 27
Greatest integer function, 51 Inequalities
Greek alphabet, 272 higher degree, 32
linear, 41
quadratic, 43
H rational, 45
Half-angle identities, 87 solving, 41
Half-closed interval, 42 Infinite geometric series, 34
Half-open interval, 42 Infinite limit theorem, 187
Height, equilateral triangle, 2 Inscribed polygon, 4
Heptagon, 1 Integers, 24
Hexagon, 1 even, 28
Horizontal asymptotes, 163 odd, 28
procedure for finding, 164 Integrable function, 195, 196
312 INDEX
Integral: Inverse secant, 81

cosecant, 199 graph, 84, 179
cosine, 199 Inverse sine, 81
cotangent, 199 graph, 83, 179
definition, 195 Inverse tangent, 81
double, 196 graph, 84, 179
formulas, definite, 198 Inverse trigonometric functions, 81
hyperbolic rules, 199 derivatives, 192
indefinite, 196 graphs of, 84
inverse rules, 199 integration, 198
properties of, 197 signs of, 93
secant, 199 Involute of a circle, 179
sine, 199 Iota , 272
table of, 200 Irrational numbers, 24
tangent, 199
triple, 197
K
Integration:
basic formulas, 197 Kappa , 272
by parts, 197
cosine squared, 200
L
procedural rules, 197
rules for, 198 l’Hôpital’s rule, 187
secant formula, 200 Lambda , 272
sine squared, 200 Lateral surface:
table of, 200 right circular cone, 6
tangent reduction formula, 200 right circular cylinder, 6
Integration formulas, 195, 257 spherical segment, 7
Intercept an arc, 4 Law of cosines, 89
Intercept form of a line, 51 Law of sines, 89
Intercepts, 166 Law of tangents, 89
Interior point theorem for definite Leaves, 111
integrals, 257 Leminscate, 114, 179
Intermediate-value theorem for standard position, 111
polynomial functions, 52 Leminscate of Bernoulli, 179
Interval, 42 Less than, 272
Interval of convergence, 267 Less than or equal to, 272
Inverse cosecant, 81 Limaçon, 108
graph, 84, 178 standard position, 111
Inverse cosine, 81 Limaçon of Pascal, 179
graph, 84, 178 Limit:
Inverse cotangent, 81 basic rules, 186
graph, 84, 178 diverges to infinity, 184
Inverse hyperbolic rules for formal definition, 184
differentiation, 193 formal definition with two
Inverse matrices, 72 variables, 185
Inverse matrix method, 75, 76 infinite limit, 185
Inverse rules for integration, miscellaneous, 188
199 of a function, 184
INDEX 313
Limit (continued) equality of coefficients method,

rules of, 186 76
to infinity, 184 inverse, 72
trigonometric, 188 nonconformable, 73
with infinity, 184, 185, 187 nonsingular, 75
with two variables, 185 operations, 73
Limit formulas, 184 order, 65
Limit limitation theorem, 187 pivoting, 70
Limit of a constant, 186 row operations, 66
Limit of x, 186 row plus, 67, 68
Limit reversal theorem, 257 row-reduced form, 71
Linear combination method for row swap, 66
solving a a system of square, 47
equations, 62 Mean value theorem, 257
Linear equations, 51 Minor, 48
procedure for solving, 35 Minor axis, 136
Linear functions, 51 Minus/plus, 272
Linearity rule: Mu , 272
for differentiation, 191 Multiplication, 272
matrices, 73
for double integrals, 197
property of determinants, 49
for gradient, 194
for integration, 197
for limits, 186 N
Linear system, 59
Natural base, 32
Lituus, 180
Natural logarithm, 32
Location theorem, 52 Natural numbers, 24
Logarithmic curve, 180 Negative angle, 80
Logarithmic functions, 51 Nonagon, 1
Logarithmic rule: Nonconformable matrices,
for differentiation, 192 73
for integration, 198 Nonsingular matrices, 75
Logarithmic series, 268 Not equal to, 272
Logarithmic spiral, 182 Not identically equal to,
Logarithms, 32 272
base 3, 32 nth root, 28, 272
base e, 32 Nu , 272
properties of, 32 Number of roots theorem, 53
LORAN, 93 Numbers, 24
Lower bound theorem, 52 complex, 24
counting, 24
M integers, 24
irrational, 24
Major axis, 136 natural, 24
Mathematical symbols, 272 rational, 24
Matrices, 47, 65 real, 24
augmented, 65 whole, 24
dimension, 65 Numerical expression, 25
314 INDEX
O Pi , 272
Pivot element, 71
Oblate spheroid, 10 Pivot row, 69
Oblique asymptotes, 143, 163
Pivoting, 70
procedure for finding, 164
Planetary orbits, 154
Octagon, 1
Plus/minus, 272
Odd integer, 28
Point-slope form of a line, 51
Omega ω, 272
Polar angle, 97
Open equation, 34, 35
Polar axis, 97
Open interval, 42
Polar coordinate system, 97
Opposite of a definite integral
Polar-form points, 98
theorem, 257
Polar-form, 104, 97
Opposite-angle identities, 86
convert to rectangular form, 100
Order of operations, 25, 26
extended, 26 parabola, 127
Order, 65 Pole, 97
Origin, symmetry with respect to, Polygons, 1, 3
157, 158 circumscribed, 4
Ouija board curve, 180 classification of, 1
Oval of Cassini, 180 inscribed, 4
regular, 4
Polynomial functions, 50
P Polynomial, 25, 50
Parabola, 119, 180 Pontoon, 8
eccentricity, 145 Positive angle, 80
polar form, 127 Positive root, 28
reflectors, 128 Power function, 51
standard form equation, 121 Power rule, 192
translations, 122 for gradient, 194
Parabolic spiral, 182 for integration, 198
Paraboloid, 9, 10 for limits, 187
Parallel to, 272 Powers, 27
Parallelepiped, 5 Powers, 34
Parallelogram, 2 Principal axis, 120
Parameterize and ellipse, 138 Prismatoid, 8
Partial derivative, 191 Prism, 5
Pentagon, 1 Probability curve, 180
Perfect cube, 28 Product rule:
Perfect square, 28, 29 for differentiation, 191
Perimeter, 1 for gradient, 194
parallelogram, 2 for limits, 187
polygon, 3 for limits with two variables,
rectangle, 2 188
square, 2 Product-to-sum identities, 87
trapezoid, 2 Prolate cycloid, 181
triangle, 1 Prolate spheroid, 10
Permutation, 272 Proportional sides, 13
Petals, 111 Pseudo-vertices, 142
Phi , 272 Psi , 272
INDEX 315
Pyramid, 5 parabola, 129

frustum of, 7 parabola, 134
Pythagorean identities, 86 Remainder theorem, 52
Pythagorean theorem, 1, 89 Repeated roots, 54
Repeating decimal, 24
Rho , 272
Q
Right circular cone, 6
Quadratic equation, 37 Right circular cylinder, 6
Quadratic formula, 37 Root limitation theorem, 52
Quadratic function, 51 Roots, 28, 28, 35
Quadratic inequalities, 43 nth, 28
Quadratrix of Hippias, 181 Rose curve, 111
Quadric surfaces, 8 standard position, 113
Quadrilateral, 1 Rotation, polar form, 107
Quotient rule: Row, 47, 65
for differentiation, 192 Row operations, 68
for gradient, 194 Row plus, 67, 68, 70
for limits, 187 Row-reduced form, 71
for limits for two variables, 189 Row swap, 67, 70
R S
Radial coordinates, 97 Saddle surface, see hyperbolic
Radian, 80 paraboloid
Radical expression, 31 SAS, 12, 90
Radius, 3 Satisfy an equation, 35
Range, 161 polar form, 102
procedure for finding, 161 Scalar, 67
Ratio identities, 86 multiplication with matrices, 73
Rational expression, 25 Scalar rule:
Rational function, 51 for limits, 186
graphing, 167 for limits of two variables, 188
Rational inequality, 45 Secant function, 80
Rational numbers, 24 derivative, 192
Rational root theorem, 52 graph, 84, 181
Real numbers, 24 integral, 199
Reciprocal function, 181 Secant integration formula, 200
Reciprocal identities, 86 Secant of a circle, 3
Reciprocal squared function, 181 Sector, 4,
Rectangle, 2 area of, 90
Rectangular coordinates, 99, 100 Segment, 4
convert to polar form, 100 spherical, 7
Rectangular formula, 258 Semicubical parabola, 181
Rectangular parallelepiped, 5 Semimajor axis, 136
Reduction principle, 81 Sequences, 33
Reduction rules for integration, 200 Series, 34, 266
Reflection property: arithmetic, 33
ellipse, 150 binomial, 267
316 INDEX
Series (continued) Spiral:

constants, 266 Archimedes, 172, 182
exponential, 268 hyperbolic, 182
geometric, 33 logarithmic, 182
hyperbolic, 269 parabolic, 182
infinite geometric, 34 Square, 2
logarithmic, 268 Square matrix, 47, 65
miscellaneous, 270 Square root function, 182
Taylor, 267 Square root, 272
trigonometric, 268 Squares, 2
Serpentine curve, 181 difference of, 29
Side, terminal, 80 perfect, 29
Side-angle-side property (SAS), 12 Squeeze rule, 187
Side-side-side property (SSS), 12 SSA, 90
Sigma , 272 SSS, 90
Similar figures, 13, 14 Standard form of the equation of a
Similar to symbol, 272 line, 51
Similar triangle property, 14, 15 Standard position angle, 80
Similar triangles, 14, 15, 17 Strophoid, 183
Simplify, 26 Subdivision rule:
for definite integrals, 257
radicals, 32
for integration, 198
Simpson’s formula, 258
Subscript, 64
Simultaneous solution of a system
Substitution method for solving
of equations, 59
systems of equations, 61
Sine function, 80
Substitution rule for limits, 189
derivative, 192
Subtraction of matrices, 73
graph, 83, 182
Sum formula for definite integrals,
integral, 199 257
Sine squared integration formula, Sum of cubes, 28, 29
200 Sum rule:
Sines, law of, 89 for definite integrals, 257
Sinusoid, 182 for differentiation, 191
Slant height, 1 for integration, 197
Slope-intercept form of the for limits, 186
equation of a line, 51 for limits for two variables, 188
Solid geometry, 5 Sum-to-product identities, 87
Solution, 35 Sums of powers, 34
Solve: Surface area, 1
equations, 34, 35 cap of a sphere, 7
inequalities, 41, 42 cylinder, 8
system of equations, 59 oblate spheroid, 10
triangles, 89 prolate spheroid, 10
procedure for solving, 90 right circular cone, 6
trigonometric equations, 91 right circular cylinder, 6
Sphere, 8 sphere, 8
Spherical segment, 7 spherical segment, 7
Spheroid, 10 torus, 7
INDEX 317
Symbols, 272 intermediate-value, 52

Symmetry, 108, 157 location, 52
summary, 109, 158 lower bound, 52
with respect to the origin, 109 number of roots, 53
with respect to the origin, 158 Pythagorean, 89
with respect to the x-axis, 108, 30° -60° -90° triangle, 2
158, 159 rational root, 52
with respect to the y-axis, 108, remainder, 52
158, 159 root location, 52
Synthetic division, 53 upper bound, 52
System, inverse matrix method, 80 zero factor, 52
Systems Theta , 272
addition method, 62 Three-leaved rose, 183
dependent, 59 Times row plus, 70
graphing method, 59 Times row, 67, 70
inconsistent, 59 Torus, 7
linear combination method, 62 Tractrix, 183
linear, 59 Transcendental functions, 51
matrix methods for solving, 64 Translation, 123
substitution method, 61 Transverse axis, 140
length of, 142
T Trapezoid, 2
Trapezoidal formula, 258
Tangent function, 80, 183
Triangles, 1
derivative, 192
ASA, 12, 13, 91
graph, 84, 183
congruent, 11
integral, 199
equilateral, 2
Tangent of a circle, 3
Tangent reduction formula, 200 formula for area, 1
Tangents, law of, 89 SSS, 12, 13
Target row, 67 similar, 13, 14
Tau , 272 solving, 89
Taylor series, 267 Trigonometric equations, 91
Term, 25 Trigonometric functions, 51, 80
Terminal side, 80 derivatives, 192
Terminating decimal, 24 evaluating, 81
Tetrahedron, 5 exact values, 83
Theorems: graphs, 83
factor, 52 integrals, 199
fundamental theorem of algebra, inverse, 81
53 signs of, 93
Handbook: table of exact values, 83
Theorem 1, quadratic formula, Trigonometric identities, 86
37 Trigonometric limits, 187
Theorem 2, properties of Trigonometric rules:
determinants, 49 for differentiation, 192
Theorem 3, reflection property for integration, 199
of parabolas, 129 Trigonometric series, 268
318 INDEX
Trigonometry, 80 oblate spheroid, 10

equations, 91 parallelepiped, 5
equations, general solution, 93 prism, 5
Triple integral, 197 prismatoid, 8
Trochoid, 183 pyramid, 5
True equation, 34 right circular cone, 6
Two-leaved rose (lemniscate), 114 right circular cylinder, 6
Two-point form of the equation of a sphere, 8
line, 51 spherical segment, 7
tetrahedron, 5
torus, 7
U
Undecagon, 1
Union of sets, 42
W
Upper and lower bound theorem, Wedge, 8
52 Whispering room, 150
Upsilon , 272 Whole numbers, 24
Witch of Agnesi, 183
V
Varies, 272
X
Vertex: x axis, symmetry with respect to,
angle, 80 157
ellipse, 136 Xi , 272
hyperbola, 141 x-intercepts, 166
parabola, 120
Vertical asymptotes, 163
procedure for finding, 164
Y
Vertical line, 51 y axis, symmetry with respect to,
Volume, 1 157
box, 5 y-intercepts, 166
cap of a sphere, 7
cylinder, 8
ellipsoid, 9
Z
frustum of a pyramid, 7 Zero factor theorem, 52
frustum of a right circular cone, 6 Zeta , 272

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STUDENT MATH HANDBOOK

CALCULUS, 3rd Edition

by Monty J. Strauss, Gerald L. Bradley and Karl J. Smith

CALCULUS, 3rd Edition

All rights reserved.

CHAPTER 1: Review of Geometry 1

CHAPTER 2: Review of Algebra 24

CHAPTER 3: Systems of Equations 59

CHAPTER 4: Review of Trigonometry 80

CHAPTER 5: Polar Coordinates 97

CHAPTER 6: Conic Sections: The Parabola 119

CHAPTER 7: Conic Sections: The Ellipse and the

CHAPTER 8: Curve Sketching 157

CHAPTER 9: Catalog of Special Curves 172

CHAPTER 10: Limit Formulas 184

CHAPTER 11: Differentiation Formulas 190

CHAPTER 12: Integration Formulas 195

CHAPTER 13: Series 266

Calculus is probably the first mathematics course you have taken

well as tables of integration, is by far more important than many of the

In this book, we use the following variables when stating formulas:

Pythagorean theorem: The sum of the squares of the lengths of

Equilateral triangle: For any equilateral triangle:

REGULAR POLYGON OF n SIDES

An inscribed polygon is a polygon, all of whose sides are chords of a

We first use this in the text in Section 2.2 proving a very

1.3 Solid Geometry

Right circular cylinder

Right circular cone

Frustum of a right circular cone

For the ‘‘cap,’’

Cylinder with a cross-sectional area A

Prismatoid, pontoon, wedge

We derive the formula for the volume of a sphere in Example 3 of

A special case of this formula is derived in Problem 46 of the

Hyperboloid of One Sheet

Hyperboloid of Two Sheets

An oblate spheroid is formed by the rotation of the ellipse

A prolate spheroid is formed by the rotation of the ellipse

1.4 Congruent Triangles

EXAMPLE 1.1 Corresponding parts of a triangle

Name the corresponding parts of the given triangles.

Two triangles are congruent if their corresponding sides

EXAMPLE 1.2 Finding congruent triangles

Determine whether each pair of triangles is congruent. If so, cite one

Congruent; SAS Not congruent

Congruent; ASA Congruent; SSS

A side that is in common to two triangles obviously is equal in length

Corresponding parts of congruent triangles are congruent.

1.5 Similar Triangles

Similar triangles are shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Similar triangles

vertices with corresponding lowercase letters. It is easy to see that, if

Side a BC is opposite 6 A, and d EF is opposite 6 D, so we say that

Even though corresponding angles are the same size, corresponding

Two triangles are similar if two angles of one triangle have

EXAMPLE 1.3 Similar triangles

Identify pairs of triangles that are similar in Figure 1.3.

Solution ABC ¾ JKL; DEF ¾ GIH; SQR ¾ STU.

EXAMPLE 1.4 Finding unknown lengths in similar triangles

Given the following similar triangles, find the unknown lengths

Solution Since corresponding sides are proportional (other propor-

Side a BC is opposite 6 A, and d EF is opposite 6 D, so we say that

Solution Let be the length of the cut. We recognize two triangles:

fx j21 D f2 f1

[x 2 C x C 1]j21 D [22 C 2 C 1] [12 C 1 C 1]

2x 3 3 1 x 1 C x 1 1 C x 3 3

a2 b C 5a3 b2 C 7a2 b3 D a2 b1 C 5ab C 7b2

b. The common factor is 3a 5b :

5x3a 5b C 9y3a 5b D 5x C 9y 3a 5b

2x 3 3 1 x 1 C x 1 1 C x 3 3

a. 3x 2 75 D 3x 2 25 Common factor first

c. 6x C y 2 9x C y 15 D 3[2x C y 2 3x C y 5]

Solution In the binomial theorem, replace a by 2x and b by 3y .