UNIT: I - INTRODUCTION

Disseminating the Facets of Media

UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF MEDIA

• Media is a very important part of modern society. They are also

very powerful systems that influence society.

• At a certain level media influences the present and can also

influence the future of the society.

• Media being a very powerful influence on the society is regulated

and controlled by various legislations enacted from time to time.

• Media refers to all means of communication; everything ranging

from a phone call to the evening news on TV can be called media.

• TV, radio, and newspapers are forms of media. Since they reach

millions of people across the world they are called mass media.

Media

• Media is the plural form of the word ‘medium’ and it describes the

various ways through which we communicate in society.

• It includes physical and online newspapers and magazines,

television, radio, billboards, telephone, the Internet, fax and

billboards.

• It describes the various ways through which we communicate in

society. Because it refers to all means of communication,

everything ranging from a telephone call to the evening news on

television can be called media.

• Media plays a significant role in democracy. It provides news and

discusses events that take place in the country and the world.

• Free exchange of ideas and debates are essentially required for a

good governance of a country. This is where Media steps in.

• Media has a special role to play as the guardian of Democracy.

• Media fulfills several basic roles in our society.

• Media can also provide information and education. Information

can come in many forms, and it may sometimes be difficult to

separate from entertainment.

• Another useful aspect of media is its ability to act as a public

forum for the discussion of important issues.

HISTORY OF MEDIA

• Indian Media consists of several different types of

communications: television, radio, cinema, newspapers,

magazines, and Internet-based Web sites/portals.

• Indian media was active since the late 18th century with print

media starting in 1780, radio broadcasting initiated in 1927, and

the screening of Auguste and Louis Lumière moving pictures in

Bombay initiated during the July of 1895.

• It is among the oldest and largest media of the world. Media in

India has been free and independent throughout most of its history,

even before the establishment of Indian empire by Ashoka the

Great on the foundation of righteousness, openness, morality and

spirituality.

• The period of emergency (1975–1977), declared by Prime Minister

Indira Gandhi, was the brief period when India's media was faced

with potential government retribution.

Press

• The "press", in a sense, is as old as the human race itself.

• Human beings' instinctive curiosity to know about what is

happening around has always been there.

• The writing on the walls and on stones dating back to several

centuries before Christ were the first signs of the origin of the press

in India.

• Emperor Ashoka's edicts renouncing violence after the Kalinga

war are available to this day on stone.

• Later, paper and writing materials were invented, state records in

the form of messages from spies were maintained in a rudimentary

form.

• "Newsletters" were the earliest though rough form of a

"newspaper". The newsletters were regularly issued during the

Mughl period.

• These "manuscript newspapers' ' were the only source of

information about the developments taking place in various parts

of the empires of kings, down the ages.

• The practice seems to have continued until the East Company

acquired began ruling over India.

• It is the dissemination of these newsletters which perhaps inspired

James Augustus Hickey to start his newspaper Bengal Gazette in

1780.

• The first printing press was established in Bombay in 1674, the

second in Madras in 1772 and the third in Calcutta in 1779.

• Hicky's newspaper known as Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General

Advertiser was born on 29 January, 1780.

• From 1914 to 1947, the freedom struggle continued to gather

momentum. The British Government was all too anxious to enlist

the support of the press in its war efforts.

• The press was inclined to go along with the nationalists in their

struggle for freedom.

• For about two decades during 1925-1946, Gandhiji and his

ideology of journalism dominated the Indian prcss in the

development of opinion journalism with editorials overshadowing

the news.
 • The two decades also saw proliferation of newspapers in almost all

Indian languages, particularly in Hindi and English.

• With the arrival of independence in August, 1947, a new era

arrived in India in which the role of the press changed slowly.

• It had to shoulder new responsibilities now.

• After assiduously contributing to the attainment of freedom, the

press by and by assumed the role of an adversary.

Broadcast Media

• In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian inventor, sent the first

radio communication signals through the air.

• Experimental radio broadcasts began in about 1910.

• Regular radio services in many countries including India began in

the 1920’s.

• One of the first commercial radio stations was established in the

United States and regular broadcasts began in August, 1920.

• In India, as early as August 1921, The Times of India in

collaboration with the Posts and Telegraphs Department broadcast

a special programme from its Bombay office.

 • The first radio programme in India was broadcast by the Radio

Club of Bombay in June 1923.

• An agreement was signed for this purpose between the

Government of India and a private company called the Indian

Broadcasting Company Limited.

• In 1930, Indian Broadcasting Company handed over the Bombay

station to the Government and it was renamed the Indian State

Broadcasting Service (ISBS).

• Later it was renamed All India Radio on June 8, 1936.

• All India Radio has a multi-system of broadcasting through which

it caters to the information, education and entertainment needs of

the people.

Frequency Modulation (FM) Broadcast

• FM broadcast is essentially a local radio channel with a reach of 70

km radius from the place of transmission.

• This broadcast provides crystal clear reception to the listener and it

has traditionally been used for airing music.

 • FM broadcast was introduced in India in 1977 but it was not really

popularised till 1992

Television

• Television started in India on an experimental basis on September

15, 1959 with a limited transmission on three days a week.

• The scope of programmes was restricted to educational broadcasts

for a limited area around New Delhi.

• Television, at this initial phase, was not considered to be a medium

of entertainment but primarily an educational tool.

• The Government of India supported the television project

financially.

• In 1961 television programmes for teachers were started. Regular

broadcasting of television programmes began in 1965.

• The period between 1972 and 1982 saw the rapid expansion of

television.

• In 1976 television broadcasting was delinked from All India Radio

and was put under an independent organisation called

Doordarshan.
• It switched over to colour transmission on August 15, 1982.

• A number of foreign as well as private domestic television

channels have been established in the country after the 1990s.

• Private television channels in various languages dominate the

television broadcasting industry.

• In 1975 Doordarshan, still a part of AIR, launched the Satellite

Instructional Television Experiment (SITE), one of the most

ambitious experiments in television history.

• From August 1, 1975 to July 31, 1976, Doordarshan used the

ATS-6 satellite to beam farm, health and hygiene, and family

planning programs 4 hours each day to 2400 villages in rural

India.

• SITE was also used to telecast entertainment programs, consisting

chiefly of rural art, music, and dance.

• For the most part, since very few people had their own sets, they

watched SITE programs in communal areas where TV sets were

specifically set up for viewing purposes.

 • SITE’s primary agenda was not only to educate people about

solutions to the country’s problems, but also to unify the diverse

and multilingual audiences of the country by exposing them to one

another’s cultures.

• SITE opened up the possibility of connecting people in far and

unreachable corners of the country through the magic of satellite

communication.

Prasar Bharathi

• Doordarshan was a Government-controlled organ right from its

inception. In 1959, when India witnessed the first experiment in

television broadcasting.

• The various Governments at the Centre not only controlled the

electronic media but made use of them to promote the ruling

party’s hidden agenda.

• The demand for autonomy for the broadcast media was gaining

increasing support.
 • The National Front Government led by Mr. V. P. Singh introduced

the Bill in the first Parliamentary session in January 1990 to grant

autonomy to the broadcast media in the country.

• Finally the Act came into force on September 22, 1997.

• The Prasar Bharati Board was formed paving the way for granting

autonomy to Doordarshan and All India Radio.

Main functions

• To organize and conduct public service broadcasting.

• To ensure a balanced development of radio and television

broadcasting.

• To establish a system of gathering news for radio and

television.

• To conduct or commission programmes, audience research,

market or technical services

• To purchase or acquire programmes and rights or privileges

in respect of sports or other events, films, serials etc.

Prasar Bharati will aim to provide, in the most efficient manner

possible, media content of the highest quality that will empower and

enlighten the citizens of India and audiences outside the country,

through original and relevant programmes which inform, educate and

entertain while ensuring a sizeable audience and reach

Genesis of Internet

• The Internet was first developed in the US in the 1960s.

• This project sponsored by the US government was initially

intended for military and academic research.

• In 1973 the network expanded to Europe. Significant growth in

the use of the internet began in the late 1980s.

• The birth of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s introduced a

graphic user interface and a protocol for hyper linking information

stored in different computers.

• This provided access to millions and took the internet to the

masses. India found a place in the internet map in 1987.

• ERNET (Educational and Research Network), India’s first internet

service, was launched in 1987.

 • Presently, there are more than 200 internet service providers in

India.

• The resulting competition lowered the cost and led to the rapid

growth of internet connections.

New Media

• Until the 1980s media relied primarily upon print and broadcast

models such as newspaper, magazines, television and radio.

• There has been rapid transformation in media with the arrival of

digital computers such as the internet.

• The use of digital computers has transformed the ‘old’ media by

the advent of digital television, radio and online publications.

• New media has been used extensively by social movements to

educate, organize, share cultural products of movements, and

communicate and more.

• New media has been a great tool in the democratization of

information by using websites, blogs and online videos to

demonstrate the effectiveness of the movement itself.

 • Interactivity has become a key term for a number of new media

use options. Interactivity can be considered as a central concept in

understanding new media.

• The Internet replaces the “one-to- many” model of traditional mass

communication with the possibility of a “many-to-many” style of

communication.

Social Media Networks

• Social media networks as websites and applications that enable

users to create and share content or to participate in social

networking.

• Social media differ from traditional or industrial media in many

ways, including quality, reach, frequency, usability,immediacy,

and permanence. Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, andLinkedin are

some of the popular social media networks.

THEORIES OF MEDIA

Magic Bullet Theory Or Hypodermic Needle Theory

• The media (magic gun) fired the message directly into the audience

head without their own knowledge.

• The message causes the instant reaction from the audience's mind

without any hesitation is called “Magic Bullet Theory”.

• The media (needle) injects the message into the audience mind and

it causes changes in audience behavior and psyche towards the

message.

• Audiences are passive and they can’t resist the media message

called “Hypodermic Needle Theory”.

Cultivation Theory

• Cultivation research is one that studies media effects

• Cultivation theory states that high frequency viewers of television

are more susceptible to media messages and the belief that they are

real and valid.

 • Heavy viewers are exposed to more violence and therefore are

affected by the Mean World Syndrome, the belief that the world is

a far worse and dangerous place then it actually is.

Agenda-Setting Theory:

• Agenda setting is the media’s ability to transfer salience issues

through their new agenda. This way, the public agenda can form an

understanding of the salience issues.

• The influence of the media affects the presentation of the reports

and issues made in the news that affects the public mind.

• The news reports make a way that when a particular news report is

given more importance and attention than other news the audience

will automatically perceive it as the most important news and

information given to them.

• The priorities of which news comes first and then the next are set

by the media according to how people think and how much

influence it will have among the audience.

• There are three types of Agenda-Setting

Media setting, Public Setting,Policy setting

Framing Theory:

• According to the theory, the media highlights certain events and

then places them within a particular context to encourage or

discourage certain interpretations.

• The concept of framing is related to the agenda-setting tradition

but expands the research by focusing on the essence of the issues at

hand rather than on a particular topic.

• The basis of framing theory is that the media focuses attention on

certain events and then places them within a field of meaning.

• Framing is an important topic since it can have a big influence and

therefore the concept of framing expanded to organizations as well.

• Framing theory suggests that how something is presented to the

audience (called “the frame”) influences the choices people make

about how to process that information.

Authoritarian Theory:

• Authoritarian theory describes that all forms of communications

are under the control of the governing elite or authorities or

influential bureaucrats.
 • Authoritarians are necessary to control the media to protect and

prevent the people from the national threats through any form of

communication (information or news).

• The press is an instrument to enhance the ruler’s power in the

country rather than any threats.

• The authorities have all rights to permit any media and control it

by providing licenses to the media and making certain censorship.

• If any media violate the government policies against license, then

the authority has all right to cancel the license and revoke it.

• The government has all right to restrict any sensitive issues from

the press to maintain peace and security in the nation.

Libertarian Theory:

• Libertarian theory sees people are more than enough to find and

judge good ideas from bad.

• The theory says people are rational and their rational thoughts lead

them to find out what is good and bad.

 • The press should not restrict anything, even a negative content may

give knowledge and can make better decisions whilst in the worst

situation.

• The libertarian thoughts are exactly against or opposite to the

authoritarian theory which means the authoritarian theory says “all

forms of communication works under the control of the

government or elite like kings”.

• In libertarian theory, the media is supposed to be privately owned.

• The theory believes in freedom of thought and individualism.

There is no control of authority and everybody has the right to

voice their opinion. There is also no censorship and the

government must not hold any power to control and suppress

media.

Social Responsibility Theory:

• Social responsibility theory allows free press without any

censorship but at the same time the content of the press should be
 discussed in a public panel and media should accept any obligation

from public interference or professional self regulations or both.

• The theory lies between both authoritarian theory and libertarian

theory because it gives total media freedom on one hand but the

external controls on the other hand.

Gatekeeping Theory:

• Gatekeeping is the process of selecting, and then filtering, items of

media that can be consumed within the time or space that an

individual happens to have.

• This means gatekeeping falls into the role of surveillance and

monitoring data.

• These gatekeeping decisions are made every day to sort out the

relevant items that audiences will see.

• The gatekeeper decides what information should move past them

(through the information “gate”) to the group or individuals

beyond, and what information should not.

 • Gatekeepers are at a high level, data decision makers who control

information flow to an entire social system.

EVOLUTION OF MEDIA

• All media have their importance and usefulness.

• The media serve to keep us informed of current issues and the

development of a better society through an informed public

opinion.

• The beginning of human communication dates back to ancient

cave paintings, drawn maps, and writing.

• However, today we associate the word mass media to computers,

internet, newspapers, magazines, mobile phones.

• The highest level media revolutions, doubts are being the invention

of paper, phones, television, radio, computer and of course the

internet.

• Over time, the media has evolved, and the reaction of society and

accessibility to them.
• Man has always had a need to communicate.

• Earliest forms of writing Originated in China in the year 123 a.c.

• Gutenberg was the first European to use the impression in 1439.

• In the West, the first newspaper appeared even in antiquity, under

the command of Julius Caesar in ancient Rome.

• Telephone Device invented around 1860 by Italian Antonio

Meucci.

• Radio Was invented by the German Heinrich Hertz in 1888.

• The first semi-mechanical analogue television was shown in

London in February 1924, and later moving images in October

1925.

• The color television came in 1954.

• The first electro-mechanical computer was built by Konrad Zuse in

1910-1995.

• The origin of the global communications network (Internet), as it is

also known, was in the military.

• Media has been evolving through the ancient periods when kings

patronized their writers and poets for writing books and creating

dramas.

• The power of the media is known to the world. It has thrown away

mighty dynasties and created new empires.

• Mass media has helped in creating social awareness and has also

provided people with an easy way of living life. The print media

played an important part in the historical events.

• The media started evolving as early as 3300 B.C., when the

Egyptians perfected the hieroglyphics. This writing system was

based on symbols.

• Later in 1500 B.C., the Semites devised the alphabets with

consonants. It was around 800 B.C. that the vowels were

introduced into the alphabet by the Greeks.

• Many books were written in ancient times, but sources confirm

that the first printed book was the 'Diamond Sutra' written in China

in 868 A.D.
• But with the slow spread of literacy in China and the high cost of

paper in the country, printing lacked the speed required to reach

large numbers of people.

• However, printing technology quickly evolved in Europe.

• In 1400 A.DJohannes Gutenberg, a German goldsmith, invented

the printing press of movable type, which is said to be based on

screw bases.

• The first book was printed in the year 1453 A.D. One of the books

that were printed was, 'The Gutenberg Bible'.

• From a single city in Germany, the printing press spread all over

Europe, like a wildfire. In 1468 A.D. William Caxton produced a

book with the first printed advertisement in England.

• By the year 1500 A.D., two million copies of books were printed

in these countries. In the next hundred years, the printing rose to

two hundred million copies.

• The first telegraph line was set in the year 1844 by Samuel Morse.

And by the year 1858, the first transatlantic cable was established,

making it easier for people to communicate.

• The telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell in the year

which brought about a revolution in the field of communication.

• People were now able to sit in the comfort of their homes and chat

with friends and relatives across the globe.

• Meanwhile, in the year 1885, George Eastman invented the

photographic film.

• The film developed by Eastman helped Gilbert Grosvenor to

introduce photographs in 'National Geographic' in the year.

• The print media began losing popularity in the twentieth century

with the emergence of televisions and radios.

• During the year 1894, the radio was invented by Guglielmo

Marconi. Radios worked on the principle of transmission of

electromagnetic waves. As the transmission of radio programs

began, it became a prominent source of entertainment for the

public.

• The television was invented by John Logie Baird in the year The

first television transmission was done in the year 1927 by Philo

Farnsworth.
• Walt Disney produced the world's first full color film "Flower and

trees" in the year It was during the 1950s that the black and white

television became a part of the American household. What was

earlier in the paper could now be seen audio-visually.

• Neil Armstrong's walk on the moon was televised globally in

color, in the year Mass media in this form became technologically

dependent and progressed along with developments in fields of

electricity, semiconductors and cathode ray tubes.

• In the second half of the twentieth century, the Internet evolved.

With the concept of the Internet, the world got globally connected.

• The technology developed during the 1970s. It was Tim Berners-

Lee who had come up with this idea of WWW (world wide web)

in the year By the year 2004 Internet broadband connected more

than half of American homes.

• Instant message services were introduced in the year Since its

introduction, the Internet has been providing us with information

and connectivity.
 • Today, there are more than two billion people who use the Internet.

The world is now at our fingertips. With the click of a button we

can search for anything we want.

• In recent times, the introduction of smartphones has brought about

a major change in the lives of people. People do not have to wait

for hours to avail valuable information. The portability of this

device is an added advantage.

• Smartphones have specific features such as touchscreen, GPS,

web browsers, Wi-Fi connectivity and many more applications

which have added comfort and convenience.

History of Media Legislation

MEDIA LEGISLATION IN INDIAN CONTEXT

• There are many laws that regulate the performance of media in

India. Laws related to the media have been there since the very

beginning.
• In the time of the British Raj, many laws related to the Press were

enacted. In the post-Independence time, the various Governments

have enacted many more media related laws.

• Media being a very powerful influence on the society is regulated

and controlled by various legislations enacted from time to time.

List of Acts and Rules applicable to the media industry -

1. The Press and Registration of Books Act, 1867

2. The Registration of Newspapers (Central) Rules, 1956
3. The Press and Registration Appellate Board (Practice and Procedure) Order,
1961
4. The Press Council Act, 1978
5. The Press Council Rules, 1979
6. The Press Council (Procedure for Nomination of Members) Rules, 1978
7. The Press Council (Procedure for Inquiry) (Amendment) Regulations, 2006
8. The Press Council (Procedure for Conduct of Meetings and Business)
Regulations, 1979
9. The Press Council of India (Grant of Certified Copies) Regulations, 1999
10. The Working Journalists and Other Newspaper Employees (Conditions of
Service) and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1955
11. The Working Journalists (Conditions of Service) and Miscellaneous Provisions
Rules, 1957
12. The Working Journalists and other Newspaper Employees Tribunal Rules, 1979
13. The Working Journalists (Fixation of Rates of Wages) Act, 1958
14. The Newspaper (Prices and Pages) Act, 1956
15. The Delivery of Books and Newspapers (Public Libraries) Act, 1954
16. The Right to Information Act, 2005
17. The Right to Information (Regulation of Fee and Cost) Rules, 2005
18. The Central Information Commission (Appeal Procedure) Rules, 2005 19.The
Central Information Commission (Management) Regulations, 2007
19. The Drugs and Magic Remedies (Objectionable Advertisements) Act, 1954
20. The Drugs and Magic Remedies (Objectionable Advertisements) Rules, 1955
21. The Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950
22. The Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Rules, 1982
23. State Emblem of India (Prohibition of Improper Use) Act, 2005
24. State Emblem of India (Regulation of Use) Rules, 2007
25. The Parliamentary Proceedings (Protection of Publication) Act, 1977
26. The Young Persons (Harmful Publications) Act, 1956
27. The Punjab Special Powers (Press) Act, 1956 (Relevant Provisions)
29.Copyright Act, 1957
28. The Dramatic Performances Act, 1876 (Relevant Provisions)
29. The Cinematograph Act, 1952 and amendment Bill
30. The Cinematograph (Certification) Rules, 1983
31. The Cine-workers and Cinema Theatre Workers (Regulation of Employment)
Act, 1981
32. The Cine-Workers and Cinema Theatre Workers (Regulation of Employment)
Rules, 1984
33. The Cine-Workers Welfare Cess Act, 1981
34. The Cine-workers Welfare Cess Rules, 1984
35. The Cine-Workers Welfare Fund Act, 1981
36. The Cine-Workers Welfare Fund Rules, 1984
37. The Prasar Bharati (Broadcasting Corporation of India) Act, 1990
38. The Sports Broadcasting Signals (Mandatory Sharing with Prasar Bharati) Act,
2007
39. The Sports Broadcast Signals (Mandatory Sharing with Prasar Bharati) Rules,
2007
40. The Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act, 1995
41. The Cable Television Networks Rules, 1994
42. The Radio, Television and Video Cassette Recorder Sets (Exemption from
Licensing Requirements) Rules, 1997
43. The Standards of Quality of Service (Broadcasting and Cable services) (Cable
Television – CAS Areas) Regulation, 2006
44. The Indian Telegraph Act, 1885 (Relevant Provisions)
45. The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India Act, 1997
46. The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (Miscellaneous) Rules, 1999
49.The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (Period for Filing of Application
to Authority) Rules, 1999
47. The Telecommunication Interconnection (Port Charges) Regulation, 2001
51.The TRAI (Levy of Fees and Other Charges for Tariff Plans) Regulations,
2002
48. The Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (Form, Verification
and the Fee for Filing an Appeal) Rules, 2003
49. The Telecommunication Interconnection (Charges and Revenue Sharing)
Regulation, 2001
50. The Telecommunication Interconnection Usage Charges Regulation, 2003
51. The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (Salaries, Allowances and Other
Conditions of Service of Chairperson and Whole-time Members) Rules, 2000
52. The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (Procedure for Conducting Inquiry
Against a Member) Rules, 1999
53. The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (Annual Report and Returns)
Rules, 1999
54. The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (Form of Annual Statement of
Accounts and Records) Rules, 1999
55. The Telecommunication (Broadcasting and Cable Services) Interconnection
Regulations, 2004
56. The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (Access to Information)
Regulations, 2005
57. The Common Charter of Telecom Services, 2005
 58. The Regulation on Quality of Service of Basic and Cellular Mobile Telephone
Services, 2005
59. Quality of Service (Code of Practice for Metering and Billing Accuracy)
Regulation, 2006
60. The Standards of Quality of Service (Broadcasting and Cable Services) (Cable
Television – CAS Areas) Regulation, 2006
61. The Quality of Service of Broadband Service Regulations, 2006
62. The Telecom Consumers Protection and Redressal of Grievances Regulations,
2007
63. The Telecom Unsolicited Commercial Communications Regulations, 2007
68.The International Telecommunication Access to Essential Facilities at Cable
Landing Stations Regulations, 2007
64. The Telecommunication Consumers Education and Protection Fund
Regulations, 2007
65. The Direct to Home Broadcasting Services (Standards of Quality of Service and
Redressal of Grievances) Regulations, 2007
66. Domestic Leased Circuits Regulations, 2007
67. The Register of Interconnect Agreements Regulations, 1999
68. The Indian Post Office Act, 1898 (Relevant Provisions)
69. The Information Technology Act, 2000 (Relevant Provisions) and amendment
Act
70. The Information Technology (Certifying Authorities) Rules, 2000

Important Acts to Refer:

• The Press Council Act,1978

• The Copyright Act,1957

• The Information Technology Act,2000

• The Cinematograph Act,1952

• The Constitution of India,1950

• The Indian Penal Code,1860

• The Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act, 1995

• The Working Journalists (Conditions of Service) Act

• The Competition Act,2002