A: CARBON

Carbon is an element in Group IV(Group 4)of the Periodic table .It has atomic number 6 and electronic
configuration 2:4 and thus has four valence electrons(tetravalent).It does not easily ionize but forms
strong covalent bonds with other elements including itself.

(a)Occurrence
Carbon mainly naturally occurs as:
(i)allotropes of carbon i.e graphite, diamond and fullerenes.
(ii)amorphous carbon in coal, peat ,charcoal and coke.
(iii)carbon(IV)oxide gas accounting 0.03% by volume of normal air in the atmosphere.
(b)Allotropes of Carbon
Carbon naturally occur in two main crystalline allotropic forms, carbon-graphite and carbon-diamond

Carbon-diamond Carbon-graphite
Shiny crystalline solid Black/dull crystalline solid
Has a very high melting/boiling point because it Has a high melting/boiling point because it has a
has a very closely packed giant tetrahedral structure very closely packed giant hexagonal planar
joined by strong covalent bonds structure joined by strong covalent bonds
Has very high density(Hardest known natural Soft
substance)
Abrassive Slippery
Poor electrical conductor because it has no free Good electrical conductor because it has free 4 th
delocalized electrons valency delocalized electrons
Is used in making Jewels, drilling and cutting Used in making Lead-pencils,electrodes in batteries
metals and as a lubricant
Has giant tetrahedral structure Has giant hexagonal planar structure

c)Properties of Carbon
(i)Physical properties of carbon
Carbon occur widely and naturally as a black solid
It is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulphide and organic solvents.
It is a poor electrical and thermal conductor.
(ii)Chemical properties of carbon
I. Burning
Experiment
Introduce a small piece of charcoal on a Bunsen flame then lower it into a gas jar containing Oxygen gas.
Put three drops of water. Swirl. Test the solution with blue and red litmus papers.
Observation
-Carbon chars then burns with a blue flame
-Colourless and odourless gas produced
-Solution formed turn blue litmus paper faint red. Red litmus paper remains red.
Explanation
Carbon burns in air and faster in Oxygen with a blue non-sooty/non-smoky flame forming Carbon (IV)
oxide gas. Carbon burns in limited supply of air with a blue non-sooty/non-smoky flame forming Carbon
(IV) oxide gas. Carbon (IV) oxide gas dissolve in water to form weak acidic solution of Carbonic
(IV)acid.
Chemical Equation
C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2(g) (in excess air)
2C(s) + O2(g) -> 2CO(g) (in limited air)
 CO2(g) + H2O (l) -> H2CO3 (aq) (very weak acid)

II. Reducing agent

Experiment
Mix thoroughly equal amounts of powdered charcoal and copper (II)oxide into a crucible. Heat strongly.
Observation
Colour change from black to brown
Explanation
Carbon is a reducing agent. For ages it has been used to reducing metal oxide ores to metal, itself
oxidized to carbon(IV)oxide gas. Carbon reduces black copper(II)oxide to brown copper metal

Chemical Equation
2CuO(s) + C(s) -> 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(black) (brown)

2PbO(s) + C(s) -> 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)

(brown when hot/ (grey)
yellow when cool)

2ZnO(s) + C(s) -> 2Zn(s) + CO2(g)

(yellow when hot/ (grey)
white when cool)

Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) -> 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

(brown when hot/cool (grey)

Fe3O4 (s) + 4C(s) -> 3Fe(s) + 4CO2(g)

(brown when hot/cool (grey)

B: COMPOUNDS OF CARBON

The following are the main compounds of Carbon

(i)Carbon(IV)Oxide(CO2)
(ii)Carbon(II)Oxide(CO)
(iii)Carbonate(IV) (CO32-)and hydrogen carbonate(IV(HCO3-)
(iv)Sodium carbonate(Na2CO3)

(i) Carbon(IV)Oxide (CO2)

(a)Occurrence

Carbon(IV)oxide is found:
-in the air /atmosphere as 0.03% by volume.
-a solid carbon(IV)oxide mineral in Esageri near Eldame Ravine and Kerita near Limuru in
Kenya.

(b)School Laboratory preparation

In the school laboratory carbon(IV)oxide can be prepared in the school laboratory from the reaction of
marble chips(CaCO3)or sodium hydrogen carbonate(NaHCO3) with dilute hydrochloric acid.
(c)Properties of carbon(IV)oxide gas(Questions)

1.Write the equation for the reaction for the school laboratory preparation of carbon (IV)oxide gas.
Any carbonate reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid should be able to generate carbon (IV)oxide gas.
Chemical equations
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
ZnCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> ZnCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
MgCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> MgCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
CuCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> CuCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) -> Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
KHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) -> K2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
2.What method of gas collection is used in preparation of Carbon(IV)oxide gas. Explain.
Downward delivery /upward displacement of air/over mercury
Carbon(IV)oxide gas is about 1½ times denser than air.
3.What is the purpose of :
(a)water?
To absorb the more volatile hydrogen chloride fumes produced during the vigorous reaction.

(b)sodium hydrogen carbonate?

To absorb the more volatile hydrogen chloride fumes produced during the vigorous reaction and by reacting with the acid to
produce more carbon (IV)oxide gas .

Chemical equation
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) -> Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)

(c)concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid?
To dry the gas/as a drying agent

4.Describe the smell of carbon(IV)oxide gas

Colourless and odourless

5. Effect on lime water.

Experiment
Bubbled carbon(IV)oxide gas into a test tube containing lime water for about three minutes
Observation
White precipitate is formed.
White precipitate dissolved when excess carbon(IV)oxide gas is bubbled .
Explanation
Carbon(IV)oxide gas reacts with lime water(Ca(OH)2) to form an insoluble white precipitate of calcium carbonate. Calcium
carbonate reacts with more Carbon(IV) oxide gas to form soluble Calcium hydrogen carbonate.
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)

6. Effects on burning Magnesium ribbon

Experiment
Lower a piece of burning magnesium ribbon into a gas jar containing carbon (IV)oxide gas.
Observation
The ribbon continues to burn with difficulty
White ash/solid is formed.
Black speck/solid/particles formed on the side of gas jar.
Explanation
Carbon(IV)oxide gas does not support combustion/burning.Magnesium burn to produce/release enough heat energy to
decompose Carbon(IV) oxide gas to carbon and oxygen.Magnesium continues to burn in Oxygen forming white Magnesium
Oxide solid/ash.Black speck/particle of carbon/charcoal residue forms on the sides of reaction flask. During the reaction
Carbon(IV) oxide is reduced(Oxidizing agent)to carbon while Magnesium is Oxidized to Magnesium Oxide.
Chemical equation
2Mg(s) + CO2 (g) -> C (s) + 2MgO(l)

7. Dry and wet litmus papers were separately put in a gas jar containing dry carbon (IV)oxide gas. State and explain the
observations made.
Observation
Blue dry litmus paper remain blue
Red dry litmus paper remain Red
Blue wet/damp/moist litmus paper turn red
Red wet/damp/moist litmus paper remain red
Explanation
Dry Carbon (IV) oxide gas is a molecular compound that does not dissociate/ionize to release H+ and thus has no effect on litmus
papers.
Wet/damp/moist litmus papers contains water that dissolves/react with dry carbon (IV) oxide gas to form the weak solution of
carbonic (IV) acid(H2CO3).
Carbonic (IV) acid dissociate/ionizes to a few /little free H+ and CO32-.
The few H+ (aq) ions are responsible for turning blue litmus paper to faint red showing the gas is very weakly acidic.

Chemical equation
H2CO3(aq) -> 2H+ (aq) + CO32-(aq)
8. Explain why Carbon (IV)oxide cannot be prepared from the reaction of:
(i) marble chips with dilute sulphuric(VI)acid.
Explanation
Reaction forms insoluble calcium sulphate(VI)that cover/coat unreacted marble chips stopping further reaction
Chemical equation
CaCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> CaSO4 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
PbCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> PbSO4 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
BaCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> BaSO4 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(ii) Lead(II)carbonate with dilute Hydrochloric acid.
Reaction forms insoluble Lead(II)Chloride that cover/coat unreacted Lead(II) carbonate stopping further reaction unless the
reaction mixture is heated. Lead(II)Chloride is soluble in hot water.
Chemical equation
PbCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) -> PbCl2 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)

9. Describe the test for the presence of Carbon (IV)oxide.

Using burning splint
Lower a burning splint into a gas jar suspected to contain Carbon (IV)oxide gas.The burning splint is extinguished.
Using Lime water.
Bubble the gas suspected to be Carbon (IV)oxide gas.A white precipitate that dissolve in excess bubbling is formed.
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)

10.State three main uses of Carbon (IV)oxide gas

(i)In the Solvay process for the manufacture of soda ash/sodium carbonate
(ii)In preservation of aerated drinks
(iii)As fire extinguisher because it does not support combustion and is denser than air.
(iv)In manufacture of Baking powder.
 (ii) Carbon(II)Oxide (CO)
(a)Occurrence

Carbon(II)oxide is found is found from incomplete combustion of fuels like petrol charcoal, liquefied Petroleum Gas/LPG.

(b)School Laboratory preparation

In the school laboratory carbon(II)oxide can be prepared from dehydration of methanoic acid/Formic acid(HCOOH) or Ethan-
1,2-dioic acid/Oxalic acid(HOOCCOOH) using concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid. Heating is necessary.

METHOD 1:Preparation of Carbon (IV)Oxide from dehydration of Oxalic/ethan-1,2-dioic acid

METHOD 2:Preparation of Carbon (IV)Oxide from dehydration of Formic/Methanoic acid

(c)Properties of Carbon (II)Oxide(Questions)

1.Write the equation for the reaction for the preparation of carbon(II)oxide using;
(i)Method 1;
Chemical equation
HOOCCOOH(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
H2C2O4(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)

(ii)Method 2;
Chemical equation
HCOOH(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + H2O(l)
H2CO2(s) –Conc.H2SO4--> CO(g) + H2O(l)

2.What method of gas collection is used during the preparation of carbon (II) oxide.
Over water because the gas is insoluble in water.
Downward delivery because the gas is 1 ½ times denser than air .

3.What is the purpose of :

(i) Potassium hydroxide/sodium hydroxide in Method 1
To absorb/ remove carbon (II) oxide produced during the reaction.
2KOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> K2CO3 (s) + H2O(l)
2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l)

(ii) Concentrated sulphuric(VI)acid in Method 1 and 2.

Dehydrating agent –removes the element of water (Hydrogen and Oxygen in ratio 2:1) present in
both methanoic and ethan-1,2-dioic acid.

4. Describe the smell of carbon(II)oxide.

Colourless and odourless.
5. State and explain the observation made when carbon(IV)oxide is bubbled in lime water for a long
time.
No white precipitate is formed.

6. Dry and wet/moist/damp litmus papers were separately put in a gas jar containing dry
carbon(IV)oxide gas. State and explain the observations made.

Observation
-blue dry litmus paper remains blue
-red dry litmus paper remains red
- wet/moist/damp blue litmus paper remains blue
- wet/moist/damp red litmus paper remains red
Explanation
Carbon(II)oxide gas is a molecular compound that does not dissociate /ionize to release H+ ions and thus
has no effect on litmus papers. Carbon(II)oxide gas is therefore a neutral gas.
7. Carbon (II)oxide gas was ignited at the end of a generator as below.

Flame K
 Dry carbon(II)oxide

(i)State the observations made in flame K.

Gas burns with a blue flame
(ii)Write the equation for the reaction taking place at flame K.
2CO(g) + O2 (g) -> 2CO2 (g)

8. Carbon(II)oxide is a reducing agent. Explain

Experiment
Pass carbon(II)oxide through glass tube containing copper (II)oxide. Ignite any excess poisonous
carbon(II)oxide.
Observation
Colour change from black to brown. Excess carbon (II)oxide burn with a blue flame.
Explanation
Carbon is a reducing agent. It is used to reduce metal oxide ores to metal, itself oxidized to
carbon(IV)oxide gas. Carbon(II)Oxide reduces black copper(II)oxide to brown copper metal
Chemical Equation
CuO(s) + CO(g) -> Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(black) (brown)

PbO(s) + CO(g) -> Pb(s) + CO2(g)

(brown when hot/ (grey)
yellow when cool)

ZnO(s) + CO(g) -> Zn(s) + CO2(g)

(yellow when hot/ (grey)
white when cool)

Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(s) -> 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

(brown when hot/cool (grey)

Fe3O4 (s) + 4CO(g) -> 3Fe(s) + 4CO2(g)

(brown when hot/cool (grey)
These reaction are used during the extraction of many metals from their ore.

9. Carbon (II) oxide is a pollutant. Explain.

Carbon(II)oxide is highly poisonous/toxic.It preferentially combine with haemoglobin to form stable
carboxyhaemoglobin in the blood instead of oxyhaemoglobin.This reduces the free haemoglobin in the
blood causing nausea , coma then death.

10.The diagram below show a burning charcoal stove/burner/jiko. Use it to answer the questions
that follow.
Explain the changes that take place in the burner
Explanation
Charcoal stove has air holes through which air enters. Air oxidizes carbon to carbon(IV)oxide gas at
region I. This reaction is exothermic(-∆H) producing more heat.
Chemical equation
C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2(g)
Carbon(IV)oxide gas formed rises up to meet more charcoal which reduces it to Carbon(II)oxide gas.
Chemical equation
2CO2 (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO (g)
At the top of burner in region II, Carbon (II)oxide gas is further oxidized to Carbon(IV)oxide gas if there
is plenty of air but escape if the air is limited poisoning the living things around.
Chemical equation
2CO (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2 (g)
(excess air)
11.Describe the test for the presence of carbon(II)oxide gas.
Experiment
Burn/Ignite the pure sample of the gas. Pass/Bubble the products into lime water/Calcium hydroxide .
Observation
Colourless gas burns with a blue flame. A white precipitate is formed that dissolve on further bubbling of
the products.
Chemical equation
2CO (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2 (g) (gas burns with blue flame)
Chemical equation
Ca(OH) 2 (aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
Chemical equation
CO2 (g) + CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)

12. State the main uses of carbon (II)oxide gas.

(i) As a fuel /water gas
(ii)As a reducing agent in the blast furnace for extracting iron from iron ore(Magnetite/Haematite)
(iii)As a reducing agent in extraction of Zinc from Zinc ore/Zinc blende
(iv) As a reducing agent in extraction of Lead from Lead ore/Galena
(v) As a reducing agent in extraction of Copper from Copper iron sulphide/Copper pyrites.

(iii)Carbonate(IV) (CO32-)and hydrogen carbonate(IV(HCO3-)

1.Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) are normal salts derived from carbonic(IV)acid (H2CO3) and hydrogen carbonate
(IV) (HCO3-) are acid salts derived from carbonic(IV)acid.
Carbonic(IV)acid(H2CO3) is formed when carbon(IV)oxide gas is bubbled in water. It is a dibasic acid
with two ionizable hydrogens.
H2CO3(aq) ->2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
H2CO3(aq) -> H+(aq) + HCO3 - (aq)
2.Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) are insoluble in water except Na2CO3 , K2CO3 and (NH4)2CO3
3.Hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) are soluble in water. Only five hydrogen carbonates exist. Na HCO3 ,
KHCO3 ,NH4HCO3 Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2
Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2 exist only in aqueous solutions.
3.The following experiments show the effect of heat on Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) and Hydrogen carbonate
(IV) (HCO3-) salts:
Experiment
In a clean dry test tube place separately about 1.0 of the following:
Zinc(II)carbonate(IV), sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV), sodium carbonate(IV), Potassium carbonate(IV)
ammonium carbonate(IV), potassium hydrogen carbonate(IV), Lead(II)carbonate(IV),
Iron(II)carbonate(IV), and copper(II)carbonate(IV). Heat each portion gently the strongly. Test any gases
produced with lime water.
Observation
(i)Colorless droplets form on the cooler parts of test tube in case of sodium carbonate(IV) and Potassium
carbonate(IV).
(ii)White residue/solid left in case of sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV), sodium carbonate(IV), Potassium
carbonate(IV) and potassium hydrogen carbonate(IV).
(iii)Colour changes from blue/green to black in case of copper(II)carbonate(IV).
(iv) Colour changes from green to brown/yellow in case of Iron (II)carbonate(IV).
(v) Colour changes from white when cool to yellow when hot in case of Zinc (II) carbonate(IV).
(vi) Colour changes from yellow when cool to brown when hot in case of Lead (II) carbonate(IV).
(vii)Colourless gas produced that forms a white precipitate with lime water in all cases.
Explanation
1. Sodium carbonate(IV) and Potassium carbonate(IV) exist as hydrated salts with 10 molecules of water
of crystallization that condenses and collects on cooler parts of test tube as a colourless liquid.
Chemical equation
Na2CO3 .10H2O(s) -> Na2CO3 (s) + 10H2O(l)
K2CO3 .10H2O(s) -> K2CO3 (s) + 10H2O(l)
2. Carbonate (IV) (CO32-) and Hydrogen carbonate (IV) (HCO3-) salts decompose on heating except
Sodium carbonate(IV) and Potassium carbonate(IV).
(a) Sodium hydrogen carbonate(IV) and Potassium hydrogen carbonate(IV) decompose on heating to
form sodium carbonate(IV) and Potassium carbonate(IV).Water and carbon(IV)oxide gas are also
produced.
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (s) -> Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(white) (white)
2KHCO3 (s) -> K2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(white) (white)
(b) Calcium hydrogen carbonate(IV) and Magnesium hydrogen carbonate(IV) decompose on heating to
form insoluble Calcium carbonate(IV) and Magnesium carbonate(IV).Water and carbon(IV)oxide gas are
also produced.
Chemical equation
Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(Colourless solution) (white)
Mg(HCO3)2 (aq) -> MgCO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(Colourless solution) (white)
(c) Ammonium hydrogen carbonate(IV) decompose on heating to form ammonium carbonate(IV) .Water
and carbon(IV)oxide gas are also produced.
Chemical equation
 2NH4HCO3 (s) -> (NH4)2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(white) (white)
(d)All other carbonates decompose on heating to form the metal oxide and produce carbon(IV)oxide gas
e.g.
Chemical equation
MgCO3 (s) -> MgO (s) + CO2 (g)
(white solid) (white solid)
Chemical equation
BaCO3 (s) -> BaO (s) + CO 2 (g)
(white solid) (white solid)
Chemical equation
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO (s) + CO 2 (g)
(white solid) (white solid)
Chemical equation
CuCO3 (s) -> CuO (s) + CO2 (g)
(blue/green solid) (black solid)
Chemical equation
ZnCO3 (s) -> ZnO (s) + CO 2 (g)
(white solid) (white solid when cool/
Yellow solid when hot)
Chemical equation
PbCO3 (s) -> PbO (s) + CO 2 (g)
(white solid) (yellow solid when cool/
brown solid when hot)
4.The following experiments show the presence of Carbonate (IV) (CO 32-) and Hydrogen carbonate (IV)
(HCO3-) ions in sample of a salt:

(a)Using Lead(II) nitrate(V)

I. Using a portion of salt solution in a test tube .add four drops of Lead(II)nitrate(V)solution.Preserve.

Observation inference
White precipitate/ppt CO32- ,SO32- ,SO42- ,Cl-
-

II. To the preserved solution ,add six drops of dilutte nitric(V)acid. Preserve.

Observation inference
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42- ,Cl-

White precipitate/ppt dissolves CO32- ,SO32-

II. To the preserved sample( that forms a precipitate ),heat to boil.
Observation inference
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42-

White precipitate/ppt dissolves Cl-

II. To the preserved sample( that do not form a precipitate ),add three drops of acidified potassium
manganate(VII)/lime water
Observation inference
Effervescence/bubbles/fizzing colourless gas SO32-
produced
Acidified KMnO4 decolorized/no white precipitate
on lime water
Effervescence/bubbles/fizzing colourless gas CO32-
produced
Acidified KMnO4 not decolorized/ white
precipitate on lime water

Experiments/Observations:
(b)Using Barium(II)nitrate(V)/ Barium(II)chloride

I. To about 5cm3 of a salt solution in a test tube add four drops of Barium(II) nitrate (V) /
Barium(II)chloride. Preserve.

Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt SO42- , SO32- , CO32- ions

II. To the preserved sample in (I) above, add six drops of 2M nitric(V) acid . Preserve.

Observation 1
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt persists SO42- , ions

Observation 2
Observation Inference
White precipitate/ppt dissolves SO32- , CO32- , ions

III.To the preserved sample observation 2 in (II) above, add 4 drops of acidified potassium
manganate(VII) /dichromate(VI).

Observation 1
Observation Inference
(i)acidified potassium manganate(VII)decolorized SO32- ions
(ii)Orange colour of acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) turns to green

Observation 2
Observation Inference
(i)acidified potassium manganate(VII) not decolorized CO32- ions
(ii)Orange colour of acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) does not turns to green

Explanations

Using Lead(II)nitrate(V)
(i)Lead(II)nitrate(V) solution reacts with chlorides(Cl -), Sulphate (VI) salts (SO42- ), Sulphate (IV)salts
(SO32-) and carbonates(CO32-) to form the insoluble white precipitate of Lead(II)chloride,
Lead(II)sulphate(VI), Lead(II) sulphate (IV) and Lead(II)carbonate(IV).
Chemical/ionic equation:
Pb2+(aq) + Cl- (aq)-> PbCl2(s)
Pb2+(aq) + SO42+ (aq) -> PbSO4 (s)
Pb2+(aq) + SO32+ (aq) -> PbSO3 (s)
Pb (aq)
2+
+ CO32+ (aq) -> PbCO3 (s)

(ii)When the insoluble precipitates are acidified with nitric(V) acid,

- Lead(II)chloride and Lead(II)sulphate(VI) do not react with the acid and thus their white
precipitates remain/ persists.
- Lead(II) sulphate (IV) and Lead(II)carbonate(IV) reacts with the acid to form soluble Lead(II)
nitrate (V) and produce/effervesces/fizzes/bubbles out sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases
respectively.
. Chemical/ionic equation:
PbSO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Pb2+(aq) + SO2 (g)
PbCO3 (s) + 2H (aq) ->
+
H2 O (l) + Pb2+(aq) + CO2 (g)

(iii)When Lead(II)chloride and Lead(II)sulphate(VI) are heated/warmed;

- Lead(II)chloride dissolves in hot water/on boiling(recrystallizes on cooling)
- Lead(II)sulphate(VI) do not dissolve in hot water thus its white precipitate persists/remains on
heating/boiling.
(iv)When sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases are produced;
- sulphur(IV)oxide will decolorize acidified potassium manganate(VII) and / or Orange colour
of acidified potassium dichromate(VI) will turns to green. Carbon(IV)oxide will not.
Chemical equation:
5SO32-(aq) + 2MnO4- (aq) +6H+(aq) -> 5SO42-(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(purple) (colourless)
3SO32-(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +8H+(aq) -> 3SO42-(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(Orange) (green)
- Carbon(IV)oxide forms an insoluble white precipitate of calcium carbonate if three drops of
lime water are added into the reaction test tube when effervescence is taking place. Sulphur(IV)oxide
will not.
Chemical equation:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
These tests should be done immediately after acidifying to ensure the gases produced react with the
oxidizing agents/lime water.

Using Barium(II)nitrate(V)/ Barium(II)Chloride

(i)Barium(II)nitrate(V) and/ or Barium(II)chloride solution reacts with Sulphate (VI) salts (SO42- ),
Sulphate (IV)salts (SO32-) and carbonates(CO32-) to form the insoluble white precipitate of
Barium(II)sulphate(VI), Barium(II) sulphate (IV) and Barium(II)carbonate(IV).

Chemical/ionic equation:
Ba2+(aq) + SO42+ (aq) -> BaSO4 (s)
Ba2+(aq) + SO32+ (aq) -> BaSO3 (s)
Ba2+(aq) + CO32+ (aq) -> BaCO3 (s)

(ii)When the insoluble precipitates are acidified with nitric(V) acid,

- Barium (II)sulphate(VI) do not react with the acid and thus its white precipitates remain/
persists.
 - Barium(II) sulphate (IV) and Barium(II)carbonate(IV) reacts with the acid to form soluble
Barium(II) nitrate (V) and produce /effervesces /fizzes/ bubbles out sulphur(IV)oxide and
carbon(IV)oxide gases respectively.
. Chemical/ionic equation:
BaSO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Ba2+(aq) + SO2 (g)

BaCO3 (s) + 2H+(aq) -> H2 O (l) + Ba2+(aq) + CO2 (g)

(iii) When sulphur(IV)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide gases are produced;

- sulphur(IV)oxide will decolorize acidified potassium manganate(VII) and / or Orange colour
of acidified potassium dichromate(VI) will turns to green. Carbon(IV)oxide will not.

Chemical equation:
5SO32-(aq) + 2MnO4- (aq) +6H+(aq) -> 5SO42-(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(purple) (colourless)

3SO32-(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) +8H+(aq) -> 3SO42-(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

(Orange) (green)

- Carbon(IV)oxide forms an insoluble white precipitate of calcium carbonate if three drops of

lime water are added into the reaction test tube when effervescence is taking place. Sulphur(IV)oxide
will not.

Chemical equation:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
These tests should be done immediately after acidifying to ensure the gases produced react with the
oxidizing agents/lime water.

(iii) Sodium carbonate(IV) (Na2CO3)

(a)Extraction of sodium carbonate from soda ash

Sodium carbonate naturally occurs in Lake Magadi in Kenya as Trona.trona is the double salt ; sodium
sesquicarbonate. NaHCO3 .Na2CO3 .H2O.It is formed from the volcanic activity that takes place in Lake
Naivasha, Nakuru ,Bogoria and Elementeita .All these lakes drain into Lake Magadi through underground
rivers. Lake Magadi has no outlet.
Solubility of Trona decrease with increase in temperature.High temperature during the day causes trona to
naturally crystallize .It is mechanically scooped/dredged/dug and put in a furnace.
Inside the furnace, trona decompose into soda ash/sodium carbonate.
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 .Na2CO3 .H2O (s) -> 3Na2CO3 (s) + 5H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
(trona) (soda ash)
Soda ash is then bagged and sold as Magadi soda.It is mainly used:
(i)in making glass to lower the melting point of raw materials (sand/SiO 2 from 1650oC and CaO
from 2500oC to around 1500oC)
(ii)in softening hard water
(iii)in the manufacture of soapless detergents.
(iv)Swimming pool “pH increaser”
Sodium chloride is also found dissolved in the lake. Solubility of sodium chloride decrease with decreases
in temperature/ sodium chloride has lower solubility at lower temperatures. When temperatures decrease
at night it crystallize out .The crystals are then mechanically dug/dredged /scooped then packed for sale
as animal/cattle feeds and seasoning food.
Summary flow diagram showing the extraction of Soda ash from Trona

Sodium chloride and Trona

dissolved in the sea
Carbon(IV) oxide

Natural fractional crystallization

Crystals of Trona Dredging / Crushing Furnace

(Day time) scooping/ (Heating)
digging

Crystals of sodium
Soda ash
chloride(At night)

Bagging Bagging
Na2CO3 (s)
NaCl(s)

b)The Solvay process for industrial manufacture of sodium carbonate(IV)

(i)Raw materials.
-Brine /Concentrated Sodium chloride from salty seas/lakes.
-Ammonia gas from Haber.
-Limestone /Calcium carbonate from chalk /limestone rich rocks.
-Water from rivers/lakes.

(ii)Chemical processes
Ammonia gas is passed up to meet a downward flow of sodium chloride solution / brine to form
ammoniated brine/ammoniacal brine mixture in the ammoniated brine chamber
The ammoniated brine mixture is then pumped up, atop the carbonator/ solvay tower.
In the carbonator/ solvay tower, ammoniated brine/ammoniacal brine mixture slowly trickle down to
meet an upward flow of carbon(IV)oxide gas.
The carbonator is shelved /packed with quartz/broken glass to
(i) reduce the rate of flow of ammoniated brine/ammoniacal brine mixture.
 (ii)increase surface area of the liquid mixture to ensure a lot of ammoniated brine/ammoniacal
brine mixture react with carbon(IV)oxide gas.
Insoluble sodium hydrogen carbonate and soluble ammonium chloride are formed from the reaction.
Chemical equation
CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl (aq) + NH3(g) -> NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)

The products are then filtered. Insoluble sodium hydrogen carbonate forms the residue while soluble
ammonium chloride forms the filtrate.

Sodium hydrogen carbonate itself can be used:

(i) as baking powder and preservation of some soft drinks.
(ii) as a buffer agent and antacid in animal feeds to improve fibre digestion.
(iii) making dry chemical fire extinguishers.

In the Solvay process Sodium hydrogen carbonate is then heated to form Sodium carbonate/soda ash,
water and carbon (IV) oxide gas.
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (s) -> Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Sodium carbonate is stored ready for use in:

(i) during making glass/lowering the melting point of mixture of sand/SiO 2 from 1650oC and
CaO from 2500 C to around 1500 C
o o

(ii) in softening hard water

(iii) in the manufacture of soapless detergents.
(iv) swimming pool “pH increaser”.
Water and carbon(IV)oxide gas are recycled back to the ammoniated brine/ammoniacal brine chamber.
More carbon(IV)oxide is produced in the kiln/furnace. Limestone is heated to decompose into Calcium
oxide and carbon(IV)oxide.
Chemical equation
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Carbon(IV)oxide is recycled to the carbonator/solvay tower. Carbon (IV)oxide is added water in the
slaker to form Calcium hydroxide. This process is called slaking.
Chemical equation
CaO(s) + H2O (l) -> Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Calcium hydroxide is mixed with ammonium chloride from the carbonator/solvay tower in the ammonia
regeneration chamber to form Calcium chloride , water and more ammonia gas.
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) +2NH4Cl (aq) -> CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)

NH3(g) and H2O(l) are recycled.

Calcium chloride may be used:
(i)as drying agent in the school laboratory during gas preparation (except ammonia gas)
(ii)to lower the melting point of solid sodium chloride / rock salt salts during the Downs
process for industrial extraction of sodium metal.
Detailed Summary flow diagram of Solvay Process
Practice

1. The diagram below shows part of the Solvay process used in manufacturing sodium carbonate.
Use it to answer the questions that follow.

Carbon (IV)oxide Ammonium chloride

Ammonia Saturated
Process I Sodium hydrogen carbonate
sodium chloride
solution

Process II
Sodium carbonate

(a)Explain how Sodium Chloride required for this process is obtained from the sea.
Sea water is pumped /scooped into shallow pods. Evaporation of most of the water takes place leaving a
very concentrated solution.
(b)(i) Name process:
I. Filtration
II. Decomposition
(ii) Write the equation for the reaction in process:
Process I
Chemical equation
CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl (aq) + NH3(g) -> NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)

Process II
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (s) -> Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

(c)(i) Name two substances recycled in the solvay process

Ammonia gas , Carbon(IV)Oxide and Water.

(ii)Which is the by-product of this process?

Calcium(II)Chloride /CaCl2

(iii)State two uses that the by-product can be used for:

1. As a drying agent in the school laboratory preparation of gases.
2. In the Downs cell/process for extraction of Sodium to lower the melting point of rock
salt.

(iv)Write the chemical equation for the formation of the by-products in the Solvay
process.
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) +2NH4Cl (aq) -> CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)

(d)In an experiment to determine the % purity of Sodium carbonate produced in the Solvay
process ,2.15g of the sample reacted with exactly 40.0cm3 of 0.5M Sulphuric(VI)acid.
 (i)Calculate the number of moles of sodium carbonate that reacted.

Chemical equation
Na2CO3 (aq) +H2SO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq)+ CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Mole ratio Na2CO3 :H2SO4 => 1:1

Moles H2SO4 = Molarity x Volume => 0.5 x 40.0 = 0.02 Moles

1000 1000
Moles of Na2CO3 = 0.02 Moles

(ii)Determine the % of sodium carbonate in the sample.

Molar mass of Na2CO3 = 106g
Mass of Na2CO3 = moles x Molar mass => 0.02 x 106 = 2.12 g
% of Na2CO3 = ( 2.12 g x 100) = 98.6047%
2.15
(e) State two uses of soda ash.
(i) during making glass/lowering the melting point of mixture of sand/SiO 2 from 1650oC and
CaO from 2500oC to around 1500oC
(ii) in softening hard water
(iii) in the manufacture of soapless detergents.
(iv) swimming pool “pH increaser”.

(f)The diagram below shows a simple ammonia soda tower used in manufacturing sodium
carbonate .Use it to answer the questions that follow:

Raw
Excess Carbon(IV)oxide
materials

Metal plates

Substanc
eA

Sodium hydrogen carbonate

(i)Name the raw materials needed in the above process

-Ammonia
-Water
-Carbon(IV)oxide
 -Limestone
-Brine/ Concentrated sodium chloride

(ii)Identify substance A
Ammonium chloride /NH4Cl
(iii) Write the equation for the reaction taking place in:
I.Tower.
Chemical equation
CO2(g) + NaCl (aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g) -> NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)

II. Production of excess carbon (IV)oxide.

Chemical equation
CaCO3 (s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)

III. The regeneration of ammonia

Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2 (aq) +2NH4Cl (aq) -> CaCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)

(iv)Give a reason for having the circular metal plates in the tower.
-To slow the downward flow of brine.
-To increase the rate of dissolving of ammonia.
-To increase the surface area for dissolution

(v)Name the gases recycled in the process illustrated above.

Ammonia gas , Carbon(IV)Oxide and Water.

2. Describe how you would differentiate between carbon (IV)oxide and carbon(II)oxide using
chemical method.

Method I
-Bubble both gases in lime water/Ca(OH) 2
-white precipitate is formed if the gas is carbon (IV) oxide
- No white precipitate is formed if the gas is carbon (II) oxide
Method II
-ignite both gases
- Carbon (IV) oxide does not burn/ignite
- Carbon (II) oxide burn with a blue non-sooty flame.
Method III
-Lower a burning splint into a gas containing each gas separately.
-burning splint is extinguished if the gas is carbon (IV) oxide
-burning splint is not extinguished if the gas is carbon (II) oxide.
3.Using Magnesium sulphate(VI)solution ,describe how you can differentiate between a solution of
sodium carbonate from a solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate
-Add Magnesium sulphate(VI) solution to separate portions of a solution of sodium carbonate and sodium
hydrogen carbonate in separate test tubes
-White precipitate is formed in test tube containing sodium carbonate
-No white precipitate is formed in test tube containing sodium hydrogen carbonate.
Chemical equation
Na2CO3 (aq) +MgSO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + MgCO3(s)
(white ppt)
Ionic equation
CO32- (aq) + Mg2+ (aq) -> MgCO3(s)
(white ppt)
Chemical equation
2NaHCO3 (aq) +MgSO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + Mg(HCO3)2 (aq)
(colourless solution)

4. The diagram below shows a common charcoal burner .Assume the burning take place in a room
with sufficient supply of air.

(a)Explain what happens around:

(i)Layer A
Sufficient/excess air /oxygen enter through the air holes into the burner .It reacts with/oxidizes Carbon to
carbon(IV)oxide
Chemical equation
C(s) + O2(g) -> CO2 (g)

(ii)Layer B
Hot carbon(IV)oxide rises up and is reduced by more carbon/charcoal to carbon (II)oxide.
Chemical equation
C(s) + CO2(g) -> 2CO (g)
(ii)Layer C
Hot carbon(II)oxide rises up and burns with a blue flame to be oxidized by the excess air to form
carbon(IV)oxide.
2CO (g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2(g)

(b)State and explain what would happen if the burner is put in an enclosed room.
The hot poisonous /toxic carbon(II)oxide rising up will not be oxidized to Carbon(IV)oxide.

(c)Using a chemical test , describe how you would differentiate two unlabelled black solids
suspected to be charcoal and copper(II)oxide.

Method I
-Burn/Ignite the two substances separately.
-Charcoal burns with a blue flame
- Copper(II)oxide does not burn
Method II
-Add dilute sulphuric(VI)acid/Nitric(V)acid/Hydrochloric acid separately.
-Charcoal does not dissolve.
- Copper(II)oxide dissolves to form a colourless solution.
5. Excess Carbon(II)oxide was passed over heated copper(II)oxide as in the set up shown below for
five minutes.

(a)State and explain the observations made in the combustion tube.

Observation
Colour change from black to brown
Explanation
Carbon (II)oxide reduces black copper(II)oxide to brown copper metal itself oxidized to
Carbon(IV)oxide.
Chemical equation
CO(g) + CuO (s) -> Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(black) (brown)

(b) (i)Name the gas producing flame A

Carbon(II)oxide

(ii)Why should the gas be burnt?

It is toxic/poisonous
(iii)Write the chemical equation for the production of flame A
2CO(g) + O2(g) -> 2CO2(g)
(c)State and explain what happens when carbon(IV)oxide is prepared using Barium carbonate and
dilute sulphuric(VI)acid.

Reaction starts then stops after sometime producing small/little quantity of carbon(IV)oxide gas.
Barium carbonate react with dilute sulphuric(VI)acid to form insoluble Barium sulphate(VI) that
cover/coat unreacted Barium carbonate stopping further reaction to produce more Carbon(IV)oxide.
(d) Using dot () and cross(x) to represent electrons show the bonding in a molecule of :
(i) Carbon(II)oxide

(ii) Carbon(IV)Oxide.

(e) Carbon (IV)oxide is an environmental pollutant of global concern. Explain.

-It is a green house gas thus causes global warming.
-It dissolves in water to form acidic carbonic acid which causes “acid rain”

(f)Explain using chemical equation why lime water is used to test for the presence of Carbon (IV)
oxide instead of sodium hydroxide.

Using lime water/calcium hydroxide:

- a visible white precipitate of calcium carbonate is formed that dissolves on bubbling excess
Carbon (IV) oxide gas
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
(white precipitate)
CaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> Ca(HCO3) 2 (aq)
Using sodium hydroxide:
- No precipitate of sodium carbonate is formed Both sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate
are soluble salts/dissolves.
Chemical equation
2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) -> Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l)
(No white precipitate)
Na2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) -> 2NaHCO3 (s)

(g)Ethan-1,2-dioic acid and methanoic acid may be used to prepare small amount of
carbon(II)oxide in a school laboratory.
(i) Explain the modification in the set up when using one over the other.
Before carbon(II)oxide is collected:
-when using methanoic acid, no concentrated sodium/potassium hydroxide is needed to
absorb Carbon(IV)oxide.
-when using ethan-1,2-dioic acid, concentrated sodium/potassium hydroxide is needed to
absorb Carbon(IV)oxide.

(ii)Write the equation for the reaction for the formation of carbon(II)oxide from:
I.Methanoic acid.
Chemical equation HCOOH(aq) -> CO(g) + H2O(l)

II. Ethan-1,2-dioic acid

Chemical equation HOOCCOOH(aq) -> CO2(g)+CO(g)+H2O(l)
(h)Both carbon(II)oxide and carbon(IV)oxide affect the environment. Explain why carbon(II)oxide
is more toxic/poisonous.
-Both gases are colourless,denser than water and odourless.
-Carbon(II)oxide is preferentially absorbed by human/mammalian haemoglobin when inhaled forming
stable carboxyhaemoglobin instead of oxyhaemoglobin.This reduces the free haemoglobin in the blood
leading to suffocation and quick death. --Carbon(IV)oxide is a green house gas that increases global
warming.
-Carbon(II)oxide is readily oxidized to carbon(IV)oxide

6.Study the flow chart below and use it to answer the questions that follow.
(a)Name:
(i)the white precipitate A
Calcium carbonate
(ii) solution B
Calcium hydrogen carbonate
(iii) gas C
Carbon(IV)oxide
(iv) white residue B
Calcium oxide
(v) solution D
Calcium hydroxide/lime water

(b)Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction for the formation of:
(i) the white precipitate A from solution D
Chemical equation
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2 (g) -> CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)

(ii) the white precipitate A from solution B

Chemical equation
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) -> CO2 (g) + CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)

(iii) solution B from the white precipitate A

Chemical equation
CO2 (g) + CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

(iv) white residue B from the white precipitate A

Chemical equation
CaCO3(s) -> CO2 (g) + CaO (s)

(iv) reaction of white residue B with water

Chemical equation
CaO (s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq)