RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

DR.R.C.NAGARAJA
DR.R.C.NAGARAJA
ASSISTANT
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
PROFESSOR,
GOVERNMNET
GOVERNMNET FIRST
FIRST GRADE
GRADE COLLEGE,
COLLEGE, DAVANAGERE.
DAVANAGERE.
 1
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

An Introduction:
 MEANING OF RESEARCH:

Research in common
parlance refers to a search for
knowledge.
 Once can also define research as a

scientific & systematic search for

pertinent information on a specific
topic.
In fact, research is an art of scientific
 Research is an academic activity and as
such the term should be used in a
technical sense.
 According to Clifford Woody research
comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting,
organizing and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions;
and at last carefully testing the
conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to
achieve new insights into it (studies with this object
in view are termed as exploratory or formulative
research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group(studies
with this object in view are known as descriptive
research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated with something
else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
 (i) Descriptive vs. Analytical:
 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-
finding enquiries of different kinds.
 In social science and business research we quite
often use the term Ex post facto research for
descriptive research studies.
 The main characteristic of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables; he
can only report what has happened or what is
happening.
 The methods of research utilized in descriptive
research are survey methods of all kinds,
including comparative and correlation methods.
 In analytical research, on the
other hand, the researcher has to
use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to
make a critical evaluation of the
material.
 (ii) Applied vs. Fundamental:
 Applied (or action) research :
aims at finding a
solution for an immediate problem
facing a society or an
industrial/business organization,

 Fundamental (to basic or pure)

research: is mainly concerned
with generalizations and with the
formulation of a theory.
 (iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

 Quantitative research is based on

the measurement of quantity or
amount.

 Qualitative research, on the other

hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or
involving quality or kind.
 (iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical:

 Conceptual research :
is that related to some abstract
idea(s) or theory.

 Empirical research ;
It is data-based research, coming up
with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or
experiment. We can also call it as
experimental type of research.
(v) Some Other Types of Research:

 One-time research or longitudinal research. In

the former case the research is confined to a
single time-period, whereas in the latter case the
research is carried on over several time-periods.
 Field-setting research or laboratory research or
simulation research, depending upon the
environment in which it is to be carried out.
 Clinical or diagnostic research. Such research
follow case-study methods or in-depth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations.
 Conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While
doing conclusion-oriented research, a researcher
is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry
as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize
as he wishes.
 The exploratory research or it may be
formalized.
 The objective of exploratory research is
the development of hypotheses rather
than their testing, whereas formalized
research studies are those with
substantial structure and with specific
hypotheses to be tested.
 Historical research is that which utilizes
historical sources like documents,
remains, etc. to study events or ideas of
the past, including the philosophy of
persons and groups at any remote point
of time.
RESEARCH APPROACHES
 Two basic approaches to research, viz.,
quantitative approach and the
qualitative approach .
 Quantitative approach sub-classified
into inferential , experimental and
simulation approaches to research.
 Qualitative approach to research is
concerned with subjective assessment
of attitudes, opinionsand behavior.
RESEARCH METHODS VERSUS METHODOLOGY

 Research methods or techniques, thus, refer

to the methods the researchers use in
performing research operations.
 Thus, when we talk of research methodology
we not only talk of the research methods but
also consider the logic behind the methods
we use in the context of our research study
and explain why we are using a particular
method or technique and why we are not
using others so that research results are
capable of being evaluated either by the
researcher himself or by others.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN METHODS AND
TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION
RESEARCH PROCESS GUIDELINE:
(1) formulating
(1) the research problem;
(2) extensive literature survey;
(3) developing the hypothesis;
(4) preparing the research design;
(5) determining sample design;
(6) collecting the data;
(7) execution of the project;
(8) analysis of data;
(9) hypothesis testing;
(10) generalisations and interpretation,
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of
the results ,i. e., formal write-up of conclusions
reached.
1. FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM:

 There are two types of research

problems, viz., those which
relate to states of nature and
those which relate to
relationships between variables.
2. EXTENSIVE LITERATURE
SURVEY:

 Once the problem is formulated, a

brief summary of it should be
written down. It is compulsory for
a research worker writing a thesis
for a Ph.D. degree to write a
synopsis of the topic and submit it
to the necessary Committee or the
Research Board for approval.
 3. DEVELOPMENT OF WORKING HYPOTHESES:

 After extensive literature survey,

researcher should state in clear
terms the working hypothesis or
hypotheses.
 Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw
out and test its logical or empirical
consequences.
4. PREPARING THE RESEARCH
DESIGN:
 The research problem having been
formulated in clear cut terms, the
researcher will be required to prepare
a research design, i.e., he will have to
state the conceptual structure within
which research would be conducted.
 Research purposes may be grouped
into four categories, viz., (i)
Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii)
Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation.
 There are several research designs, such
as, experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis testing.
 Experimental designs can be either
 Informal designs (such as before-and-after
without control, after-only with control,
before-and-after with control)
 Formal designs (such as completely
randomized design, randomized block
design, Latin square design, simple and
complex factorial designs), out of which
the researcher must select one for his own
project.
5. DETERMINING SAMPLE
DESIGN:
 All the items under consideration in any
field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or
‘population’.
 A complete enumeration of all the items
in the ‘population’ is known as a census
inquiry.
 A brief mention of the important sample
designs is as follows:
 (i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate
sampling is also known as purposive or
non-probability sampling.
 (ii) Simple random sampling:
This type of sampling is also
known as chance sampling or
probability sampling where each
and every item in the population
has an equal chance of inclusion
in the sample and each one of
the possible samples, in case of
finite universe, has the same
probability of being selected.
 (iii) Systematic sampling: In some
instances the most practical way of
sampling is to select every 15th name on
a list, every 10th house on one side of a
street and so on.

 (iv) Stratified sampling: If the population

from which a sample is to be drawn does
not constitute a homogeneous group,
then stratified sampling technique is
applied so as to obtain a representative
sample.
 (v) Quota sampling:
In stratified sampling the cost of
taking random samples from
individual strata is often so
expensive that interviewers are
simply given quota to be filled
from different strata, the actual
selection of items for sample
being left to the interviewer’s
judgment.
 (vii) Multi-stage sampling:
This is a further development of the idea
of cluster sampling.

 (viii) Sequential sampling:

This is somewhat a complex sample
design where the ultimate size of the
sample is not fixed in advance but is
determined according to mathematical
decisions on the basis of information
yielded as survey progresses.
6. COLLECTING THE DATA:

 Data can be collected by any one

or more of the following ways:
(i) By observation
(ii) Through personal interview
(iii) Through telephone interviews
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires
(v) Through schedules
7. EXECUTION OF THE PROJECT:

8. Analysis of data:
Requires a number of closely related operations
such as establishment of

Categories
 Coding
 Editing
 Tabulation
 Analysis work after tabulation is generally based
on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well
defined statistical formulae.
 9. HYPOTHESIS-TESTING:

 Various tests, such as Chi square

test, t-test, F-test, have been
developed by statisticians for the
purpose.
 Hypothesis-testing will result in
either accepting the hypothesis or
in rejecting it.
10. GENERALISATIONS AND
INTERPRETATION

11. PREPARATION OF THE REPORT OR

THE THESIS
 3
RESEARCH DESIGN

 overall research design into the

following parts:
(a) the sampling design .
(b) the observational design .
(c) the statistical design .
(d) the operational design which
deals with the techniques by
which the procedures specified in
the sampling, statistical and
observational designs can be
NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

 Research design is needed

because it facilitates the smooth
sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making
research as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information
with minimal expenditure of
effort, time and money.
 FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN
 A research design appropriate for a particular
research problem,
 usually involves the consideration of the

following factors:
(i) the means of obtaining information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher
and his staff, if any.
(iii) the objective of the problem to be studied.
(iv) the nature of the problem to be studied.
(v) the availability of time and money for the
research work.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO RESEARCH
DESIGN

1. Dependent and independent variables:

A concept which can take on different
Quantitative values is called a variable. As such
the concepts like weight, height, income are all
examples of variables. Qualitative phenomena
(or the attributes) are also quantified on the
basis of the presence or absence of the
concerning attribute(s).
 ‘continuous variables’. Age *
 ‘discrete variables’. sex**
 For instance, if we say that height depends upon

age, then height is a dependent variable and age

is an independent variable.
2.Extraneous variable: Independent variables
3.Control: One important characteristic of a good
research design is to minimize the influence or
effect of extraneous variable(s).
4.Confounded relationship: When the dependent
variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between
the dependent and independent variables is said
to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
5.Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a
hypothesized relationship is to be tested by
scientific methods, it is termed as research
hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a
predictive statement that relates an
independent variable to a dependent variable.
6.Experimental and non-
experimental hypothesis-testing
research:
When the purpose of research is
to test a research hypothesis, it
is termed as hypothesis-testing
research.
It can be of the experimental
design or of the non-
experimental design.
7. Experimental and control groups:
In an experimental hypothesis-
testing research when a group is
exposed to usual conditions, it is
termed a ‘control group’,
but when the group is exposed to
some novel or special condition, it
is termed an ‘experimental group’.
8. Treatments:
The different conditions under which
experimental and control groups are
put are usually referred to as
‘treatments’.

9. Experiment:
The process of examining the truth of a
statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem, is known as an
experiment.
10. Experimental unit(s):
The pre-determined plots or the
blocks, where different
treatments are used, are known
as experimental units. Such
experimental units must be
selected (defined) very carefully.
DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS
Different
Different research
research designs
designs cancan be
be conveniently
conveniently described
described if if we
we
categorize
categorize them
them as:
as:
(1)
(1) Exploratory
Exploratory research
research studies;
studies; Exploratory
Exploratory research
research studies
studies are
are also
also
termed
termed asas formulative
formulative research
research studies.
studies.
(2)
(2) Descriptive
Descriptive And
And Diagnostic
Diagnostic research
research studies,
studies, (((survey
(((survey design
design ;;
Several
Several methods
methods (viz.,
(viz., observation,
observation, questionnaires,
questionnaires, interviewing,
interviewing,
examination
examination of
of records,
records, Cohort
Cohort {incidence},cross
{incidence},cross sectional
sectional
{prevalence},
{prevalence}, and and case-control
case-control studies
studies etc.),
etc.),
 Descriptive
Descriptive research
research studies
studies are
are those
those studies
studies which
which are
are concerned
concerned
with
with describing
describing thethe characteristics
characteristics of of a
a particular
particular individual,
individual, oror of
of a
a
group,
group,
 whereas diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with
whereas diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with
which
which something
something occurs
occurs or
or its
its association
association with
with something
something else.
else.
(3)
(3) Hypothesis-testing
Hypothesis-testing research
research studies.
studies. Hypothesis-testing
Hypothesis-testing research
research
studies
studies (generally
(generally known
known as as experimental
experimental studies)
studies) are
are those
those where
where
the
the researcher
researcher tests
tests the
the hypotheses
hypotheses of of causal
causal relationships
relationships between
between
variables.
variables. Such
Such studies
studies require
require procedures
procedures thatthat will
will not
not only
only reduce
reduce
bias
bias and
and increase
increase reliability,
reliability, but
but will
will permit
permit ;; agricultural
agricultural research
research
(such as treatment, yield, plot, block
(such as treatment, yield, plot, block etc.) etc.)
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS :
 Professor Fisher has enumerated

three principles of experimental

designs:
(1) the Principle of Replication;
(2) the Principle of Randomization;
(3) Principle of Local Control.
IMPORTANT EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

 (a)
 Informal experimental designs:
(i) Before-and-after without control design.
single test group or area
(ii) After-only with control design. two
groups or areas (test area and control
area)
(iii) Before-and-after with control design.
two areas are selected and the dependent
variable is measured in both the areas for
an identical time-period before the
treatment.
 AFTER-ONLY WITH CONTROL )II(
.DESIGN

 (b) Formal experimental designs:
(i) Completely randomized design (C.R.
Design).Simple design. ; Involves only two principles
viz., the principle of replication and the principle of
randomization of experimental designs. (one-way
ANOVA)*
(1) Two-group simple randomized design:
Population Randomly selected, Sample Randomly
assigned Experimental group Treatment A & Control
group reatment B (both are Independent variable)
(2) Random replications design: The limitation of the
two-group randomized design is usually
eliminated within the random replications design.
 (ii) Randomized block design (R.B.
Design). In the R.B. design the
principle of local control can be applied
along with the other two principles of
experimental designs. In the R.B. design,
subjects are first divided into groups,
known as blocks, such that within each
group the subjects are relatively
homogeneous in respect to some
selected variable. (two-way ANOVA)*
(iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design). is an
experimental design very frequently used
in agricultural research. (two-way
ANOVA)*
(iv) Factorial designs.
(a) Simple factorial designs:
Simple factorial design may either be a
2 × 2 simple factorial design, or it may
be, say, 3 × 4 or 5 × 3 or the like type of
simple factorial design.
(III) L.S. DESIGN
(IV) FACTORIAL DESIGNS SIMPLE FACTORIAL
DESIGNS
THE DATA OBTAINED IN CASE OF TWO (2 × 2) SIMPLE
FACTORIAL STUDIES MAY BE AS GIVEN IN FIG. 3.9.
2 × 2 SIMPLE FACTORIAL DESIGN
(4 × 3 SIMPLE FACTORIAL DESIGN).
(b) Complex factorial designs:
 Experiments with more than two

factors at a time involve the use of

complex factorial designs.
 the design used will be termed 2 ×

2 × 2 complex factorial design

which will contain a total of eight
cells
COMPLEX FACTORIAL DESIGNS:
CONCLUSION

 There are several research designs

and the researcher must decide in
advance of collection and
 analysis of data as to which design
would prove to be more
appropriate for his research
project.
 4
SAMPLING DESIGN

CENSUS
CENSUS AND AND SAMPLE
SAMPLE SURVEY
SURVEY
STEPS IN SAMPLE
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN DESIGN
(i)
(i) Type
Type of of universe:
universe:
(ii)
(ii) Sampling unit:.
Sampling unit:.
Sampling
Sampling unit unit may
may bebe a
a geographical
geographical one one such
such as
as state,
state, district,
district, village,
village, etc.,
etc., or
or a
a
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club, as family, club,
school,
school, etc.
etc.
(iii)
(iii) Source
Source list:
list:
It
It is also known
is also known as as ‘sampling
‘sampling frame’
frame’ from
from which
which sample
sample is is to
to be
be drawn.
drawn. It It contains
contains the
the
names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe
names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). only).
(iv)
(iv) Size
Size of of sample:
sample:
This
This refers
refers toto the
the number
number of of items
items toto be
be selected
selected from
from the
the universe
universe to to constitute
constitute a a
sample.
sample.
(v)
(v) Parameters
Parameters of of interest:
interest:
the
the specific
specific population
population parameters
parameters whichwhich are
are ofof interest.
interest. For
For instance,
instance, wewe may
may be
be
interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic
interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in the . in the .
(vi)
(vi) Budgetary
Budgetary constraint:
constraint: Cost
Cost considerations,
considerations, fromfrom practical
practical point
point ofof view,
view, have
have aa major
major
impact
impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of
upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of
sample.
sample.
(vii)
(vii) Sampling
Sampling procedure:
procedure: Finally,
Finally, the
the researcher
researcher mustmust decide
decide the
the type
type ofof sample
sample hehe will
will use
use
i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items
i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. for the sample.
 Sampling errors are the random variations
in the sample estimates around the true
population parameters.
Since they occur randomly and are equally
likely to be in either direction, their nature
happens to be of compensatory type and
the expected value of such errors happens
to be equal to zero.
Sampling error decreases with the
increase in the size of the sample, and it
happens to be of a smaller magnitude in
case of homogeneous population.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS

Sample designs are basically of two types viz.,

non-probability sampling and probability
sampling.
1. Non-probability
1. sampling : deliberate
sampling, purposive sampling and judgment
sampling; ‘non-random’; Quota
sampling.
2.
2. Probability sampling : ‘random sampling’ or
‘chance sampling’. Under this sampling design,
every item of the universe has an equal chance
of inclusion in the sample. Lottery method
HOW TO SELECT A RANDOM SAMPLE ?

1.
1. Simple cases: slip of paper; random number
tables; dice
2. COMPLEX RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGNS
2.

(i) Systematic sampling:

(i)

(ii) Stratified sampling

(ii)

(iii) Cluster sampling: :

(iii)

(iv) Area sampling:

(iv)

(v) Multi-stage sampling:

(v)

(vi) Sampling with probability proportional to

(vi)
size:
(vii) Sequential sampling:
(vii)
 5
MEASUREMENT AND SCALING
TECHNIQUES

 MEASUREMENT IN RESEARCH,
 In our daily life we are said to
measure when we use some
yardstick to determine weight,
height, or some other feature of a
physical object.
 MEASUREMENT SCALES

 From what has been stated above, we can write that scales of
measurement can be considered in terms of their
mathematical properties.
 The most widely used classification of measurement scales are

(a) Nominal scale; It is the least powerful level of measurement

(a)
this is applied to qualitative data where the objects or items
are classified into various discrete and distinctive groups or
categories without any ranking or order associated with
them. It does not posses any of the three attributes :
magnitude, equal interval and absolute zero point. Ex:
categorizing people according to their religion such as
Hindu,Muslim,Sikh and Christians.
(b)
(b)
.
Ordinal scale; (also known as Ranking Scale) )b(
This possesses the attribute of magnitude only. This means
that various categories of items can be compared with
each other only in order of rank assigned to these
categories. However these ranks only indicates as to which
category is grater or better, but does not indicated the
magnitude of the difference among them
Ex: Students may be categorized according to their grades
.of A,B,C,D,E,F etc. Where A is better than B and so on
(c) Interval scale: The interval scale is stronger than the ordinal scale because it
posses not only the magnitude arrtibute but also the equal intervals attribute
as it measures the values of the quantitative random variables and identifies
not only as to which category is greater or better but also by ‘how much’
The Fahrenheit scale is an example. (100◦◦ C)

(d) Ratio scale:

The ratio scale is also used for measurement of quantitative random
variables but it differs from interval scale in threat it has true(absolute)zero
point, meaning that the values of such variable can be zero also.
Ex: Physical measurement such as height, weight, distance etc.
10 Kg and 50 Kg are in the ratio of 1:5.
SCALE CLASSIFICATION BASES

(a) Subject orientation: to measure characteristics of the respondent.

(b) Response form:Categorical scales classify the scales as categorical

and comparative.
(c) Degree of subjectivity: With this basis the scale data may be based on
whether we measure subjective personal preferences or simply make
non-preference

(d) Scale properties: Considering scale properties, one may classify the
scales as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.

(e) Number of dimensions: In respect of this basis, scales can be

classified as ‘one-dimensional’ and ‘multidimensional’ scales.
(f)
(f) Scale
Scale construction
construction techniques:
techniques:
Following
Following are
are the
the five
five main
main techniques
techniques by
by which
which scales
scales can
can be
be developed.
developed.

(i)
(i) Arbitrary
Arbitrary approach:
approach:
It
It is
is an
an approach
approach where where scale
scale isis developed
developed on on ad
ad hoc
hoc basis.
basis. This
This is
is the
the most
most
widely
widely usedused approach.
approach.
(ii)
(ii) Consensus
Consensus approach:
approach:
Here
Here a a panel
panel ofof judges
judges evaluate
evaluate the the items
items chosen
chosen for for inclusion
inclusion inin the
the
instrument in terms of whether they are relevant
instrument in terms of whether they are relevant to the topic area andto the topic area and
unambiguous
unambiguous in in implication.
implication.
(iii)
(iii) Item
Item analysis
analysis approach:
approach:
Under
Under it it a
a number
number of of individual
individual items
items areare developed
developed into into aa test
test which
which is is
given to a group of respondents. After administering the
given to a group of respondents. After administering the test, the total scores test, the total scores
are
are calculated
calculated for for every
every one.
one. Individual
Individual items
items are
are then
then analyzed
analyzed to to determine
determine
which
which items discriminate between persons or objects with high total scores
items discriminate between persons or objects with high total scores
and
and those
those with
with low
low scores.
scores.
(iv)
(iv) Cumulative
Cumulative scales
scales are are chosen
chosen on on the
the basis
basis of
of their
their conforming
conforming to to some
some
ranking
ranking of items with ascending and descending discriminating power. For
of items with ascending and descending discriminating power. For
instance,
instance, in in such
such a a scale
scale the
the endorsement
endorsement of of an
an item
item representing
representing an an extreme
extreme
position
position should also result in the endorsement of all items indicating a less
should also result in the endorsement of all items indicating a less
extreme position.
extreme position.
(v)
(v) Factor
Factor scales
scales may
may be be constructed
constructed on on the
the basis
basis ofof inter
inter correlations
correlations of of items
items
which indicate that a common factor accounts for the
which indicate that a common factor accounts for the relationship between relationship between
items.
items. ThisThis relationship
relationship is is typically
typically measured
measured through
through factor
factor analysis
analysis method.
method.
COMMONLY USED ATTITUDE SCALES

Likerts Summated Scale : A summated rating scale 

is a set of attitude statements of which all are

considered or approximated as having equal attitude
value and to each of which subjects respond with a
degree of agreement or disagreement carrying
different scores. These scores are summed and
averaged to yield an individual attitude scale. Under
this method each respondents ranking is found out by
.totaling his scores on all the statements (usually 5)
.
Sl. Statements Agree Disagree
No
1 Advertising promotes sales 1 0
2 HRD is an exploitation of 1 0
people
3 Hard work increases 1 0
Productivity
4 Effective time management 1 0
reduces idle hours
5 Money and other physical 1 0
benefits are the only
Statement
motivations Stron Agree Undicide Disagree Strongly
gly d Disagree
Agree
Management 5 4 3 2 1
is a Science
Management 1 2 3 4 5
.
The Semantic Differential : Chales Osgood 
has developed a scaling procedure known as the
.semantic differential based on factors analysis
: Three Dimensional Factors 

E(i) An Evaluation Factor(represented by scales 

like good-bad, kind-cruel,honest-dishones)
P(ii) A Potency Factor (represented by scales like 
.Strong-week, hard-soft, and heavy-light
A(iii) An Activity Factor(represented by scales 
like active-passive, fast-slow,hot-cold)
.

: Procedure 
The size of content must be know, i.e. 
we must define the issue we want to
study in clear terms
Develop a number of items relating the 

issue
discard the ambiguous, irrelevant( 
)issues
Determine whether the issue at hand is 

.scalable
.

Thurstone’s Equal Appearing 

: interval Scale
This scale attemtps to represent the 
attitude of a group on a specified issue
in the form of frequency distribution.
The various opinions or items on a
scale are allocated to different
positions in accordance with the
attitudes they express. Following steps
are necessary to construct a Thurstone
.
Brief statements expressing attitudes about a particulars issue are 

gathered from current literature or are especially prepared for this

purpose. The statements should cover different ranges of attitude from
extremely favorable to extremely unfavorable and also include neutral
.statements
Statements are given arbitrary numbers for identification and a group 

.of judges are asked to sort them into several piles

After sorting, a complete tabulation is made to determine the number 

.of times each statement is included in the several piles

The scale value for each statement are determined graphically in the 

.form of an ogive or cumulative frequency curve

The final scale is then made, selecting 15 to 20 statements (preferably 

those is which judges have had least disagreement)

Respondents are then asked to check only those statements with 

.which they agree

.
Guttman’s Cumulative Scale : This scale is mad up of 

a relatively small number of statements which have been

tested for their Uni-dimensionality. This scale is also know
as Sealogram Analysis or Louis and Guttman Analysis. A
Uni dimensional scale measure one variable only. The
scale is known a cumulative as respondents agreeing
with the most favorable statements are theoretically
presented to agree with all other statements expressing
‘lesser’ degree of favorability. Use of this scale is also
avoided for its complexity Another scale used to measure
attitude is Social Distance Technique of Bogardue, which
.is normally used to measures highly subjective attitudes
 6
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

 The methods of collecting primary

and secondary data differ since
primary data are to be originally
collected, while in case of
secondary data the nature of data
collection work is merely that of
compilation.
COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
Important ones are:
(i) observation method,
(ii) interview method,
(iii) questionnaires,
(iv) schedules,
(v) other methods which include
(a) warranty cards;
(b) distributor audits;
(c) pantry audits;
(d) consumer panels;
(e) using mechanical devices;
(f) through projective techniques;
(g) depth interviews, and (h) content analysis
OBSERVATION METHOD
 The observation method is the most commonly used
method specially in studies relating to behavioral
sciences.
 Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method
of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a
formulated research purpose, is systematically
planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and
controls on validity and reliability.
 The main advantage of this method is that subjective
bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
 structured observation.
 unstructured observation.
 participant observation.
 non-participant observation. (disguised observation.)
INTERVIEW METHOD

 The interview method of collecting

data involves presentation of oral-
verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses.
 This method can be used through
personal interviews and, if
possible, through telephone
interviews.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUESTIONNAIRES AND SCHEDULES

 Both questionnaire and schedule are

popularly used methods of collecting data in
research surveys.
 There is much resemblance in the nature of
these two methods and this fact has made
many people
 to remark that from a practical point of
view, the two methods can be taken to be
the same. But from the technical
point of view there is difference between
the two.
SOME OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

 1. Warranty cards:
 2. Distributor or store audits:
 3. Pantry audits:
 4. Consumer panels:
 5. Use of mechanical devices:
 6. Projective techniques:
 7. Depth interviews:
 8. Content-analysis:
 COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
Secondary
Secondary data
data means
means data
data that
that are
are already
already available
available Usually
Usually
published
published data
data are
are available
available in:
in:
(a)various
(a)various publications
publications of of the
the central,
central, state
state are
are local
local
government
government
(b)
(b) various
various publications
publications of of foreign
foreign governments
governments or or ofof
international
international bodies
bodies and
and their
their subsidiary
subsidiary organizations
organizations
(c)
(c) technical
technical and
and trade
trade journals
journals
(d)
(d) books,
books, magazines
magazines and
and newspapers
newspapers
(e)
(e) reports
reports and
and publications
publications of of various
various associations
associations
connected
connected with
with business
business and and industry,
industry, banks,
banks, stock
stock
exchanges,
exchanges, etc.
etc.
(f)
(f) reports
reports prepared
prepared by by research
research scholars,
scholars, universities,
universities,
economists,
economists, etc.
etc. in
in different
different fields;
fields;
(g)
(g) public
public records
records and
and statistics,
statistics, historical
historical documents,
documents, and
and
other
other sources
sources of
of published
published information.
information.
CASE STUDY METHOD

 Meaning:
The case study method is a very
popular form of qualitative
analysis and involves a careful and
complete observation of a social
unit, be that unit a person, a
family, an institution, a cultural
group or even the entire
community.
 7
PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Technically
Technically speaking,
speaking, processing
processing implies
implies ::
1. editing,
1. editing,
2. coding,
2. coding,
classification
3. classification
3.

(a)
(a) Classification
Classification according
according to to attributes:
attributes:
qualitative
qualitative phenomenon
phenomenon ;; eithereither bebe descriptive
descriptive (such
(such as
as
literacy,
literacy, sex,
sex, honesty,
honesty, etc.)
etc.) or
or numerical
numerical (such
(such asas weight,
weight, height,
height,
income,
income, etc.).
etc.).
(b)
(b) Classification
Classification according
according to to class-intervals:
class-intervals:
quantitative
quantitative phenomenon;
phenomenon; Data Data relating
relating to to income,
income, production,
production,
age,
age, weight,
weight, etc.
etc. come
come under
under this
this category.
category.
Such
Such data
data are
are known
known as as statistics
statistics of
of
variables
variables and
and are
are classified
classified on
on the
the basis
basis ofof class
class intervals.
intervals.
4.
4. Tabulation
Tabulation ofof collected
collected data
data so
so that
that they
they are
are amenable
amenable to to
analysis.
analysis. tabulation
tabulation isis the
the process
process of of summarizing
summarizing raw raw data
data and
and
displaying
displaying thethe same
same in in compact
compact formform (i.e.,
(i.e., in
in the
the form
form of
of
statistical
statistical tables)
tables) for
for further
further analysis.
analysis.
 ELEMENTS/TYPES OF ANALYSIS

Analysis
Analysis may,may, therefore,
therefore, bebe
 categorized as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis
categorized as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis
(Inferential
(Inferential analysis
analysis isis often
often known
known asas statistical
statistical analysis).
analysis).
 “Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distributions of
“Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distributions of
one
one variable.
variable.
This
This study
study provides
provides usus with
with profiles
profiles of
of companies,
companies, workwork
groups,
groups, persons
persons and
and other
other subjects
subjects on
on any
any of
of a
a multiple
multiple ofof
characteristics
characteristics such
such as
as size.
size. Composition,
Composition, efficiency,
efficiency,
preferences,
preferences, etc.”.
etc.”. this
this sort
sort of
of analysis
analysis may
may be
be in
in respect
respect of
of
one
one variable
variable (described
(described as as unidimensional
unidimensional analysis),
analysis), oror in
in
respect
respect ofof two
two variables
variables (described
(described as
as bivariate
bivariate analysis)
analysis) or
or
in
in respect
respect ofof more
more than
than two
two variables
variables (described
(described as as
multivariate
multivariate analysis).
analysis).
In
In this
this context
context wewe work
work out
out various
various measures
measures thatthat show
show
the
the size
size and
and shape
shape ofof aa distribution(s)
distribution(s) along
along with
with the
the study
study
of
of measuring
measuring relationships
relationships between
between two
two or
or more
more variables.
variables.
 Correlation analysis studies :
the joint variation
of two or more variables for
determining the amount of correlation
between two or more variables.
 Causal analysis (This analysis can be
termed regression analysis. ) :
is concerned with the study of how
one or more variables affect changes
in another variable.
MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS
“all
“all statistical
statistical methods
methods which
which simultaneously
simultaneously analyze
analyze more
more than
than two
two
variables
variables on
on aa sample
sample of
of observations”.
observations”.
(a)
(a) Multiple
Multiple regression
regression analysis:
analysis:
one
one dependent
dependent variable
variable which
which isis presumed
presumed
to
to be
be aa function
function ofof two
two or
or more
more independent
independent variables.
variables. The
The
objective
objective is
is to
to make
make a a prediction
prediction about
about the
the dependent
dependent variable
variable
based
based onon its
its covariance
covariance with
with all
all the
the concerned
concerned independent
independent
variables.
variables.
(b)
(b) Multiple
Multiple discriminant
discriminant analysis:
analysis:
single
single dependent
dependent variable
variable that
that cannot
cannot be be
measured,
measured, butbut can
can be
be classified
classified into
into two
two or
or more
more groups
groups onon the
the
basis
basis of
of some
some attribute.
attribute. The
The object
object to
to predict
predict an
an entity’s
entity’s possibility
possibility
of
of belonging
belonging to to a
a particular
particular group
group based
based on on several
several predictor
predictor
variables.
variables.
(c)
(c) Multivariate
Multivariate analysis
analysis ofof variance
variance (or
(or multi-ANOVA):
multi-ANOVA):
This
This analysis
analysis isis an
an extension
extension of of two-way
two-way ANOVA,
ANOVA, wherein
wherein thethe ratio
ratio
of
of among
among group
group variance
variance toto within
within group
group variance
variance is
is worked
worked outout on
on
a
a set
set of
of variables.
variables.
 STATISTICS IN RESEARCH
 If
If fact,
fact, there
there are
are two
two major
major areas
areas of
of statistics
statistics viz.,
viz., descriptive
descriptive statistics
statistics and
and inferential
inferential
statistics.
statistics. Descriptive statistics concern the development of certain indices from the
Descriptive statistics concern the development of certain indices from the raw
raw
data, whereas inferential statistics concern with the process of generalization.
data, whereas inferential statistics concern with the process of generalization.

 Inferential
Inferential statistics
statistics are
are also
also known
known as
as sampling
sampling statistics
statistics and
and are
are mainly
mainly concerned
concerned with
with
two major type of problems:
two major type of problems:
(i)
(i) the
the estimation
estimation of
of population
population parameters,
parameters,
(ii)
(ii) the
the testing
testing of
of
statistical hypotheses.
statistical hypotheses.

The
The important
important statistical
statistical measures*
measures* that
that are
are used
used toto summarize
summarize the the survey/research
survey/research data
data
are:
are:
(1) measures
(1) measures of of central
central tendency
tendency or or statistical
statistical averages;
averages; thethe arithmetic
arithmetic average
average or
or mean,
mean,
median and mode. Geometric mean and harmonic mean are also
median and mode. Geometric mean and harmonic mean are also sometimes used. sometimes used.
(2) measures
(2) measures of of dispersion;
dispersion; variance,
variance, and
and its
its square
square root—the
root—the standard
standard deviation
deviation are
are the
the most
most
often
often used measures. Other measures such as mean deviation, range, etc. are also used.
used measures. Other measures such as mean deviation, range, etc. are also used. ..
For
For comparison
comparison purpose,
purpose, we we use
use mostly
mostly the
the coefficient
coefficient ofof standard
standard deviation
deviation or
or the
the
coefficient of variation.
coefficient of variation.
(3) measures
(3) measures of of asymmetry
asymmetry (skewness
(skewness andand kurtosis);
kurtosis);
(4) measures
(4) measures of of relationship;
relationship; Karl
Karl Pearson’s
Pearson’s coefficient
coefficient ofof correlation
correlation is
is the
the frequently
frequently used
used
measure
measure in case of statistics of variables, whereas Yule’s coefficient of association is
in case of statistics of variables, whereas Yule’s coefficient of association is used
used
in case of statistics of attributes. Multiple correlation coefficient, partial correlation
in case of statistics of attributes. Multiple correlation coefficient, partial correlation
coefficient,
coefficient, regression
regression analysis,
analysis, etc
etc
(5) other measures. ., Index numbers, analysis
(5) other measures. ., Index numbers, analysis of
of time
time series,
series, coefficient
coefficient of
of contingency,
contingency, etc.,
etc.,
are
are other measures that may as well be used by a researcher, depending upon the nature of
other measures that may as well be used by a researcher, depending upon the nature of
the problem under
the problem under study.study.
 8
SAMPLING

 The items so selected constitute

what is technically called a sample,
their selection process or
technique is called sample design
and the survey conducted on the
basis of sample is described as
sample survey.
SOME FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS

1. Universe/Population: The population or

universe can be finite or infinite.
2. Sampling frame: The elementary units or the
group or cluster of such units may form the
basis of sampling process in which case they
are called as sampling units.
3. Sampling design: A sample design is a
definite plan for obtaining a sample from the
sampling frame.
4. Statisitc(s) and parameter(s): A statistic is a
characteristic of a sample, whereas a
parameter is a characteristic of a population.
5. Sampling error: Sample surveys
do imply the study of a small
portion of the population and as
such there would naturally be a
certain amount of inaccuracy in
the information collected.
The meaning of sampling error can
be easily understood from the
following diagram:
FIG. 8.1
SAMPLING ERROR = FRAME ERROR + CHANCE ERROR +
RESPONSE
6. Precision:
Precision is the range within which the
population average (or other parameter)
will lie in accordance with the reliability
specified in the confidence level as a
percentage of the estimate ± or as a
numerical quantity.
For instance, if the estimate is Rs 4000
and the precision desired is ± 4%, then
the true value will be no less than Rs
3840 and no more than Rs 4160.
7. Confidence level and significance level:
The confidence level or reliability is the
expected percentage of times that the
actual value will fall within the stated
precision limits. Thus, if we take a
confidence level of 95%, then we mean
that there are 95 chances in 100 (or .95 in
1) that the sample results represent the
true condition of the population within a
specified precision range against5
chances in 100 (or .05 in 1) that it does
not.
8. Sampling distribution:
We are often concerned with sampling
distribution in sampling analysis.
If we take certain number of samples
and for each sample compute various
statistical measures such as mean,
standard deviation, etc., then we can
find that each sample may give its
own value for the statistic under
consideration.
IMPORTANT SAMPLING DISTRIBUTIONS

 Some important sampling

distributions, which are commonly
used, are:
 (1) sampling distribution of mean;
 (2) sampling distribution of
proportion;
 (3) student’s ‘t’ distribution;
 (4) F distribution; and
 (5) Chi-square distribution.
CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM
 from a normal population, the means of
samples drawn from such a population are
themselves normally distributed.
But when sampling is not from a normal
population, the size of the sample plays a
critical role. When n is small, the shape of the
distribution will depend largely on the shape of
the parent population, but as n gets large (n >
30), the thape of the sampling distribution will
become more and more like a normal
distribution, irrespective of the shape of the
parent population.
 “The significance of the central
limit theorem lies in the fact that it
permits us to use sample statistics
to make inferences about
population parameters without
knowing anything about the shape
of the frequency distribution of
that population other than what
we can get from the sample.”
SAMPLING THEORY

 Sampling theory is a study of

relationships existing between a
population and samples drawn from the
population.
 Sampling theory is designed to attain
one or more of the following objectives:
 (i) Statistical estimation:
The estimate can either be a point
estimate or it may be an interval
estimate.
 (ii) Testing of hypotheses:
The second objective of sampling theory
is to enable us to decide whether to
accept or reject hypothesis;
 (iii) Statistical inference:
Sampling theory helps in making
generalization about the population/
universe from the studies based on
samples drawn from it. It also helps in
determining the accuracy of such
generalizations.
CONCEPT OF STANDARD ERROR
THE STANDARD DEVIATION
 The standard deviation of sampling distribution of a statistic is
known as its standard error (S.E) and is considered the key to
sampling theory.
 The utility of the concept of standard error in statistical
induction arises on account of the following reasons:
1. The (S.E) helps in testing whether the difference between
observed and expected frequencies could arise due to
chance.
The criterion usually adopted is that if a difference is less
than 3 times the S.E., the difference is supposed to exist as a
matter of chance and if the difference is equal to or more than
3 times the S.E., chance fails to account for it, and we
conclude the difference as significant difference. This criterion
is based on the fact that at X ± 3 (S.E.) the normal curve
covers an area of 99.73 per cent.
 2. The standard error gives an idea about
the reliability and precision of a sample.
The smaller the S.E., the
greater the uniformity of sampling
distribution and hence, greater is the
reliability of sample.
 Conversely, the greater the S.E., the
greater the difference between observed
and expected frequencies. In such a
situation the unreliability of the sample is
greater.
 3. The standard error enables us to
specify the limits within which the
parameters of the population are
expected to lie with a specified
degree of confidence. Such an
interval is usually known as
confidence interval.
ESTIMATION

 In most statistical research

studies, population parameters are
usually unknown and have to be
estimated from a sample.
 SAMPLE SIZE AND ITS
DETEMINATION

 In sampling analysis the most

ticklish question what should be the
size of the sample or how large or
small should be ‘n’? If the sample
size (‘n’) is too small, it may not
serve to achieve the objectives and
if it is too large, we may incur huge
cost and waste resources.
DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE THROUGH
THE APPROACH BASED ON PRECISION RATE &
CONFIDENCE LEVEL

 To begin with, it can be stated

that whenever a sample study is
made, there arises some
sampling error which can be
controlled by selecting a sample
of adequate size.
 9
TESTING OF HYPOTHESES I
(PARAMETRIC OR STANDARD TESTS OF HYPOTHESES)

 Hypothesis is usually considered as the

principal instrument in and research.
 Ordinarily, when one talks about hypothesis,
one simply means a mere assumption or some
supposition to be proved or disproved.
But for a researcher hypothesis is a
formal question that he intends
 “Students who receive counseling will
show a greater increase in creativity
than students not receiving
counselling”
 Or “the automobile A is performing
as well as automobile B.”
 These are hypotheses capable of
being objectively verified and tested.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS:
 Hypothesis
Hypothesis must
must possess
possess the
the following
following characteristics:
characteristics:
(i) Hypothesis
(i) Hypothesis should
should bebe clear
clear and
and precise.
precise.
(ii)
(ii) Hypothesis
Hypothesis should
should bebe capable
capable of of being
being tested.
tested.
(iii)
(iii) Hypothesis
Hypothesis should
should state
state relationship
relationship between
between variables,
variables, if
if it
it
happens
happens to
to be
be aa relational
relational hypothesis.
hypothesis.
(iv)
(iv) Hypothesis
Hypothesis should
should be
be limited
limited inin scope
scope and
and must
must bebe specific.
specific.
(v)
(v) Hypothesis
Hypothesis should
should be
be stated
stated asas far
far as
as possible
possible in
in most
most simple
simple
terms
terms
(vi)
(vi) Hypothesis
Hypothesis should
should be
be consistent
consistent with
with most
most known
known facts
facts
(vii)
(vii) Hypothesis
Hypothesis should
should be
be amenable
amenable to to testing
testing within
within a
a reasonable
reasonable
time.
time.
(viii)
(viii) Hypothesis
Hypothesis must
must explain
explain the
the facts
facts that
that gave
gave rise
rise to
to the
the need
need
for
for explanation.
explanation.
BASIC CONCEPTS CONCERNING TESTING OF HYPOTHESES

 (a) Null hypothesis and alternative

hypothesis
POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVE
HYPOTHESIS
 b) The level of significance:
This is a very important concept in
the context of hypothesis testing .

It is always some percentage

(usually 5%) which should be
chosen wit great care, thought and
reason.
 (c) Decision rule or test of
hypothesis: Given
a hypothesis H0 and an alternative
hypothesis Ha,
we make a rule which is known as
decision rule according to which
we accept H0 (i.e., reject Ha) or
reject H0 (i.e., accept Ha).
ACCEPTANCE AND REJECTION REGIONS
IN CASE OF A TWO-TAILED TEST
(WITH 5% SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL)
PROCEDURE FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING

the
the main
main question
question is: is:
whether
whether to to accept
accept thethe null
null hypothesis
hypothesis or or not
not to
to accept
accept
the
the null
null hypothesis?
hypothesis? Procedure
Procedure for for hypothesis
hypothesis testing
testing
refers
refers to
to all
all those
those steps
steps that
that we
we undertake
undertake forfor making
making a a
choice
choice between
between the the two
two actions
actions i.e.,
i.e., rejection
rejection and
and
acceptance
acceptance of of aa null
null hypothesis.
hypothesis. The
The various
various steps
steps
involved
involved in in hypothesis
hypothesis testingtesting are
are stated
stated below:
below:
(i)
(i) Making
Making a a formal
formal statement:
statement: The The step
step consists
consists :: null
null
hypothesis
hypothesis is is H0
H0 :: m
m= = 10
10 tons
tons
Alternative
Alternative Hypothesis
Hypothesis Ha: Ha: mm> > 10
10 tons
tons
(ii)
(ii) Selecting
Selecting a a significance
significance level:
level:
(iii)
(iii) Deciding
Deciding the the distribution
distribution to to use:
use: (iv)
(iv) Selecting
Selecting a a random
random
sample
sample andand computing
computing an an appropriate
appropriate value
value
(vi)
(vi) Comparing
Comparing the the probability:
probability: Yet Yet another
another step
step consists
consists in
in
comparing
comparing the the probability
probability thus thus calculated
calculated with
with the
the
specified
specified value
value forfor a a ,, the
the significance
significance level.
level.
FLOW DIAGRAM FOR HYPOTHESIS
TESTING
 TESTS OF HYPOTHESES

 classified as:
 (a) Parametric tests or standard tests
of hypotheses; (1) z-test; (2) t-test; x2-
test, and (4) F-test. All these tests are
based on the assumption of normality
i.e., the source of data is considered to
be normally distributed.
 (b) Non-parametric tests or
distribution-free test of hypotheses.
 10
CHI-SQUARE TEST

 Chi-square, symbolically written as c2 (Pronounced as

Ki-square), is a statistical measure used in the
context of sampling analysis for comparing a variance
to a theoretical variance.
 As a non-parametric test, it “can be used to
determine if categorical data shows dependency or
the two classifications are independent. It can also be
used to make comparisons between theoretical
populations and actual data when categories are
used.”
 The test is, in fact, a technique
through the use of which it is
possible for all researchers to
 (i) test the goodness of fit;
 (ii) test the significance of
association between two
attributes, and
 (iii) test the homogeneity or the
significance of population
variance.
 chi-square can be used
(i) as a test of goodness of fit and
(ii) as a test of independence.
 No group should contain very few
items, say less than 10. I
 n case where the frequencies are less
than 10, regrouping is done by
combining the frequencies of adjoining
groups so that the new frequencies
become greater than 10.
 Some statisticians take this number as
5, but 10 is regarded as better by most
of the statisticians.
 11
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE AND CO-VARIANCE

 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)

ANOVA is essentially a procedure
for testing the difference among
different groups of data for
homogeneity.
 12
TESTING OF HYPOTHESES-II
(NONPARAMETRIC OR
DISTRIBUTION-FREE TESTS)
are
are important
important andand generally
generally used:
used:
(i)
(i) one-sample
one-sample sign
sign test.
test.
(ii)
(ii) two-sample
two-sample signsign test,
test, Fisher-Irwin
Fisher-Irwin test,
test, Rank
Rank sum
sum
test,
test, etc.
etc.
(iii)
(iii) Rank
Rank correlation,
correlation, Kendall’s
Kendall’s coefficient
coefficient of
of
concordance
concordance and and other
other tests
tests for
for dependence.
dependence.
(iv)
(iv) test
test analogous
analogous to to ANOVA
ANOVA viz.,
viz., Kruskal-Wallis
Kruskal-Wallis test.
test.
(v)
(v) Tests
Tests of
of randomness
randomness of of a
a sample
sample based
based on
on the
the theory
theory
of
of runs
runs viz.,
viz., one
one sample
sample runs
runs test.
test.
 13
MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
ALL STATISTICAL
 Of late, multivariate techniques have
emerged as a powerful tool to analyze
data represented in terms of many
variables.
 The main reason being that a series of
univariate analysis carried out
separately for each variable may, at
times, lead to incorrect interpretation
of the result.
THUS, WE HAVE TWO TYPES OF MULTIVARIATE TECHNIQUES:
ONE TYPE FOR DATA CONTAINING BOTH DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES, AND THE OTHER TYPE FOR DATA CONTAINING SEVERAL VARIABLES
WITHOUT DEPENDENCY RELATIONSHIP .
 14
INTERPRETATION AND REPORT WRITING
AFTER COLLECTING AND ANALYZING

 DIFFERENT
DIFFERENT STEPS
STEPS ININ WRITING
WRITING REPORT
REPORT
 Research
Research reports
reports are
are the
the product
product ofof slow,
slow, painstaking,
painstaking, accurate
accurate
inductive
inductive work.
work. The
The usual
usual steps
steps involved
involved in
in writing
writing report
report are:
are:
 (a)
(a) logical
logical analysis
analysis of
of the
the subject-matter;
subject-matter;
 (b)
(b) preparation
preparation ofof the
the final
final outline;
outline;
 (c)
(c) preparation
preparation of of the
the rough
rough draft;
draft;
 (d)
(d) rewriting
rewriting and
and polishing;
polishing;
 (e)
(e) preparation
preparation ofof the
the final
final bibliography;
bibliography;
 (f)
(f) writing
writing the
the final
final draft.
draft.
 Though
Though allall these
these steps
steps are
are self
self explanatory,
explanatory, yet
yet aa brief
brief mention
mention
of
of each
each oneone ofof these
these willwill be
be appropriate
appropriate forfor better
better
understanding.
understanding.
 TYPES OF REPORTS ,RESEARCH REPORTS
 (A) Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on (i) the methods
employed, (it) assumptions made in the course of the study, (iii) the
detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and
supporting data.
A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or
three pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study,
formulation of the problem in
operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data
required, etc.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used
4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and
limitations. If secondary
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and
presentation of the
findings of the study with supporting data in the form of tables and charts
be fully narrated. This, in
fact, happens to be the main body of the report usually extending over
several chapters.
(B) POPULAR REPORT

 The
The popular
popular report
report is is one
one which
which gives
gives emphasis
emphasis on on simplicity
simplicity and
and
attractiveness.
attractiveness. We We give
give below
below a a general
general outline
outline ofof aa popular
popular report.
report.
 1.
1. The
The findings
findings andand their
their implications:
implications: Emphasis
Emphasis in in the
the report
report isis given
given
on
on the
the findings
findings of of most
most practical
practical interest
interest andand onon the
the implications
implications of of
these
these findings.
findings.
 2.
2. Recommendations
Recommendations for for action:
action: Recommendations
Recommendations for for action
action on
on the
the
basis of the findings of the study is made in this section
basis of the findings of the study is made in this section of the report. of the report.
 3.
3. Objective
Objective of of the
the study:
study: A A general
general review
review of of how
how the
the problem
problem arise
arise is
is
presented
presented along
along with
with the
the specific
specific objectives
objectives of of the
the project
project under
under study.
study.
 4.
4. Methods
Methods employed:
employed: A A brief
brief and
and non-technical
non-technical description
description of of the
the
methods
methods and and techniques
techniques used,used, including
including a a short
short review
review of of the
the data
data onon
which
which the
the study
study isis based,
based, is is given
given inin this
this part
part of
of the
the report.
report.
 5.
5. Results:
Results: This
This section
section constitutes
constitutes thethe main
main body
body ofof the
the report
report wherein
wherein
the
the results of the study are presented in clear and non-technical terms
results of the study are presented in clear and non-technical terms
with
with liberal
liberal use
use ofof all
all sorts
sorts of
of illustrations
illustrations suchsuch as
as charts,
charts, diagrams
diagrams andand
the
the like
like ones.
ones.
 6.
6. Technical
Technical appendices:
appendices: More More detailed
detailed information
information on on methods
methods used,
used,
forms, etc. is presented in the form of appendices.
forms, etc. is presented in the form of appendices. But the appendicesBut the appendices
are
are often
often notnot detailed
detailed ifif the
the report
report isis entirely
entirely meant
meant forfor general
general public.
public.
 15
THE COMPUTER:
ITS ROLE IN RESEARCH

 The Computer is of the most

versatile and ingenious
developments of the modern
technological age. Today people
use computers in almost every
walk of life.
SELECTED REFERENCES AND
RECOMMENDED READINGS

 1.
1. Ackoff,
Ackoff, Russell
Russell L.,
L., The
The Design
Design ofof Social
Social Research,
Research, Chicago:
Chicago: University
University ofof Chicago
Chicago Press,
Press, 1961.
1961.

 2. Ackoff, Russell L., Scientific Method, New York: John Wiley
2. Ackoff, Russell L., Scientific Method, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1962. & Sons, 1962.

 3.
3. Allen,
Allen, T.
T. Harrell,
Harrell, New
New Methods
Methods in in Social
Social Science
Science Research,
Research, New
New York:
York: Praeger
Praeger Publishers,
Publishers, 1978.
1978.

 4.
4. Anderson, H.H., and Anderson, G.L., An Introduction to Projective Techniques and Other Devices for
Anderson, H.H., and Anderson, G.L., An Introduction to Projective Techniques and Other Devices for

 Understanding
Understanding the the Dynamics
Dynamics of of Human
Human Behaviour,
Behaviour, New New York:
York: Prentice
Prentice Hall,
Hall, 1951.
1951.

 5.
5. Anderson,
Anderson, T.W.,
T.W., An
An Introduction
Introduction to to Multivariate
Multivariate Analysis,
Analysis, New
New York:
York: John
John Wiley
Wiley && Sons,
Sons, 1958.
1958.

 6. Bailey, Kenneth D., “Methods of Social Research,”
6. Bailey, Kenneth D., “Methods of Social Research,” New York, 1978.New York, 1978.

 7.
7. Baker,
Baker, R.P.,
R.P., and
and Howell,
Howell, A.C.,
A.C., The
The Preparation
Preparation of of Reports,
Reports, New
New York:
York: Ronald
Ronald Press,
Press, 1938.
1938.

 8.
8. Bartee, T.C., “Digital Computer Fundamentals,” 5th Ed., McGraw-Hill, International Book
Bartee, T.C., “Digital Computer Fundamentals,” 5th Ed., McGraw-Hill, International Book Co.,
Co., 1981.
1981.

 9.
9. Barzun, Jacques, and Graff, Henery, F., The Modern Researcher, rev. ed., New York: Harcourt, Brace &
Barzun, Jacques, and Graff, Henery, F., The Modern Researcher, rev. ed., New York: Harcourt, Brace &

 World, Inc.,
World, Inc., 1970.
1970.

 10.
10. Bell,
Bell, J.E.,
J.E., Projective
Projective Techniques:
Techniques: A. A. Dynamic
Dynamic Approach
Approach to to the
the Study
Study ofof Personality,
Personality, New
New York:
York: Longmans
Longmans

 Green, 1948.
Green, 1948.

 11.
11. Bellenger,
Bellenger, Danny
Danny N.,
N., and
and Greenberg,
Greenberg, Barnett
Barnett A.,
A., Marketing
Marketing Research—A
Research—A Management
Management Information
Information

 Approach, Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin,
Approach, Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1978. Inc., 1978.

 12.
12. Berdie,
Berdie, Douglas
Douglas R.,
R., and
and Anderson,
Anderson, JohnJohn F.,
F., Questionnaires:
Questionnaires: Design
Design and
and Use,
Use, Metuchen
Metuchen N.J.:
N.J.: The
The

 Scarecrow Press,
Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
Inc., 1974.
1974.

 13.
13. Berelson,
Berelson, Bernard,
Bernard, Content
Content Analysis
Analysis inin Communication
Communication Research,
Research, NewNew York:
York: Free
Free Press,
Press, 1952.
1952.

 14.
14. Berenson, Conard, and Colton, Raymond, Research and Report Writing for Business and Economics,
Berenson, Conard, and Colton, Raymond, Research and Report Writing for Business and Economics,

 New
New York:
York: Random
Random House,
House, 1971.
1971.

 15.
15. Best,
Best, John
John W.,
W., and
and Kahn,
Kahn, James
James V.,
V., “Research
“Research in in Education,”
Education,” 5th
5th Ed.,
Ed., New
New Delhi:
Delhi: Prentice-Hall
Prentice-Hall ofof India
India

 Pvt. Ltd., 1986.
Pvt. Ltd., 1986.

 16.
16. Bhattacharya,
Bhattacharya, Srinibas,
Srinibas, Psychometrics
Psychometrics & & Behavioural
Behavioural Research,
Research, NewNew Delhi:
Delhi: Sterling
Sterling Publishers
Publishers Pvt.
Pvt.

 Ltd., 1972.
Ltd., 1972.

 17.
17. Boot,
Boot, John
John C.G.,
C.G., and
and Cox,
Cox, Edwin
Edwin B.,
B., Statistical
Statistical Analysis
Analysis for
for Managerial
Managerial Decisions,
Decisions, 2nd
2nd ed.
ed. New
New Delhi:
Delhi:

 McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., (International Student Edition),
McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., (International Student Edition), 1979. 1979.

 18.
18. Bowley,
Bowley, A.L.,
A.L., Elements
Elements of of Statistics,
Statistics, 6th
6th ed.
ed. London:
London: P.S.
P.S. King
King and
and Staples
Staples Ltd.,
Ltd., 1937.
1937.
 19. Burgess, Ernest W., “Research Methods in Sociology” in Georges Gurvitch and W.E. Moore (Ed.),
 Twentieth Century Sociology, New York: New York Philosophical Library, 1949.
 20. Chance, William A., Statistical Methods for Decision Making, Bombay: D.B. Taraporevala Sons & Co.
 Pvt. Ltd., 1975.
 21. Chaturvedi, J.C., Mathematical Statistics, Agra: Nok Jhonk Karyalaya, 1953.
 22. Chou, Ya-Lun, Statistical Analysis with Business and Economic Applications, 2nd ed. New York: Holt,
 Rinehart & Winston, 1974.
 23. Clover, Vernon T., and Balsley, Howard L., Business Research Methods, Columbus, O.: Grid, Inc., 1974.
 24. Cochran, W.G., Sampling Techniques, 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons., 1963.
 25. Cooley, William W., and Lohnes, Paul R., Multivariate Data Analysis, New York: John Wiley & Sons.,
 1971.
 26. Croxton, F.E., Cowden, D.J., and Klein, S., Applied General Statistics, 3rd ed., New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of
 India Pvt. Ltd., 1975.
 27. Dass, S.L., Personality Assessment Through Projective Movie Pictures, New Delhi: S. Chand & Co.
 (Pvt.) Ltd., 1974.
 28. Davis, G.B., “Introduction to Computers,” 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill International Book Co., 1981.
 29. Deming, W. Edwards., Sample Design in Business Research, New York: John Wiley & Sons., Inc., 1960.
 30. Dennis, Child, The Essentials of Factor Analysis, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973.
 31. Denzin, Norman, The Research Act, Chicago: Aldine, 1973.
 32. Edwards, Allen, Statistical Methods, 2nd ed., New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1967.
 33. Edwards, Allen L., Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,
 1957.
 34. Emory, C. William, Business Research Methods, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc. Homewood, 1976.
 35. Ferber, Robert (ed.), Handbook of Marketing Research, New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1948.
 36. Ferber, R., and Verdoorn, P.J., Research Methods in Economics and Business, New York: The Macmillan
 Company, 1962.
 37. Ferguson, George A., Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education, 4th ed., New York: McGraw-
 Hill Book Co., Inc., 1959.
 38. Festinger, Leon and Katz, Daniel (Eds.), Research Methods in the Behavioral Sciences, New Delhi:
 Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., Fourth Indian Reprint, 1976.
 39. Fiebleman, J.K., Scientific Method, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1972.
 40. Fisher, R.A., Statistical Methods for Research Workers, 13th ed., New York: Hafner Publishing Co., 1958.
 41. Fisher, R.A., The Design of Experiments, 7th rev. ed., New York: Hafner Publishing Co., 1960.
 42. Fox, James Harold, Criteria of Good Research, Phi Delta Kappa, Vol. 39 (March 1958).
 43. Freedman, P., The Principles of Scientific Research, 2nd ed., New York: Pergamon Press, 1960.
 44. Fruchter, Benjamin, Introduction to Factor Analysis, Princeton, N.J.: D.Van Nostrand, 1954.
 45. Gatner, Elliot S.M., and Cordasco, Francesco, Research and Report Writing, New York: Barnes & Noble,
 Inc., 1956.
 46. Gaum, Carl G., Graves, Harod F., and Hoffman, Lyne, S.S., Report Writing, 3rd ed., New York: Prentice-Hall,
 1950.
 47. Ghosh, B.N., Scientific Methods and Social Research, New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1982.
 48. Gibbons, J.D., Nonparametric Statistical Inference, Tokyo: McGraw-Hill Kogakusha Ltd., (International
 Student Edition), 1971.
 49. Giles, G.B., Marketing, 2nd ed., London: Macdonald & Evans Ltd., 1974.
 50. Glock, Charles Y., Survey Research in the Social Sciences, New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1967.
 51. Godfrey, Arthur, Quantitative Methods for Managers, London: Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., 1977.
 52. Good, Carter V., and Douglas, E. Scates, Methods of Research—Educational, Psychological, Sociological,
 New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954.
 53. Goode, William J., and Hatt, Paul K., Methods in Social Research, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952.
 54. Gopal, M.H., An Introduction to Research Procedure in Social Sciences, Bombay: Asia Publishing
 House, 1964.
 55. Gopal, M.H., Research Reporting in Social Sciences, Dharwar: Karnatak University, 1965.
 56. Gorden, Raymond L., Interviewing: Strategy, Techniques and Tactics, rev. ed., Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey
 Press, 1975.
 57. Green, Paul E., Analyzing Multivariate Data, Hinsdale, Ill.: Dryden Press, 1978.
 58. Green, Paul E., and Carmone, F.J., Multidimensional Scaling in Marketing Analysis, Boston: Allyn &
 Bacon, Inc., 1970.
 59. Guilford, J.P., Psychometric Methods, New York: McGraw Hill, Inc., 1954.
 60. Harnett, Donald L., and Murphy, James L., Introductory Statistical Analysis, Philippines: Addison-
 Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1975.
 61. Hillway, T., Introduction to Research, 2nd ed., Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1964.
 62. Hollander, Myles, and Wolfe, Douglas A., Nonparametric Statistical Methods, New York: John Wiley,
 1973.
 63. Hunt, R., and Shelley, J., “Computers and Common Sense,” 3rd ed., New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Ltd.,
 1984.
 64. Hyman, Herbert H., et al., Interviewing in Social Research, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975.
 65. John, Peter W.M., Statistical Design and Analysis of Experiments, New York: The Macmillan Co., 1971.
 66. Johnson, Ellen, The Research Report: A Guide for the Beginner, New York: Ronald Press, 1951.
 67. Johnson, Rodney D., and Siskin, Bernard R., Quantitative Techniques for Business Decisions, New
 Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., 1977.
 68. Kahn, Robert L. and Cannell, Charles F., The Dynamics of Interviewing, New York: John Wiley & Sons,
 1957.
 69. Karson, Marvin J., Multivariate Statistical Methods, Ames, Iowa: The Iowa State University Press, 1982.
 70. Kendall, M.G., A Course in Multivariate Analysis, London, Griffin, 1961.
 71. Kerlinger, Fred N. and Pedhazur, Elazar J., Multiple Regression in Behavioral Research, New York: Holt,
 Rinehart and Winston, 1973.
 72. Kerlinger, Fred N., Foundations of Behavioral Research, 2nd ed., New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston,
 1973.
 73. Kish, Leslie., Survey Sampling, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1965.
 74. Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, 2nd ed., New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1984.
 Kothari, C.R., Methods and Techniques, 2nd ed., New Age International (P) Ltd, 2004 .
 75. Lastrucci, Carles L., The Scientific Approach: Basic Principles of the Scientific Method, Cambridge,
 Mass.: Schenkman Publishing Co., Inc., 1967.
 76. Lazersfeld, Paul F., “Evidence and Inference in Social Research,” in David Lerher, Evidence and Inference,
 Glencoe: The Free Press, 1950.
 77. Leonard Schatzman, and Anselm L. Strauss, Field Research, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1973.
 78. Levin, Richard I., Statistics for Management, New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., 1979.
 79. Levine, S. and Elzey, Freeman F., A Programmed Introduction to Research, California: Wods Worth
 Publishing Co., 1968.
 80. Maranell, Gary M. (ed.), Scaling: A Source Book for Behavioral Scientists, Chicago: Aldine, 1974.
 81. Maxwell, Albert E., Analyzing Qualitative Data, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1961.
 82. Meadows, R., and Parsons, A.J., “Microprocessors: Essentials, Components and Systems,” Pitman, 1983.
 83. Meir, Robert C., Newell, William T., and Dazier, Harold L., Simulation in Business and Economics,
 Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1969.
 84. Miller, Delbert C., Handbook of Research Design & Social Measurement, 3rd ed., New York: David
 Mckay Company, Inc., 1977.
 85. Moroney, M.J., Facts from Figures, Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1956.
 86. Morrison, Donald F., Multivariate Statistical Methods, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.
 87. Nagel, Stuart S., and Neef, Marian, Policy Analysis in Social Science Research, London: Sage Publications,
 1979.
 88. Nie, N.H., Bent, D.H., and Hull, C.H., Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, New York: McGraw-
 Hill, 1970.
 89. Noether, G.E., Elements of Nonparametric Statistics, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1967.
 90. Nunnally, Jum C., Psychometric Theory, 2nd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978.
 91. Odum, H.W., and Jocher, Katharine, An Introduction to Social Research, New York: Henry Holt and Co.,
 1929.
 92. Oppenheim, A.N., Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurement, New York: Basic Books, 1966.
 93. Ostle, Bernard, and Mensing, Richard W., Statistics in Research, 3rd ed., Ames Iowa: The Iowa State
 University Press, 1975.
 94. Payne, Stanley, The Art of Asking Questions, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1951.
 95. Pearson, Karl, The Grammar of Science, New York: Meridian Books, Inc., 1957.
 96. Phillips, Bernard S., Social Research, Strategy and Tactics, 2nd ed., New York: The Macmillan Company,
 1971.
 97. Piaget, Jean, Main Trends in Interdisciplinary Research, London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1973.
 98. Popper, Karl R., The Logic of Scientific Discovery, New York: Basic Books, 1959.
 99. Rajaraman, V., “Fundamentals of Computers,” New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., 1985.
 100. Ramchandran, P., Training in Research Methodology in Social Sciences in India, New Delhi: ICSSR
 1971.
 101. Redman, L.V., and Mory, A.V.H., The Romance of Research, 1923.
 102. Roscoe, John T., Fundamental Research Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, New York: Holt, Rinehart
 and Winston, Inc., 1969.
 103. Runyon, Richard P., Inferential Statistics, Philippines: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1977.
 104. Sadhu, A.N., and Singh, Amarjit, Research Methodology in Social Sciences, Bombay: Himalaya Publishing
 House, 1980.
 105. Seboyar, G.E., Manual for Report and Thesis Writing, New York: F.S. Crofts & Co., 1929.
 106. Selltiz, Claire: Jahoda, Marie, Deutsch, Morton, and Cook, Stuart W., Research Methods in Social
 Relations, rev. ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1959.
 107. Sharma, B.A.V., et al., Research Methods in Social Sciences, New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
 1983.
 108. Sharma, H.D., and Mukherji, S.P., Research in Economics and Commerce, Methodology and Surveys,
 Varanasi: Indian Biographic Centre, 1976.
 109. Siegel, S., Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing
Co.,
 Inc., 1956.
 110. Subramanian, N., “Introduction to Computers,” New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd.,
1986.
 111. Summers, Gene F., (Ed.), Attitude Measurement, Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1970.
 112. Takeuchi, K., Yanai, H. and Mukherjee, B.N., The Foundations of Multivariate Analysis, New Delhi:
 Wiley Eastern Ltd., 1982.
 113. Tandon, B.C., Research Methodology in Social Sciences, Allahabad: Chaitanya Publishing House,
1979.
 114. Thorndike, Robert L. and Hagen, Elizabeth P., Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and
Education,
 4th ed., New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977.
 115. Thurstone, L.L., The Measurement of Values, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959.
 116. Torgerson, W., Theory and Methods of Scaling, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1958.
 117. Travers, Robert M.W., An Introduction to Educational Research, 4th ed., New York: Macmillan
Publishing
 Co., Inc., 1978.
 118. Tryon, R.C., and Bailey, D.E., Cluster Analysis, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970.
 119. Ullman, Neil R., Elementary Statistics, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1978.
 120. Whitney, F.L., The Elements of Research, 3rd ed., New York: Prentice-Hall, 1950.
 121. Wilkinson, T.S. and Bhandarkar, P.L., Methodology and Techniques of Social Research, Bombay:
Himalaya
 Publishing House, 1979.
 122. Willemsen, Eleanor Walker, Understanding Statistical Reasoning, San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and
 Company, 1974.
 123. Yamane, T., Statistics: An Introductory Analysis, 3rd ed., New York: Harper and Row, 1973.
 124. Young, Pauline V., Scientific Social Surveys and Research, 3rd ed., New York: Prentice-Hall, 1960