PRECAMBRIAN ROCKS OF THE TELEMARK AREA

IN SOUTH CENTRAL NORWAY. NO. VI

PRIMARY SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES IN

PRECAMBRIAN QUARTZITES OF TELEMARK,
SOUTHERN NORWAY, AND THEIR
ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

INDRA B. SINGH

Mineralogisk-Geologisk Museum, Oslo, Norway

SINGH, INDRA B.: Primary sedimentary structures in Precambrian quartz­

ites of Telemark, Southern Norway, and their environmental significance.
Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift, Vol. 49, pp. 1-31. Oslo 1969.
Primary sedimentary structures of the Precambrian quartzites of the
Telemark area, S. Norway, are described. The most prominent and
widespread feature is the alternating sand/clay (now quartzite/phyllite)
succession visible in most of the bedding types. Cross-bedding is the
most common bedding type; at places it shows herringbone cross­
stratification. Other bedding types recorded are: lenticular and fiaser
bedding, paraHel bedding, wavy bedding and ripple laminations. Ripple
marks of the symmetrical and asymmetrical oscillation ripple type are
more common. Some rare ripple mark patterns are: rhomboid ripple
marks, 'micro-ripples', interference ripp!e marks, ripple marks with
rounded crests and pointed troughs, and ripple marks with flat crests.
Raindrop imprints, erosional channels and unconformities, penecon­
temporaneous deformation structures, and ball and pillow structures are
also found. The presence of bioturbate structures suggests the existence
of organisms during the depositional history of these rocks (- 1500-900
m.y. B. P.). On the basis of primary sedimentary structures it is concluded
that deposition in this area was rapid and detrital material was present
in abundance. Deposition took place mainly in a shallow sea to inter­
tictal flat environment under the prevailing tida! currents.

Abstract .
lntroduction . 2
Geology of the Telemark region 2
Primary sedimentary structures 5
A. Ripple marks . 5
B. Cross-bedding 10
C. Ripp!e lamination . 16
D. Lenticular and fiaser bedding 19
E. ParaHel bedding .. 21
F. Wavy bedding 23
G. Raindrop imprints 24
H. Erosional channels and erosional unconformities 25
I. Penecontemporaneous deformation structures . 26
2 INDRA B. SINGH

J. Bioturbate structures .. 26
K. Other structures .. 28
Discussion .. 29
Acknowledgements 29
References .. 30

INTRODUCTION
Weil preserved primary sedimentary structures are not uncommon in the
Precambrian rocks. Usuaily, previous descriptions of these structures are
scanty and detailed environmental studies have rarelybeen made. In Precam­
brian sediments, where organic remains are usuaily absent, one has to rely
almost entirely on the primary sedimentary structures in order to understand
the conditions of deposition. In a recent publication Gavelin & Russel (1967)
have described primary sedimentary structures in Precambrian quartzites of
Sweden.
In the last decades much information on the origin and mode of occurrence
of primary sedimentary structures has been made available through the study
of recent environments and by flume experiments. This ailows a safer inter­
pretation of the depositional history than before.
The purpose of the present paper is to record and describe primary sedi­
mentary structures in the Precambrian quartzites of the Telemark area,
S. Norway. A comparison with primary sedimentary structures of recent
sediments has been attempted for the purpose of drawing conclusions about
the depositional conditions of the quartzites.

GEOLOGY OF THE TELEMARK REGION

Some earlier works on the geology of the Telemark are by Werenskiold
(1919, 1912), Bugge (1931), and Wyckoff (1934). Recently the geology of
the Telemark area has been described by Dons (1960 a andb) and the present
short account of the geology is based mainly on the publications by Dons.
The Telemark suite, i.e. the Telemark supracrustal rocks, consists of sedi­
ments, lavas, and tuffs, with a maximum thickness of about 4000 m. Absolute
age determinationbased on the minerals from quartz veins and granite peg­
matites which crosscut the sediments gives an age of 1500-900 million years.
Table l (p. 3) gives the sequence of rocks, which is divided into 3 groups:
Rjukan Group- Two formations; the Tuddal Formation (below) and the
Vemork Formation (above). There are mainly lavas and tuffs in the Tuddal
Formation. The Vemork Formation is composed ofbasic lavas, tuffs, biotite
schists, and pebbly arkoses as weil as quartz schists and quartzites. No
augular unconformity has been observed between the two formations.
Seljord Group- The thickness of this group has been estimated as more
than 2000 metres near Rjukan. There is locaily an augular unconformity
between this group and the underlying Rjukan Group. The most common
rock types are quartzites; rarer are conglamerates and schists.
 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES IN PRECAMBRIAN QUARTZITES 3

THE TELEMARK SUITE

iELJORO
A
:::::: ·-�•
&

:;-�·}': �::::; ;:.:.

. .
.•.
.

.-.":�·:/·: :7-:-.- :
.::.-·.._:;: :.::_.:.::.:
. .
GROUP
A

Seljord
quar tzite
etc. with
{ 8

-Schists
Red quartzlte , conglamerate
White and red quartzite

Ouartzite and calc.quartz schists

�
�
''Leptite:"qranulite'; amphibolites, agglomerates, etc.
(Supracrustals of the Bandok group

BANOAK GROUP

Quartz schlsts with conglamerates

Marble
?)

Basic lava with fossiliferous (?) bed

�-�·;-..:·: .: . ."..
.
congl. (, -Schists
basic sills Ouartzite (Gausta) with arkose, congl.,etc:. Acid lava
����: �:;��:�·
Basic lava with 1-4 sandstone or conglamerate beds,
)ivisions within column B refer to those recognized in the
polymictic conglamerate at the top
!jukan quadranqle and N E part of Kviteseid quadrangle.
Ouartzite with conglamerate
UUKAN GROUP
Acid lava
Mainly basic lavas and tuffs. Vemork formation. Ouartzite with conglomerate. Symbol for Seljord
Mainly acid lavas with agglomerate. Tuddal formation. quartzite also used for basal part of Bandok group
In the Nisser area strongly metamorphosed acid lava ? In the west (Heydalsmo-Vinje) supposed lower unih occur.

Table l. From legend to map compiled by J. A. Dons (Dons 1960a) .

Fig. J. Location map (based on part of map published by Dons 1960a). Ratehed areas along
roads show where primary sedimentary structures have been studied. Black = basic intrusions,
mainly sills (not distinguished in Seljord quartzite) . Variously orientated dashes (as in Ve­
huskjerringa) = gneiss granite and granite, partly older, partly younger than the supracrus­
tals. The key map shows the location of the map area in southern Norway.
4 INDRA B. SlNGH

Fig. 2. SymmetricaJ oscillation ripple marks. Two rippled surfaces superimposed on each
other, separated by a thin clayey layer are seen in a vertical section. Flatdal, Telemark. l div.
of the scale = J centimetre. The same scale has been used in several other illustrations in this
paper.

Fig. 3. AsymmetricaJ oscil­

lation ripple marks. Flatdal,
Telemark. Length of the
barnmer = 42 centimetres,
length of the barnmer head
= 14.5 centimetres. The same
barnmer has been used in
many other illustrations
in this paper.

Bandak Group - Consists of aeid and basic lavas and sediments rieh in
quartz. Locally there is an angular uneonformity between this and the under­
lying Seljord Group.
Dons (1963) deseribed ripple marks and mud eraeks from quartzites in
Telemark. Some fossil-like features were deseribed by him (1959) as Tele­
markites enigmaticus.
Quartzites of all the three groups contain similar primary sedimentary
 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES IN PRECAMBRIAN QUARTZITES 5

structures. In the area studied by the present author the rocks classified as
belonging to the Rjukan Group are of samewhat uncertain stratigraphic
position.
For the sake of convenience, quartzites of all the 3 groups have been re­
ferred to as the quartzites of Telemark in this paper. Sedimentologically, the
quartzites of the 3 groups are so similar that this is not unreasonable for the
purpose of environmental studies.
Fig. l shows the area in which primary sedimentary structures have been
studied. The area has undergone tectonism and metamorphism of the lower
amphibolite facies. Meta-sediments are represented mainly by quartzites and
phyllites. The quartzite was originally deposited as sand and the phyllite as
mud or clay. Considering this fact while comparing the primary sedimentary
structures of the quartzites of Telemark with those of recent sediments, the
terms sand (quartzite) and mud or clay (phyllite) have often been used in
this paper.

PRIMARY SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES

Pettijohn & Potter (1964) restrict this term to structures formed at the time
of deposition or shortly thereafter and before consolidatian of the rock in
which they are found. This definition is followed here. Most of the terms
used are explained and illustrated by Pettijohn & Potter (1964) and Shrock
(1948).

A. Ripple marks
In the quartzites of Telemark a number of different types have been recog­
nized. The most common forms are oscillation ripple marks, both symme­
trical (Fig. 2) and asymmetrical (Fig. 3). Dons (1963) describes different types
of ripple marks and mentions a symmetrical oscillation ripple mark with
foreset laminae only in one direction, but does not discuss its origin. Such
types of symmetrical oscillation ripple marks may originate in one of
two ways:
l) By the reworking of a current ripple mark through wave action, so
that only the shape of the ripple mark is modified, whereas the intemal
structure of a current ripple mark is preserved. However, in this case one
would expect a few laminae of a symmetrical oscillation ripple mark. Such
·

laminae were not observed by Dons or the present author.

2) Oscillation ripple marks of symmetrical shape, but with asymmetrical
interior structure, may be produced by wave action near shore, where ad­
vancing waves make foreset laminae, while back-wash is not strong enough to
produce laminae but is strong enough to maintain the symmetry of the ripple
mark. McKee (1965) demonstrated in flume experiments the formation of
such ripple marks by waves. Such ripple marks can also be produced by inter-
6 INDRA B. SINGH

Fig. 4. 'Micro-ripples'. These are oscillation ripple marks on a smaller scale. Distance between
two crests a bout l cm. Flatdal, Telemark. Centimetre-scale.

Fig. 5. Oscillation ripple

marks with rounded crests
and pointed troughs. Scale
in cms. Flatdal, Telemark.

action of a weak current (5-10 cmjsec.) and wave action (Wunderlich,

personal communication).
Other types of oscillation ripple marks recorded during the present study
include oscillation ripple marks on a smaller scale, 'micro-ripples' (Fig. 4),
 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES IN PRECAMBRIAN QUARTZITES 7

Fig. 6. Oscillation ripple marks with rounded crests and pointed troughs. These are not pure
oscillation ripple marks but have certainly been somewhat later modified probably due to
change in water leve! and current action. Åmot, Telemark.

Fig. 7. Oscillation ripple marks showing several different directions and grading into current
ripple marks at the left side of the photo. Such surfaces occur commonly on intertidal flats.
Åmot, Telemark.

and oscillation ripple marks with flatterred crests. Hattening of crests is due
to the washing away of a rippled surface. Both 'micro-ripples' and flat-toppat
ripples are often met with on intertidal flats, and may be considered typical
for an intertidal flat environment. Thus Tanner (1962) considers the flat­
topperl ripple mark to be a good indicator of very shallow water.
Very often oscillation ripple marks in the quartzites of Telemark show
rounded crests and pointed troughs (Figs. 5 and 6). According to Evans
(1941, 1949) such ripple marks are found in narrow helts near the shore, and
result from the action of slowly dying waves following a storm. Such ripple
marks are also very common on intertidal flats (Reineck, personal communi­
cation).
8 INDRA B. SINGH

Fig. 8. Current ripple marks. Direction of current from lower left corner to upper right corner.
Åmot, Telemark.

Fig . 9. Lingoid or cuspate ripple marks. Current from right to left. Road section Åmot-Vinje,
Telemark.

Fig. 7 shows a rippled surface on which two directional oscillation ripple

marks are present. These grade into current ripple marks in the depression
where, even during low tides, some water could flow. Such surfaces are
characteristic of intertidal flats. Interference ripple marks, sometimes forming
'tadpole nests' (Shrock 1948) are also recorded. They, too, are indicators of
very shallow water.
Simons & Richardson (1961) regard current ripples as bed forms restricted
to the lower flow-regime and formed at various current velocities depending
 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES IN PRECAMBRIAN QUARTZITES 9

Fig. JO. Longitudinal ripple marks. Direction of flow from left to right and paraBel to the ridges.
Åmot, Telemark. Centimetre-scale.

upon partide size. Several types of current ripple marks were found (Fig. 8).
among them also the lingoid ripple marks (Fig. 9) and the longitudinal ripple
marks (Fig. 10; van Straaten 1953 a).
Another rare but interesting pattern is that of rhomboid ripple marks
(Fig. 11). Shrock (1948) describes them as rare forms showing a reticulate,
scale-like pattern, and considers them to be too uncommon to be of any
importance. But even so, rhomboid ripple marks are good indicators of
environment. Their pattern is produced under very shallow waters (few
centimetres) flowing on the beach slopes with greater velocities. They are
common on the shores of the Frisian Islands and have been described by
Trusheim (1935), van Straaten (1953 b), and Reineck (1960 a). Fig. 12 shows
rhomboid ripple marks on recent sediments.
Tanner (1962) diseosses the shallow water and falling water level ripple
marks and expresses the opinion that ripple marks produced under such
conditions are more varied and complex than ripple marks developed under
other conditions. Variety and complexity of ripple marks present in the
quartzites of Telemark indicates their shallow water origin.
There is a close relationship between ripple marks and ripple bedding or
ripple lamination. Bucher (1919), Reineck (1961, 1963), J. Allen (1963), and
10 INDRA B. SINGH

Fig. 11. Rhomboid ripple

marks. Note the reticulate
scale-like pattern. Direction
of flow from upper to lower
side. In the lower right corner
is a surface with asymmetri­
ca! oscillation ripple marks.
Road seetian Åmot-Vinje,
Telemark.

McKee (1965) point out the close relationship between ripple marks and
several bedding types and these are further discussed with respective bedding
types.

B. Cross-bedding
The term cross-bedding has been used here in the sense of Otto (1938).
and as defined by Potter & Pettijohn (1963): 'Cross-bedding' is a stmcture
confined to a single sedimentation unit consisting of intemal bedding, called
foreset bedding, inclined to the principal surface of accumulation'. In this
paper the term 'foreset laminae' has been used in preference to 'foreset
bedding'.
Cross-bedding is the most common type of bedding present in the quart­
zites of Telemark. The thickness of a cross-bedded unit may vary from a
few millimetres to tens of metres.
 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES IN PRECAMBRIAN QUARTZITES 11

Fig. 12. Rhomboid ripple marks from a modem intertidal flat of the North Sea, Mellum
Island, Germany. Length of the knife approx. 50 centimetres.

Fig. 13. Planar cross-stratification with regular surfaces of erosion. Road section Åmot-Dalen,
Telemark.
12 INDRA B. SINGH

Fig. 14. Planar cross-stratification with irregular surface of erosion (arrow). Åmot, Telemark.

The classification of cross-bedded unit presents many problems and no

unanimous opinion exists as to how this should be done. Where possible
the terms given in this paper have been used in the same sense as their
quoted original author(s) intended. The following are the main types of cross­
bedded units recorded in quartzites of Telemark.
Planar cross-stratification (McKee & Weir 1953). Two types are distinguish­
ed in the present paper; l) the lower surface of erosion is regular (Fig. 13),
and 2) the lower surface of erosion is irregular (Fig. 14).
Trough cross-stratification (McKee & Weir 1953). This feature has been
observed both on a megascale (Fig. 15) as weil as on a smaller scale (Fig. 16).
Some authors prefer to use the term 'festoon bedding' for the same feature.
Herringbane cross-stratification (Shrock 1948). This term is applied to
cross-stratified layers with opposite directions of foreset laminae in adjacent
layers. This feature has been observed in Telemark on a megascale as weil
as a smaller scale. One sees this feature quite often within normal cross­
stratified units. Such herringbone cross-stratification has been recorded in
modem tidal sediments of the North Sea (Hiilsemann 1955, van Straaten
1954, Reineck 1963, 1967).
At a few places in the quartzites of Telemark, a modified form of herring­
bone cross-stratification has been recorded. In this case two adjacent quartzi­
tic layers with foreset laminae in opposite directions are always separated
by phyllitic (clayey) layers from a few millimetres to 1-2 centimetres thick
(Fig. 17). This feature may be considered as characteristic of a tida! environ­
ment. Cross-stratified sand was most probably deposited during ebb and
flood, whereas the mud settled during periods of quiscene, e. g. high tide
and low tide.
 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES IN PRECAMBRIAN QUARTZITES 13

Fig. 15. Trough cross-strati­

fication on a mega-scale.
Note the weil preserved fore­
set laminae. Road-section
Åmot-Totak, Telemark.
Centimetre-scale.

Cross-stratification with overturned foreset lamination. At several locali­

ties some units of cross-stratification show overturned foreset laminae (Fig.
18). McKee, Reynolds & Baker (1962) produced a similar structure in flume
study experiments and termed it an 'intraformational recumbent fold'. Cole­
man & Gagliano (1965) observed these features in a delta-front environment
of the Mississippi river. This structure is produced by the drag of strong
sediment-laden currents across the bottom.
14 INDRA B. SINGH

Fig. 16. Trough cross-stratification on smaller scale. Some of the 'festoons' have been inked in
on the photograph. Road section Åmot-Totak, Telemark. Scale in centimetres (20).

Fig. 17. Herring bane cross-stratification. Note the cross-stratified units with opposite directions
of foreset laminae. Two units are separated by a thin clayey layer. Flatdal, Telemark.
 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES IN PRECAMBRIAN QUARTZITES 15

Fig. 18. Cross-stratified units. One of the units shows the overturned foreset laminations ..
Lines have been drawn on the outcrop with a marker pen. Flatdal, Telemark.

Fig. 19. Mega-ripple bedding. Units are separated by a thin clayey layer. Flatdal, Telemark.

Mega-ripple bedding. (Reineck 1963). In principle this is the same as the

planar cross-bedding. The name denotes its origin due to mega-ripples (dunes)
of the lower flow regime. Fig. 19 shows mega-ripple bedding in Telemark.
16 INDRA B. SINGH

Fig. 20. Ripple lamination-in-ph�se (arrow). This is interbedded with paraHel bedding. Åmot,
Telemark.

Fig. 21. Ripple-drift-lamination, most clearly developed in the upper part of the photo. Flatdal,
Telemark.

In conclusion one may state that the cross-stratified units were deposited
due to interaction of migrating small ripples and megaripples in the lower
flow regime.

C. Ripple lamination
Ripple laminae are intemal sediment structures related to ripple marks. The
process of ripple drifting has been discussed by Reineck (1961). McKee
 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES IN PRECAMBRIAN QUARTZITES 17

Fig. 22. Initial stage of ripple-drift-lamination. Flatdal, Telemark. Centimetre-scale.

Fig. 23. Horizontal laminae produced from ripple lamination. Note the well developed hori­
zontal laminae in the upper part of the photo. Flatdal, Telemark.

(1965) gives a detailed account of their classification, genesis and mode of

occurrence and adds that ripple Iaminatian seen in sections other than normal
to crests may be difficult to recognize. He classified ripple laminatlon into
two major groups:
l. Ripple laminae without superposition
2. Superposed ripple laminae
(i) Superposed without drift, - ripple laminae-in-phase
(ii) Superposed with drift, - ripple drift laminae.
Under the present heading only type 2 will be discussed. Type l, however,
is described under D. 'Lenticular and fiaser bedding' and F. 'Wavy bedding'.
Ripple laminatlon in quartzites could be observed only at a few places in
the areas studied in Telemark. However, both ripple lamination-in-phase
(Fig. 20) and ripple drift lamination (Fig. 21) are present. Fig. 22 shows
ripple lamination in an initial stage, which may be seen at times to grade
into horizontal laminae (Fig. 23). According to McKee (1965) the development
of ripple lamination from ripple marks requires that abundant sediment
should be continually fed to a current or wave, so that the ripple marks are
built upward in an overlapping series rather than by a simple migration in
a forward direction. This results in climbing ripple laminae, ripple laminae-in­
phase, or both.

2
18 INDRA B. SINGH

Fig. 24. Lenticular bedding. Road section along the eastern side of Seljordsvatn, Telemark.

Fig. 25. Fiaser bedding. Note the partly isolated and partly connected flasers. Road section
Åmot-Totak, Telemark. Centimetre-scale.

Environments with a periodic accumulation of sediment favour the devel­

opment of ripple lamination; those characterized by much reworking are
unfavourable. Thus, ripple lamination is formed in shallow water areas
especially on deltas, flood plains or intertidal flats. They are not conspicuous
 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES IN PRECAMBRIAN QUARTZITES 19

Fig. 26. Lenticular bedding with completely preserved oscillation ripple marks. Cheveron-like
structure can be partly seen in the lenticles. Flatdal, Telemark.

Fig. 27. Lenticular bedding with completely preserved oscillation ripple marks from the inter­
tidal flats of the North Sea. Photo - Senekenberg Institut, Wilhelmshaven, Germany.

on intertidal flats hut may be common locally in tidal channel deltas (Reineck,
personal communication).

D. Lenticular and fiaser bedding (Linsen und Flaser-Schichtung).

Lenticular bedding is very common in the quartzites of Telemark (Fig. 24).
Fiaser bedding has also been observed (Fig. 25) and at places fiaser-bedding
has been found in which complete oscillation ripple marks are preserved
(Fig. 26). An illustration of this feature from a modern intertidal flat shows
the similarity (Fig. 27). lt has also been described by Reineck (1967).
20 INDRA B. SINGH

O 2cm

Fig. 28. 'Misch' flat bedding. Note the irregular sand lenticles embedded in clayey matrix.
Road section Åmot-Vinje, Telemark.

Fig. 29. Finely laminated sand/clay bedding. Flatdal, Telemark.

In addition, there are thick successions of lenticular and lenticular-like

bedding features which after metamorphism and slight deformation appear
similar to conglomerates (Singh 1968). Features appearing similar to lenti­
cular bedding, hut on a smaller scale, and regarded by Reineck (1967) as
typical of 'misch' flats (tidal flats where sand and mud components are equal
in amount) have also been found (Fig. 28).
Fiaser-bedding is produced when both sand and mud is present in suspen­
sion and there are periods of current alternating with periods of quiescence
(Häntzschel 1936, Reineck 1960 b). At times sand is deposited in the form
of ripple marks when the current is strong enough. During quiescent periods,
mud settles down from the suspension into the troughs, or sometimes covers
the ripples completely. Repetition of this process gives rise to fiaser bedding.
 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES IN PRECAMBRIAN QUARTZITES 21

Fig. 30. Coarsely Iaminated sand/clay bedding. Thickness of individual sand and clay layers
is almost equal. Road section along the eastern side of Seljordsvatn, Telemark.

If a preponderance of mud is deposited, the result is the formation of rippled

lenses of sand embedded in a muddy matrix and this gives rise to lenti­
cular bedding. Lenticular bedding is also produced by incomplete ripple marks
(Reineck 1960 b).
Ideal conditions for the formation of this bedding are found in a shaHow
sea with tidal currents. Häntzschel (1936), van Straaten 1954 and Reineck
(1960 b, 1963) have shown that lenticular bedding is at present being formed
in the shaHow water and intertidal flat areas of the southem North Sea.
Coleman & Gagliano (1965) observed lenticular bedding in the Mississippi
delta.

E. Parallel bedding

Two types of paraHel bedding may be distinguished:

l. finely laminated sandjclay bedding
2. coarsely laminated sandjclay bedding.
Numerous examples of both bedding types have been found in the quartz­
ites of Telemark At places, paraHel bedding occurs in thick successions.
In Telemark these layers can be foHowed for tens of metres, but at some
is measured in a few millimetres (Fig. 29). Such individual layers may, in
some cases, also represent parts of foreset laminae of a cross-bedded unit.
However, in most cases finely laminated sandjclay bedding is the result of
deposition from suspension. Richter (1927) and LUders (1930) called it a
rhythmicaHy laminated bedding. Wunderlich (1967) describes finely lamina­
ted sandfclay bedding produced by the formation of 'very flat current ripple
marks'.
22 INDRA B. SINGH

Fig. 3 1. Coarsely Iamirrated sand/clay bedding. Thicker sandy layers separated by thin clayey
layers. Flatdal, Telemark.

Fig. 32. Pinching out of individual layers in a coarsely laminated sand/clay bedding. Road
section along the eastem side of Seljordsvatn, Telemark. Centimetre-scale.

Fig. 33. Wavy bedding. lndividual sandy layers are always separated by thin clayey
layers. Flatdal, Telemark. Centimetre-scale.
 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES IN PRECAMBRIAN QUARTZITES 23

Fig. 34. Wavy bedding in an otherwise paraHel bedded sequence. Flatdal, Telemark. Centi­
metre-scale.

Coarsely laminated sandfclay bedding, in which the thickness of individual

layers is several centimetres, can be divided into two groups:
l. when the thickness of sand and clay layers is equal (Fig. 30),
2. when thick sandy layers are separated by thin clayey layers (Fig. 31).
In Telemark these layers can be followed for tens of metres, hut at some
places pinching out of individual layers is a common feature (Fig. 32).
It is not possible to say whether some of this paraHel beddings was formed
by horizontal laminae, produced in the upper flow regime (cf. Harms &
Fahnestock 1965), or was deposited from suspension in a flow regime with
less energy than that required for ripples.
Finely laminated sandfclay bedding and coarsely laminated sandjclay bed­
ding is common in shallow seas and intertidal flats of the North Sea where
prevailing tidal currents are present (Reineck 1963, 1967).

F. Wavy bedding

Wavy bedding is characterized by undulatory bounding surfaces and is related

to ripple bedding. In the quartzites of Telemark rippled quartzitic layers of
wavy bedded units are always separated by thin phyllitic layers (Fig. 33).
Sometimes wavy bedded units are present within an otherwise parallel bedded
sequence (Fig. 34).
24 INDRA B. SINGH

Fig. 35. Raindrop imprints on asymmetrical oscillation ripple marks. Note the better pres­
servation of raindrop imprints on the crestal parts of the ripple marks. Road section Åmot­
Vinje, Telemark. Centimetre-scale.

Fig.36.Acloser view of raindrop imprints. Road section Åmot-Vinje, Telemark. Centimetre­

scale.

G. Raindrop imprints

Beautifully preserved raindrop imprints (Figs. 35, 36) have been found on a
rippled surface of the Bandak Group. The raindrop imprints are better pres­
erved on the crestal parts of the ripples than in the troughs. This is because
at the time of the rain, the crestal parts were drier than the troughs and
 SEDIMENTARY STRUCIURES IN PRECAMBRIAN QUARTZITES 25

Fig. 37. Raindrop im­

prints on a rippled sur­
face. Intertidal flat of
the North Sea.

Fig. 38. An erosional unconformity. Road section Åmot-Höydalsmo, Telemark. Centimetre­

scale.

rain could make better impact on the drier parts. The elliptical shape of the
impact eraters is most probably due to an oblique direction of the rain
(cf. Shrock 1948). The effect of tectonic deformation at this locality seems
to be negligible. The sediment at this locality was originally a silty fine sand.
This feature can be taken as an indication of desposition in an area with
intermittent periods of dryness, e. g. an intertidal flat environment. For
comparison, Fig. 37 shows raindrop imprints on a rippled surface from a
modern intertidal flat.

H. Erosional channels and erosional unconformities

In a basin of deposition intermittent erosion may take place. Two cross­
stratified units are usually separated by an erosional surface. Sometimes
26 INDRA B. SJNGH

Fig. 39. A small erosional channel in a cross-stratified sequence. Åmot, Telemark.

Fig. 40. An erosional channel within a cross-stratified unit. Åmot, Telemark.

erosion produces angular erosional unconformities (Fig. 38) and erosional

channels of varying shape and size (Figs. 39 and 40).
Channels are a common feature in the environment of intertidal flats.

l. Penecontemporaneous deformation structures

At some outcrops were observed small scale tension faults extending up to
a few centimetres, and restricted to a few beds only (Fig. 4 1). Such features
are considered as having been formed during deposition due to processcs
like slumping and are common in areas of rapid sedimentation.

J. Bioturbale struetures
Bioturbate structures are those features which are produced by the activity
of organisms in the sedim�nts at the time of deposition, or shortly after.
Bioturbate features tend to destroy primary bedding formed by inorganic
agencies. Schäfer ( 1956) distinguishes two types of bioturbate structures:
 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES IN PRECAMBRIAN QUARTZITES 27

Fig. 41. ParaHel bedded sequence showing small scale faulting. Such deformational features
originate contemporaneously with deposition. Road section Åmot-Totak, Telemark. Centi­
metre-scale.

o�----�----�2 cm
a[
b

Fig. 42. X-ray radiograph of a quartzite slab showing some bioturbate structures. Bioturbated
horizons (b) interbedded with non-bioturbated horizons (a). Åmot, Telemark.
x) A horisontal burrow in cross-section; centre of burrow l cm below x.

y) A burrowlike feature.
28 INDRA B. SINGH

o 2cm
Fig. 43. X-ray radiograph of a bioturbated horizon.
a) A simple burrow without 'spreites' b) A burrow with 'spreites'.
Bedding has been completely destroyed except in the lowermost and the uppermost parts.
Åmot, Telemark.

l. Fossitextura deformativa; formless bioturbate features appearing as 'mot­

tled structures' or irregular flecks of different sediment types.
2. Fossitextura figurativa; bioturbate structures with definite forms, such
as burrows.
Some of the samples from the quartzites of Telemark show mottled struc­
tures which look very similar to bioturbate structures. A few slabs were
investigated in detail, with the aid of X-ray radiographs. Results were good,
as the bioturbate features then became much clearer. In a few samples it
was possible to distinguish between bioturbated and non-bioturbated parts
(Fig. 42).
Usually, bedding in the bioturbated horizons has been completely destroyed,
but sometimes it is still partly visible. In addition, it is possible to recognize
three types of regular burrows. One type is a harizontal burrow, having a
diameter of about 1.5 centimetres (Fig. 42); the seeond type is an inclined
burrow, l centimetre in diameter and about 2-3 centimetres in length (Fig.
43) without 'spreiten' and the third type is an inclined burrow with 'spreiten'.
The presence of these burrows and bioturbated horizons in the Precambrian
quartzites of Telemark is of palaeontological importance, because it indicates
Iife at the time the sediments were deposited ( ,_. 1500-900 m. y. B. P.).
Moreover, burrows of approximately 1.5 centimetres in diameter would, of
course, demand organisms of a sufficiently large size.

K. Other structures
Other sedimentary structures, which have not been discussed in detail here,
include slump structures (Dons 1960 b), mud eraeks (Dons 1963), and ball
and pillow structures.
 SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES IN PRECAMBRIAN QUARTZITES 29

DISCUSSION
The Precambrian quartzites of Telemark occupy a large area in the central
part of Southem Norway, and the present work was restricted only to a few
weil-exposed road-sections. Thus conclusions regarding the regional environ­
ment of deposition must be generalized.
Almost all the features encountered in these quartzites are found in the
present day shallow sea environments with tidal currents. A very common
and well-developed feature is the alternating sandfclay succession. The exami­
nation of lenticular bedding, fiaser bedding, wavy bedding or paraHel bedding
always shows the presence of sandy layers separated by thin clayey layers.
This feature is likewise common in cross-bedded units. lt is easy to imagine
the formation of such an alternating sequence in a tida! current environment.
The sand is deposited during periods of current activity such as ebb and
flood, while the mud sett!� at high and low water when there are periods
of quiescence.
The presence of herringbane cross-bedding indicates the existence of
prevailing tida! currents in two opposing directions while raindrop imprints
and mudcracks show that at times the area was subaerial. In a tida! current
environment such areas would represent intertidal flats. Features like rhom­
boid ripple marks, 'micro-ripples', interference ripple marks, ripples with
rounded crests, and ripples with flat tops are known to occur in abundance
on modem intertidal flats and can only be formed under shallow water
conditions.
Features like cross-stratification with overturned foreset laminations suggest
an abundance of detritat material.
The occurrence of bioturbate features indicates: a) The presence of or­
ganisms during the time of deposition of the quartzites of Telemark. b) The
presence of !arge regular burrows further suggests that organisms of reason­
able size were present, although no fossils of sheil-hearing organisms ha ve
been found. c) The rate of sedimentation, at !east during the deposition of
bioturbated layers, was such that living organisms had enough time to
destroy the primary bedding.
Ripple lamination, found commonly on flood plains, deltas, and deltas of
intertidal flat channels have been found at a few localities. However, it seems
Iikely that the delta environment, if present at all, was not common.
In conclusion, it may be stated that the main sedimentary evidence suggests
that the Precambrian quartzites of Telemark were deposited in a slowly
subsiding basin where there was an abundance of sediment under very shallow
water to intertidal flat conditions. These conditions of deposition were main­
tamed throughout the thick sequence of Telemark supracrustals.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am most grateful to Professors Tom. F. W. Barth and H. Neuroann for
providing working facilities at the Mineralogisk-Geologisk Museum, Uni­
versity of Oslo, Norway. Thanks are extended to head curator J. A. Dons
30 INDRA B. SINGH

and Dr. Chandra D. P. Singh of the same museum for their help and eneou­
ragement during field work. Both accompanied me in the field, gave me
unpublished information, and suggested the area of study.
I also wish to acknowledge the help of Dr. H. E. Reineck, Wilhelmshaven,
W. Germany, who kindly permitted me to make use of the collections at the
Senekenberg Institute for the comparative work, for permission to publish
some photographs from this collection, and for constructive and critical dis­
cussions. Dr. F. Wunderlich, Wilhelmshaven, is thanked for many stimulating
discussions, for information concerning recent sediments, and for providing
the photograph of raindrop imprints from a modern intertidal flat. The
advice and assistance of Dr. Werner, Kiel, W. Germany, and Mr. Ihlen-Sopp,
Oslo, in making X-ray radiographs are gratefully acknowledged.
An earlier draft of the manuscript was criticized by head curator J. A.
Dons, Prof. K. Krejci-Graf, Frankfurt, W. Germany, and Drs. H.-E. Reineck
and F. Wunderlich, Wilhelmshaven, W. Germany. However, the views ex­
pressed herein are entirely the author's responsibility. Punds for this work
were provided by NORAD and the Mineralogisk-Geologisk Museum's
Telemark Project.

Mineralogisk-Geologisk Museum,
Sars gate l, Oslo 5, Norway
21st May 1968

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