(I) Regulating Crypto Hedgefunds (CaLR)

California Law Review, Inc.
Applying the SEC Custody Rule to Cryptocurrency Hedge Fund Managers

Author(s): Drew C. Schaefer
Source: California Law Review , 2019, Vol. 107, No. 4 (2019), pp. 1381-1414
Published by: California Law Review, Inc.
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26850867
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms
California Law Review, Inc. is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
California Law Review
This content downloaded from

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Applying the SEC Custody Rule to
Cryptocurrency Hedge Fund Managers
Drew C. Schaefer*
Introduction .......................................................................................... 1382

I. The Custody Rule: Current Framework ............................................ 1384
A. Basic Mechanics of the Custody Rule ............................... 1384
1. Qualified Custodian ..................................................... 1385
2. Notice to Clients .......................................................... 1385
3. Delivery of Account Statements .................................. 1385
4. Surprise Examination................................................... 1386
B. Hedge Funds and the Custody Rule ................................... 1386
II. Cryptocurrency and Custody............................................................ 1388
A. The Nature of Cryptocurrency ........................................... 1388
B. How Private Keys are “Held” ............................................ 1390
III. Challenges in Applying the Custody Rule ...................................... 1393
A. Challenges with Qualified Custodians ............................... 1393
1. Lack of Qualified Custodians ...................................... 1393
2. Different Coins Require Different Storage .................. 1394
3. Forks and Airdrops ...................................................... 1396
4. Liquidity―Security vs. Convenience .......................... 1398
B. Applicability of The Custody Rule to Particular Assets .... 1399
1. Is the Token Asset a Security? ..................................... 1399
2. Are the Tokens “Client Funds?” .................................. 1400
3. Do the Tokens Fall Under the Private Placement
Exemption? .................................................................. 1402
IV. Introducing an Alternative Mechanism for Compliance with Rule
206(4)-2 ..................................................................................... 1403
A. Regulatory Basis and Rationale for Modifying the Rule ... 1403
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15779/Z38M03XX77
Copyright © 2019 California Law Review, Inc. California Law Review, Inc. (CLR) is a
California nonprofit corporation. CLR and the authors are solely responsible for the content of their
publications.
* Drew Schaefer: J.D. 2019, University of California, Berkeley, School of Law. My deepest
gratitude to Robert Bartlett, Karl Cole-Frieman, Anthony Wise, and the editorial staff of the California
Law Review for their helpful comments and suggestions.
1381

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
1382 CALIFORNIA LAW REVIEW [Vol. 107:1381
B. Modifying the Rule ............................................................ 1408

1. Independent, Third-Party Administrators .................... 1409
2. Direct Pricing from the Exchange ............................... 1409
3. Quarterly Audit ............................................................ 1410
4. Custody and Security Policies ..................................... 1410
5. Disclosure of Risks ...................................................... 1411
6. Best Interest Determination ......................................... 1411
7. Insurance ...................................................................... 1411
Conclusion ............................................................................................ 1413
INTRODUCTION
In the wake of the Bernard Madoff Ponzi scheme, the Securities and
Exchange Commission (SEC) adjusted its rules to prevent future fraud.1 Despite
blindsiding the SEC and many in the financial industry, the culprit was all too
familiar: a bad adviser fleecing his trusting clients.2 The problem goes back
millenia. In 1754 B.C., Hammurabi had already prescribed a way to circumvent
bad financial actors. To protect the grain and precious metal stored in another’s
house for safekeeping, the Code required a system of contracts and third-party
verification.3 Law 122 read: “If a man wishes to give silver (or) gold or anything
whatsoever to a man for safe custody, he shall show anything whatsoever that he
gives to witnesses, he shall draw up a contract and (thus) give (them) for safe
custody.4“ Now, nearly four thousand years later, hedge funds and regulators
must revisit what is considered safe custody when they eschew transactions in
grain or bonds for the cryptographic technology behind Bitcoin and other
cryptocurrencies.
For traditional investment funds, the SEC has protections in place to assure
investors that their accounts contain the assets their advisers say they contain.5
In securities parlance, this is known as the custody rule.6 The rule requires
registered investment advisers with possession of their clients’ assets to
implement controls to protect those assets from being “lost, misused,
1. See Press Release, U.S. Sec. & Exch. Comm’n, The Securities and Exchange Commission
Post-Madoff Reforms (Apr. 2, 2012), https://www.sec.gov/spotlight/secpostmadoffreforms.htm
[https://perma.cc/ZDT3-5U7Y] [hereinafter Post-Madoff Reforms].
2. See Diana B. Henriques & Alex Berenson, The 17th Floor, Where Wealth Went to Vanish,
N.Y. TIMES (Dec. 14, 2008), https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/15/business/15madoff.html
[https://perma.cc/5USX-KGUD].
3. See K.V. Nagarajan, The Code of Hammurabi: An Economic Interpretation, 2 INT’L J. OF
BUS. & SOC. SCI. 108. (2011).
4. Id. at 111.
5. See Post-Madoff Reforms, supra note 1 (“The rules provide greater assurance to investors
that their accounts contain the funds that their investment adviser and account statements say they
contain.”).
6. See Advisers Act Rule 206(4)-2, 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2 (2019)).

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
2019] APPLYING THE SEC CUSTODY RULE 1383
misappropriated or subject to the advisers’ financial reverses.”7 Failure to do so

is considered “a fraudulent, deceptive, or manipulative act.”8 The rule thus
encourages registered investment advisers to hire a specialized, independent
third party to maintain custody of their clients’ assets.9 Whether we think of the
shifty Babylonian grain custodian or Madoff’s locked filing cabinet,10 the
custody rule has commonsense appeal. We want an extra layer of protection
between investor money and the adviser.
However, applying the custody rule to cryptocurrencies is difficult. New
cryptocurrency-focused hedge funds11 deal in a fundamentally different kind of
asset than funds holding grain futures, precious metals, or stocks. On top of
fraudulent advisers, funds holding cryptocurrency face a host of novel
challenges: a simple programming mistake can cause millions of dollars of client
assets to vanish into the abyss,12 hackers can bring down entire exchanges,13 and
new assets can form on top of existing assets.14 Although specialized qualified
custodial services are emerging to cater to this market,15 they are few and far
between and lack industry standards. As a result, if the SEC mechanically applies
the custody rule to hedge funds investing in cryptocurrency, many will likely be
in violation.
7. Custody of Funds or Securities of Clients by Investment Advisers, Investment Advisers Act

Release No. IA-2876, 68 Fed. Reg. 56,692 (Oct. 1, 2003).
8. Id.
9. See Post-Madoff Reforms, supra note 1 (“Among other things, the new rules encourage
registered investment advisers to place their clients’ assets in the custody of an independent firm, unlike
Bernard Madoff did.”).
10. See Complaint at 5, SEC v. Madoff, No. 08 Civ. 10791 (S.D.N.Y. 2008) (“Madoff kept the
financial statements for the firm under lock and key, and was ‘cryptic’ about the firm’s investment
advisory business when discussing the business with other employees of BMIS”).
11. See Wolfie Zhao, Morgan Stanley: Hedge Funds Poured $2 Billion into Cryptos in 2017,
COINDESK (Dec. 20, 2017), https://www.coindesk.com/morgan-stanley-hedge-funds-poured-2-billion-
into-cryptos-in-2017 [https://perma.cc/3JMR-4XKN] (“The investment bank further detailed that more
than 100 crypto-related hedge funds have sprung up over the past six years, [but] 84 of the funds
launched in 2017.”).
12. See Alex Hern, ‘$300m in Cryptocurrency’ Accidentally Lost Forever Due to Bug,
GUARDIAN (Nov. 8, 2017), https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/nov/08/cryptocurrency-
300m-dollars-stolen-bug-ether [https://perma.cc/4BV3-76ZE]; Stan Higgins, Ethereum Client Update
Issue Costs Cryptocurrency Exchange $14 Million, COINDESK (June 2, 2017),
https://www.coindesk.com/ethereum-client-exchange-14-million [https://perma.cc/8CWS-JCN9].
13. Cameron Keng, Bitcoin’s Mt. Gox Goes Offline, Loses $409M – Recovery Steps and Taking
Your Tax Losses, FORBES (Feb. 25, 2014),
https://www.forbes.com/sites/cameronkeng/2014/02/25/bitcoins-mt-gox-shuts-down-loses-
409200000-dollars-recovery-steps-and-taking-your-tax-losses/#53fc792d5c16
[https://perma.cc/QPX5-FGYW].
14. See Get Free Crypto Coins if You Own Bitcoins (BTC), CRYPTO MINING BLOG (July 24,
2017), http://cryptomining-blog.com/tag/airdrop/ [https://perma.cc/RA26-PD9Q]; Jamie Redman,
Bitcoin Cash Network Completes a Successful Hard Fork, BITCOIN.COM (Nov. 13, 2017),
https://news.bitcoin.com/bitcoin-cash-network-completes-a-successful-hard-fork
[https://perma.cc/L6BN-YQSD].
15. See, e.g., Information about “Coinbase Custody” available via their website,
https://custody.coinbase.com [https://perma.cc/M67Y-CWS5].

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
This Note will review why it is difficult to apply the current custody rule to
cryptocurrency hedge funds, and how the rule can be modified to better fit the
peculiarities of this new asset class. First, this Note looks at the present state of
the rule and its general application to hedge funds. Second, it examines how
cryptocurrency is “held” and the challenges this presents to hedge fund managers
and their custodians. Third, it analyzes why the current rule does not meet these
challenges. Finally, this Note presents an alternative mechanism that the SEC
can adopt for applying the rule.
I.
THE CUSTODY RULE: CURRENT FRAMEWORK
The SEC first began to regulate custodial practices in 1962, when it adopted
Rule 206(4)-2 under the Investment Advisers Act of 1940 (“IAA” or “the
Act”).16 This rule, which included adviser disclosure and surprise examinations,
remained fundamentally unchanged until 2003,17 when the SEC amended the
rule to introduce the concept of a qualified custodian.18 In 2010, following the
Madoff scandal, the SEC again amended the rule to add additional controls.19
Under the IAA, an “investment adviser” is any person who advises others
on the purchase or sale of securities in exchange for compensation.20 Although
this definition is quite broad, there are important exemptions. For example, most
hedge fund managers will fall under the definition of “investment adviser,” but
may nevertheless be exempt from required SEC registration. Since the custody
rule only applies to SEC-registered investment advisers (“registered advisers”),
managers falling under one of the exemptions may be able to avoid the
requirements of the custody role.
A. Basic Mechanics of the Custody Rule

Before jumping into the custody rule’s application to cryptocurrency, we
must first understand the traditional mechanics of the rule. Once investment
advisers are both registered and deemed to have custody of their clients’ assets,
Rule 206(4)-2 provides four requirements: a qualified custodian, notice to
clients, delivery of account statements, and surprise examinations.21
16. Robert E. Plaze, Regulation of Custodial Practices Under the Investment Advisers Act of
1940 Rule 206(4)-2, Investment Adviser Association Investment Adviser Compliance Conference,
Crystal City, VA at 1 (March 6–7, 2014), https://docplayer.net/17221319-Regulation-of-custodial-
practices-under-the-investment-advisers-act-of-1940-rule-206-4-2.html [https://perma.cc/WH5D-
8356].
17. See id.
18. See id. at 2.
19. See Staff Responses to Questions About the Custody Rule, U.S. SEC. & EXCH. COMM’N,
https://www.sec.gov/divisions/investment/custody_faq_030510.htm [https://perma.cc/PJ5L-UEQN];
see also DOUGLAS L. HAMMER ET AL., U.S. REGULATION OF HEDGE FUNDS 325 (2013).
20. HAMMER, supra note 19, at 9.
21. See Advisers Act Rule 206(4)-2(a), 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2(a) (2018); HAMMER, supra
note 19, at 325; Plaze, supra note 16, at 5.

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
1. Qualified Custodian
A registered investment adviser with custody of a client’s assets must hold
those assets with a “qualified custodian” in either (a) separate accounts under
each client’s name or (b) accounts in the adviser’s name that hold only the
clients’ assets.22 Qualified custodians include banks, broker-dealer firms, futures
commission merchants, and foreign financial institutions that customarily hold
financial assets for their customers in segregated accounts.23
An adviser may hold client assets with more than one qualified custodian.24
However, the assets must be held in such a way that the custodian can provide
account information to the clients.25 In 2003, the SEC stated that stock
certificates kept in an adviser’s bank safety deposit box would not be considered
held in “accounts” with the qualified custodian, and therefore would not satisfy
the rule.26 This will be at issue when we look at the unique characteristics of how
cryptocurrency is held.
2. Notice to Clients
Once a registered investment adviser with custody opens an account on the
client’s behalf or makes changes to the custodial arrangement, they must
promptly notify the client in writing. This notice must provide the qualified
custodian’s name, address, and information about how the funds are being held.27
For hedge funds, discussed in more detail in Section B, limited partners who do
not wish to receive these notices can elect an independent representative to act
as an agent and receive the notices on their behalf.28
3. Delivery of Account Statements

The qualified custodian must deliver account statements directly to the
client at least quarterly. These statements must list the balance of funds for each
type of security in the account, as well as all transactions occurring during the
period.29 In the case of hedge funds, the client would be any limited partner,
member, or other beneficial owner of the fund.30 The Act requires that the adviser
have a reasonable basis for belief, after due inquiry, that the custodian is sending
the statements.31
22. 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2.

23. Id.
24. See Custody of Funds or Securities of Clients by Investment Advisers, Investment Advisers
Act Release No. 2176, 68 Fed. Reg. 56,692 n.17 (Oct. 1, 2003).
25. See 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2(a)(3).
26. See Custody of Funds or Securities of Clients by Investment Advisers, Investment Advisers
Act Release No. 2176, 68 Fed. Reg. 56,692 n.18; Plaze, supra note 16, at 12.
27. 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2(a)(2).
28. Id. § 275.206(4)-2(a)(7); HAMMER, supra note 19, at 327.
29. 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2(a)(3).
30. See HAMMER, supra note 19, at 328.
31. 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2(a)(3).

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
4. Surprise Examination
Each adviser must ensure that an independent public accountant performs
at least one surprise examination per year to verify their clients’ assets.32 The
accountant must schedule the examination at a different time each year to
maintain the “surprise.”33 Under the agreement with the adviser, the accountant
must (1) file Form ADV-E with the SEC within 120 days of the examination; (2)
notify the SEC within one business day of finding any material discrepancy
during the exam; and (3) if the engagement is terminated, notify the SEC of the
date and reason for the termination.34 Essentially, an independent accountant will
make sure the assets that the adviser is telling its clients are there are actually
there.
B. Hedge Funds and the Custody Rule

Some hedge funds enjoy exceptions to both SEC registration and these
custody rule requirements. The term “hedge fund” refers generally to a
professionally managed pool of assets that employs a wide range of investment
strategies.35 Most funds are structured as limited partnerships, with a fund
manager serving as general partner and the investors acting as limited partners.
The investors take a passive role while the investment manager determines
strategy, manages risk. and makes investing decisions on behalf of the fund. The
SEC and the Commodities and Futures Trading Commission are the primary
federal agencies responsible for regulating both hedge funds and their managers.
Whether the custody rule is applied to a certain hedge fund manager will depend
on whether they are a registered investment adviser or fall under an exemption
to the Act.
As discussed above, some hedge fund managers are exempt from SEC
registration altogether. The most important exemption is for private fund
advisers.36 Under Rule 203(m)-1, as long as a manager advises only private funds
and their assets do not exceed $150 million, they will not be subject to the
custody rule under the IAA.37 This exemption is important because many
32. See id. § 275.206(4)-2(a)(4).

33. See 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2(a)(4); In re Kaufman, Bernstein, Oberman, Tivoli & Miller,
LLC, S.E.C. Admin. Proc., File No. 3-11341 (Nov. 20, 2003), Plaze, supra note 16, at 17.
34. 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2(a)(4)(i)–(iii).
35. HAMMER, supra note 19, at 1.
36. Id. at 14.
37. Private Fund Adviser Exemption, 17 C.F.R. § 275.203(m)-1. However, even when exempt
from SEC regulation, they may nonetheless be subject to an analogue under state law. For an example
of state-level regulation of cryptocurrency custody, see the New York “Bitlicense,” Virtual Currencies,
N.Y. COMP. CODES R. & REGS.. tit. 23, § 200.9 (2015),
https://www.dfs.ny.gov/legal/regulations/adoptions/dfsp200t.pdf [https://perma.cc/KU46-WQ36]
(“Each Licensee shall maintain a surety bond or trust account in United States dollars for the benefit of
its customers in such form and amount as is acceptable to the superintendent for the protection of the
Licensee’s customers. To the extent a Licensee maintains a trust account in accordance with this section,

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
cryptocurrency hedge funds launched in 2016 and 2017 had well under $150
million in assets under management. Their managers were therefore exempt from
the custody rule.38 But with the explosion in the price of Bitcoin and other
cryptocurrencies that began in the summer of 2017, along with continued
investor interest, many of these funds held above $150 million in assets by 2018
or aspired to do so.39 The SEC will have to decide how to apply the custody rule
to these newly emerged funds as they surpass $150 million.40
In addition, even if the investment adviser is registered and has custody of
client funds, the custody rule’s requirements are different for hedge funds. If the
registered investment adviser advises a limited partnership and sends each of the
fund’s clients audited annual financial statements within 120 days of each fiscal
year, the adviser is not required to notify clients of the qualified custodian’s
information, have the qualified custodian deliver quarterly account statements,
or have their clients’ assets verified by a surprise examination.41 The accountant
performing the audits must be independent from the adviser and registered with
the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB), and the financial
statements must be prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting
principles (GAAP).42 As long as the hedge fund’s accountant is able to comply
with GAAP in their reporting, the fund’s manager will likely take advantage of
the exemption.43 As most funds will comply with GAAP and fall under the
exception, we end up with two hard rules: first, the hedge fund manager must
maintain its clients’ assets with a qualified custodian; and second, the manager
must arrange for a PCAOB-registered accountant44 to audit the fund’s assets
every year.
Further complicating the application of the rule, there has been much debate
as to whether cryptocurrency is a security at all. If a hedge fund does not engage
in the “purchase or sale of securities,” its manager will be exempt from
such trust account must be maintained with a Qualified Custodian.”). See also HAMMER, supra note 19,
at 332.
38. See Cryptocurrency Investment Fund Industry Graphs and Charts, CRYPTO FUND RES.,
https://cryptofundresearch.com/cryptocurrency-funds-overview-infographic [https://perma.cc/Q8VX-
NY9Q] (“The vast majority of crypto investment funds are small. Half have less than $10 million in
assets under management (AUM).”).
39. See, e.g., Cryptocurrency Fund L.P., Notice of Exempt Offering of Securities (Form D) (July
7, 2017), http://pdf.secdatabase.com/2809/0001711332-17-000001.pdf [https://perma.cc/G2D5-
V8YQ] (seeking a total offering of 200mm).
40. Form ADV is used by investment advisers to register with the SEC and state securities
authorities. See Fast Answers: Form ADV, U.S. SEC. & EXCH. COMM’N, https://www.sec.gov/fast-
answers/answersformadvhtm.html [https://perma.cc/Q28G-XRGP].
41. 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2(a)(4) (2019).
42. Id.
44. The Public Company Accounting Oversight Board is a non-profit corporation established
by Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 to supervise the audits of public companies and broker-dealers. The
SEC approves the PCAOB’s rules, standards, and budget. See About the PCAOB, PUB. COMPANY
ACCT. OVERSIGHT BOARD, https://pcaobus.org/About/Pages/default.aspx
[https://pcaobus.org/About/Pages/default.aspx].

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
regulation under the IAA. In addition, there is an argument that certain coins are
not “client funds.”45
When hedge funds are not investing in traditional securities, like stocks or
bonds, but rather in cryptocurrency operating on a digital ledger, how do they
comply with these rules? To answer this question, we must first look at how
cryptocurrency is held and stored and how that differs from traditional securities.
We will then look at challenges in applying the rule to this novel financial
instrument.
II.
CRYPTOCURRENCY AND CUSTODY
Unlike traditional financial assets, cryptocurrencies are not based on
institutional trust. This difference is important in the custody context. With
traditional assets, we believe that a central party —whether a bank, Paypal, or a
grain storage facility—is maintaining a ledger that is properly recording the
assets they hold and marking which of those assets belong to us. We do not
expect to see the ledger—we trust that the institution has protections in place to
prevent internal fraud and attacks from outsiders. Blockchain, the technology
that underpins cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, is based on a fundamentally
different premise. This Part will first describe how cryptocurrency functions in
general, and then zero in on private keys, which relate directly to the application
of the custody rule.
A. The Nature of Cryptocurrency

Bitcoin, the most popular cryptocurrency by market cap, operates off of a
ledger database that is fully available to the public―anyone can view any part
of the ledger and the software used to protect it (but perhaps not edit).46 However,
although everyone can see the amounts of coins being transacted on the ledger,
the identity of who holds the coins is kept private. This underlying technology,
known as blockchain, is therefore “like making everybody’s bank statements
public online, but with the identity blacked out.”47 This is part of why blockchain
is referred to as a “decentralized, open source,” peer-to-peer protocol.48
Although Bitcoin is the most popular cryptocurrency, with a first-to-market
advantage, there are hundreds of other cryptocurrency coins known as
45. The rule states “If you are an investment adviser . . . it is a fraudulent, deceptive, or
manipulative act, practice or course of business . . . for you to have custody of client funds or securities
unless . . .”17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2(a) (emphasis added).
46. See PEDRO FRANCO, UNDERSTANDING BITCOIN 9–10 (2015).
47. Id. at 9.
48. See WINKLEVOSS BITCOIN TRUST, AMENDMENT NO. 8 TO FORM S-1 REGISTRATION
STATEMENT 14 (Dec. 7, 2016),
https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1579346/000119312516786685/d302498ds1a.htm
[https://perma.cc/T8NS-YL5T].

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
“altcoins,”49 including Ethereum, Ripple, and Litecoin. They often vary the
protocol and structure of Bitcoin, such as how the coins are generated, which
programming language is used, or the number of coins issued.50 Nonetheless, an
examination of what comprises each individual Bitcoin sheds light on the
operation of other cryptocurrencies. And although this decentralized data
structure can have many applications, for the purposes of hedge funds and the
custody rule, we only need to examine how it is used to manage and “hold”
cryptocurrency.
To “hold” one Bitcoin, you need (1) access to a blockchain, (2) a Bitcoin
address, (3) the private key, and (4) some type of storage device, such as a
Bitcoin wallet.51
The blockchain is essentially the ledger. It uses an algorithm to record all
cryptocurrency transactions and appends them as cryptographic “blocks” onto
the existing ledger.52 Like pages in a book, each block of information adds new
data to the list of transactions.53 The data in these blocks is then used to both
prove current ownership and record transfer of ownership.54 This ledger is shared
and updated simultaneously for each user, or “node.”55 While the grain merchant
may be required to call in his witness in the event of a dispute, here a multitude
of users all act as witnesses, free of individual influence.56
Rather than posting the name of each owner on the ledger, the blockchain
is made up of numbers, known as addresses. This is like the bank account number
to which you can send funds.57 Each address is represented by a long string of
letters and numbers resembling the following:
1Jc3MuGF3ALn12anPN3Xzqq13PP1e
49. “Cryptocurrencies” are often referred to as coins, tokens, or altcoins. Bitcoin and other
cryptocurrencies used as a transfer of value are referred to as “coins.” Cryptocurrencies that are built on
top of platforms, like Ethereum, do not themselves facilitate the transfer of value and are referred to as
“tokens.” “Altcoins” refers generally to cryptocurrencies that are modifications of Bitcoin’s code, such
as Litecoin. For the purposes of this paper, we will refer to all three as cryptocurrencies, unless the topic
requires further specificity. See Altcoin, INVESTOPEDIA,
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/altcoin.asp [https://perma.cc/7PAB-G8WQ].
50. Sarah J. Hughes & Stephen T. Middlebrook, Advancing a Framework for Regulating
Cryptocurrency Payments Intermediaries, 32 YALE J. ON REG. 495, 505 (2015).
51. See CONRAD BARSKI & CHRIS WILMER, BITCOIN FOR THE BEFUDDLED 7–14 (2015).
52. Id. at 19.
53. See DANIEL DRESCHER, BLOCKCHAIN BASICS 63–69 (2017).
54. See id. at 77.
55. In fact, there is an additional database called the “Unspent Transactions Outputs cache” that
records available funds for each address. IMRAN BASHIR, MASTERING BLOCKCHAIN 125 (2017);
FRANCO, supra note 46, at 15. However, like much of the overview here, a more simplistic overview is
sufficient for purposes of applying the custody rule.
56. See DRESCHER, supra note 53, at 29–32, 79.
57. BARSKI & WILMER, supra note 51, at 10.

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
However, because this information is public, moving cryptocurrency from one

account to another requires a private key.58 Like the address, the private key is
also a string of letters and numbers, for example:
E9873D79C6D87DC0FB6A5778633389F4453213303DA61F20BD67
FC233AA3326259
When a party wishes to transfer cryptocurrency from one address to another, the
private key functions like a password and applies a digital signature to an
address, “unlock[ing]” the cryptocurrency stored there.60 Only the private key
can release cryptocurrency held at an address, and once the private key is lost, it
is gone forever.61 If a private key is forgotten or lost, the cryptocurrency stored
on the corresponding address will be irretrievable.
B. How Private Keys are “Held”

The indispensable nature of a private key highlights an important
distinction. With traditional securities, we think of “holding” something—
whether a stock certificate, a bearer’s bond, or a right to withdraw fiat currency
from a bank—as a representation of a physical asset existing somewhere. With
cryptocurrency, control of the private key and ability to use it to perform
transactions on the blockchain is the entirety of possession.62 There are no coins
in Bitcoin. Therefore, what separates a good custodian from a bad custodian will
rest largely on how the collection of private keys and addresses is managed.
Most investors in cryptocurrency will store their collections of private keys
and addresses in a “wallet.” The term refers to a variety of software tools that
not only store private keys and addresses, but also perform tasks, such as
generating addresses and making transactions.63 Essentially, the wallet software
enables individuals to “be [their] own bank.”64 The obvious downside to this
freedom is the need to take security precautions and choose from the wide array
of storage options available. Such decisions usually require balancing
convenience (time required to conduct a transaction) and security.
As a result, individual investors in cryptocurrency will often take advantage
of the ease and simplicity of an online wallet program provided by one of the
58. Id. at 11.

59. Private Key, BITCOIN WIKI, https://en.bitcoin.it/wiki/Private_key [https://perma.cc/ADU6-
26XZ].
61. RICHARD CAETANO, LEARNING BITCOIN 16 (2015) (“It is not possible to recover lost
private keys.”).
62. Bitcoin Hedge Fund FAQs, HEDGE FUND LAW BLOG (May 19, 2017),
http://hedgefundlawblog.com/bitcoin-hedge-fund-faqs.html [https://perma.cc/EKV8-76LK] (“[T]he
investment management industry is used to a certain definition of custody (holding something) that may
not fit within the digital asset space, where control and the ability to utilize an asset is really more of the
applicable context.”).
64. Id. at 33.

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
major cryptocurrency exchanges.65 These online hosted “wallet services” work

much like a traditional online trading account.66 The service manages the
addresses and keys and security measures, and the user can transfer and receive
funds without any understating of the underlying technology.67 Other users
manage their own digital wallets and store their keys either online or on their
hard drive.68
Hot storage refers to any storage method where the private keys are stored
on a device connected to the internet. In contrast, “cold storage” refers to when
the private keys are inaccessible via the internet.69 An example of cold storage
would be generating the private keys on an offline computer, transferring them
(without saving to the computer) to a physical sheet of paper, and then storing
those papers in a safe. Although cold storage is safe from malicious hackers, it
is vulnerable to the traditional threats of physical theft, fire, and loss of human
memory. In addition, paper held in a safe seems counter to the notion of digital
money. Ironically, secure storage of a digital asset can often rely on old-
fashioned, low-tech methods.
To increase the security of the private keys, holders of large amounts of
cryptocurrency can take additional measures, such as offline transaction signing
and the use of multiple keys. Offline transaction signing creates an “air gap,” a
secure computer network physically isolated from any unsecure network.70
Rather than uploading each key from cold storage when it is time to make a
transaction, offline transaction signing allows the custodian to move the “digital
signature” process offline. Once a transaction is initiated online (buy or sell, for
example), the unsigned transaction is then moved to an offline computer
containing the private keys.71 That offline computer will then perform the
signature, which can be copied and uploaded back onto the unsecured online
network.
The use of multiple keys adds security to crypto transactions by dividing
the keys necessary to authorize transactions.72 This allows some keys to be lost
without losing control of the coins.73 By requiring multiple custodian employees
65. For examples of wallet services, see Wallet Services, COINBASE,

https://support.coinbase.com/customer/en/portal/topics/601112-wallet-services/articles
[https://perma.cc/T2GP-N95G].
66. Id.
67. See BARSKI & WILMER, supra note 51, at 36.
68. Id. at 33.
69. Id. at 33.
70. See Jared Polites, Op-Ed: How Air Gap Technology Has and Will Secure Our
Cryptocurrency Assets, CCN (Sept. 29, 2018), https://www.ccn.com/op-ed-how-air-gap-technology-
has-and-will-secure-our-cryptocurrency-assets/ [https://perma.cc/RVV5-VABL]; Kim Zetter, Hacker
Lexicon: What Is An Air Gap?, WIRED (Dec. 8, 2014), https://www.wired.com/2014/12/hacker-lexicon-
air-gap [https://perma.cc/6EK4-KLPF].
72. See FRANCO, supra note 46, at 136.
73. See Id.

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
to authorize a single transaction, the use of multiple keys can also minimize the
risk posed by bad internal actors.74 Thus, multiple keys allow holders to avoid
leaving the power for malfeasance in one individual. For example, a multiple-
signature address could create five private keys that are all necessary to unlock
one address. The qualified custodian could then distribute these keys to
designated employees, giving the fifth key to a director. Similarly, a custodian
could achieve the same effect by “fragmenting” the private keys. In this
approach, the private key is split into multiple pieces, with a certain number of
pieces required to come together to authorize a transaction. For example, the key
could be split into three fragments with two necessary to perform a transaction,
or a “2 of 3” private key.
The use of private keys is illustrated by the Winklevoss Bitcoin Trust
exchange-traded fund75 registration statement filed with the SEC in 2016.76 The
fund planned to use the Gemini Trust Company, LLC, as a custodian
implementing a “Cold Storage System.”77 The fund would issue shares tracking
the price of bitcoin on the Winklevosses’ Gemini Exchange.78 The fund’s
management of the private keys listed the following features (emphasis added):
Private Key Management. The Custodian generates, stores and manages
the private keys that control the Trust’s bitcoin . . . . The Cold Storage
System only uses HSMs . . . used by the Custodian to digitally sign
(i.e., authenticate) any transfer of the Trust’s bitcoin. The Custodian’s
Cold Storage System utilizes multiple-signature (“Multisig”)
technology with a “2-of-3” signing design that requires a signature from
at least two (2) of three (3) potential Signers in order to move the Trust’s
bitcoin.79
From this language, we can see that “holding” cryptocurrency safely requires
some technical sophistication and that digital assets have fundamentally different
properties than traditional asset classes.
74. CAETANO, supra note 61, at 17.

75. An exchange traded fund, or ETF, would allow individuals to invest in cryptocurrency
without owning the coin directly. Instead, they would own shares in the entity that hold the coins.
76. In 2017 the SEC rejected a proposed rule change that would have allowed for the
Winklevoss Bitcoin Trust ETF to be listed on an exchange. See Joseph Adinolfi & Ryan Vlastelica,
Here’s What’s Next for Bitcoin After the SEC Killed the Winklevoss Bitcoin Trust, MARKETWATCH
(Mar. 13, 2017) https://www.marketwatch.com/story/heres-whats-next-for-bitcoin-after-the-sec-killed-
the-winklevoss-bitcoin-trust-2017-03-10 [https://perma.cc/GG9K-ZH49].
77. See WINKLEVOSS BITCOIN TRUST, supra note 48.
78. Order Disapproving a Proposed Rule Change, as Modified, Release No. 34-80206, File No.
SR-BatsBZA-2016-30 (Mar. 10, 2017), https://www.sec.gov/rules/sro/batsbzx/2017/34-80206.pdf
[https://perma.cc/3CD6-8AYN].
79. WINKLEVOSS BITCOIN TRUST, supra note 48 (emphasis added).

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
III.
CHALLENGES IN APPLYING THE CUSTODY RULE
The unique way that cryptocurrency is held and stored affects the ability of
fund managers to comply with the rule. Several of these problems stem from the
qualified custodian requirement. First, there is a lack of qualified custodians with
experience in cryptocurrency. Second, even if the custodian has developed
services in this area, different coins require different storage, and the custodian
may not be able to hold every asset a manager wishes to invest in. Finally, a
custodian who does accept a fund’s cryptocurrency faces additional challenges
from forks, airdrops, and liquidity.
A. Challenges with Qualified Custodians
1. Lack of Qualified Custodians

One of the primary problems for fund managers is the lack of qualified
custodians and best practices for this asset class. Although there is a developed
and sophisticated network of banks, broker dealers, and other entities that offer
qualified custodian services, as of yet, few of these traditional custodians accept
cryptocurrency.80 The companies that do accept it often employ varying,
complex storage methods. For example, Kingdom Trust, a non-depository trust
company regulated by the South Dakota Division of Banking, can act as a
qualified custodian under 206(4)-2 by both providing safe custody of
cryptocurrency and reporting on the assets it holds. It holds cryptocurrency in a
secure facility employing a cold storage method with multi-verification and
multi-signature procedures.81 Xapo is another example. Although it is not a
qualified custodian, Xapo stores Bitcoin using three underground vaults located
on three different continents.82 In Switzerland, Xapo maintains a
decommissioned Swiss military bunker, dug into the side of a mountain.83
Coinbase Custody launched in 2018 and offers cold storage, auditing and
80. Although there are frequent news stories about large custodians developing cryptocurrency
products, as of writing, none of the largest hedge fund custodians act as qualified custodians for
cryptocurrency assets. Neer Varshney, Coinbase’s Cryptocurrency Custodial Service is Open for
Business, HARD FORK (July 2, 2018), https://thenextweb.com/hardfork/2018/07/02/coinbases-
cryptocurrency-custody [https://perma.cc/T7RL-QRHC] (“There has been a lack of reliable custodian
services for cryptocurrencies all across the globe due to uncertainty in the regulations.”).
81. Qualified Custodian Kingdom Trust Now Accepting Investments in cash and Stellar
Lumens, KINGDOM TRUST (JULY 5, 2018), https://www.kingdomtrust.com/news/news-qualified-
custodian-kingdom-trust-now-accepting-investments-in-zcash-and-stellar-lumens
[https://perma.cc/F5WW-K4ZB].
82. See Vault: We’ve Built a Fortress for You, XAPO, https://www.xapo.com/en/security#vault
[https://perma.cc/3TVH-QYZK].
83. Joon Ian Wong, Photos: The Secret Swiss Mountain Bunker Where Millionaires Stash Their
Bitcoins, QUARTZ (Oct. 17, 2017), https://qz.com/1103310/photos-the-secret-swiss-mountain-bunker-
where-millionaires-stash-their-bitcoins/ [https://perma.cc/R8XW-JBFJ].

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
reporting, and “geographically distributed” offline keys.84 Brian Armstrong,

Coinbase’s CEO claims the service holds more than $500 million in assets.85
The lengths these third-party companies are taking to securely store digital
assets sound like promising avenues for fulfilling the “[s]afekeeping”86
requirement of the custody rule. They address both the old enemies, fraud and
reverses, and the new, technical failures and malicious cyber actors. There are
other companies currently developing qualified custodian services.87 However,
even if more qualified custodians enter the space, there will still be challenges in
complying with the rule.
2. Different Coins Require Different Storage

In addition to the limited number of qualified custodians, the custodians
that do exist often limit the types of coins they accept. At the time of writing,
Xapo only handles Bitcoin.88 Most hedge funds, however, typically hold a
variety of coins, from coins with high market caps and wide acceptance, like
Ethereum and Litecoin, to coins that have not yet been released. Each of these
coins may have technical particularities that require modifications to the
operation of the qualified custodian. Olaf Carlson-Wee, founder of the
cryptocurrency hedge fund Polychain Capital, explains that this challenge is “a
complete disaster from a user experience perspective.”89 It essentially becomes
a:
[S]even-hour process of signing up on exchanges, purchasing bitcoin,
registering your identity, registering bank accounts, actually getting
your bitcoin, transferring your bitcoin, waiting for however long it takes
for confirmation, then trading on a crypto-to-crypto order book, and
84. Sam McIngvale, Coinbase Custody is Officially Open for Business, THE COINBASE BLOG
(July 2, 2018), https://blog.coinbase.com/coinbase-custody-is-officially-open-for-business-
182c297d65d9 [https://perma.cc/UB4T-E5DT].
85. Alex Morris, Coinbase Custody Now Holds More Than $500 Mln in Digital Assets, U
TODAY (Feb. 21, 2019), https://u.today/coinbase-custody-now-holds-more-than-500-mln-in-digital-
assets [https://perma.cc/5QC8-V5VP].
86. 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2(a) (2019).
87. See David Hundeyin, BitGo Receives Approval to Operate as Regulated Cryptocurrency
Custodian, CCN (Sept. 16, 2018), https://www.ccn.com/bitgo-receives-approval-to-operate-as-
regulated-cryptocurrency-custodian [https://perma.cc/NZA9-R2HY]; Yogita Khatri, TokenSoft to Offer
Coincase Custody as STO Client Option, COINDESK (Dec. 20, 2018),
https://www.coindesk.com/tokensoft-to-offer-coinbase-custody-as-sto-client-option
[https://perma.cc/52QD-VEDV].
88. See Learning About Xapo – General: Does Xapo Support Other Cryptocurrencies Besides
BitCoin?, XAPO, https://support.xapo.com/learning/about-xapo/general/does-xapo-support-other-
cryptocurrencies-besides-bitcoin [https://perma.cc/K6SE-4GS5] (“While you have access to any
currency across the entire world with your Xapo account, the only cryptocurrency you can use and store
is bitcoin (BTC)”).
89. Laura Shin, Can’t Invest in a Crypto Hedge Fund? DIY With Shapeshift’s Prism, FORBES
(Aug. 7, 2017), https://www.forbes.com/sites/laurashin/2017/08/07/cant-invest-in-a-crypto-hedge-
fund-diy-with-shapeshifts-prism/ [https://perma.cc/78W4-HDF7].

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
then having to pull all those off the exchanges if you want to be secure.90
After that, one might need to download “wallet software for 10 different
cryptocurrencies and syncing with those blockchains.”91
Monero, a privacy-focused coin, illustrates why handling multiple coins
can be challenging. Like Bitcoin, Monero uses a ledger to record transactions.92
However, to achieve superior privacy, it also uses a tool called “ring signatures”
to mix the address of a transacting party with other addresses, making it more
difficult to determine which address in the group produced the signature.93 To
achieve this design, Monero uses a different codebase than Bitcoin and its
derivatives.94 As a result, multisignature signing for Monero is not yet
supported.95 Because the code base is frequently updated by the developers,
keeping abreast of the changes requires maintenance.96 For coins without
widespread adoption, it may not be worthwhile for even technologically savvy
custodians to commit the manpower to hold these assets. Fund managers would
thus be put in the difficult position of holding some assets with a qualified
custodian while managing others in ways that violate the custody rule.
Some custodians might simply charge more. Coinbase Custody, which
intends to offer support for most major cryptocurrencies, plans to charge a startup
fee of $100,000 along with a monthly fee based on assets.97 For a smaller fund,
this could be significantly higher than a typical fee of five to ten basis points on
the assets under management.98 These fees are indirectly billed to investors as a
90. Id.
91. Id.
92. See Private Digital Currency, MONERO, https://getmonero.org [https://perma.cc/R3UY-
7L2W] (“Monero is a decentralized cryptocurrency, meaning it is secure digital cash operated by a
network of users. Transactions are confirmed by distributed consensus and then immutably recorded on
the blockchain.”).
93. See Moneropedia, MONERO,
https://getmonero.org/resources/moneropedia/ringsignatures.html [https://perma.cc/Y5BT-ULMR]
(“One of the security properties of a ring signature is that it should be computationally infeasible to
determine which of the group members’ keys was used to produce the signature . . . . So, ring signatures
ensure that transaction outputs are untraceable.”).
94. GenericShill, Monero Wallets in 2018: Finally Some Progress in Light Wallets, ALTCOIN
TRADING (Jan. 3, 2017), https://www.altcointrading.net/monero-wallet [https://perma.cc/C896-
SMKV].
95. The Next Monero Client Release Will Have Full Multisig Support, NEWSBTC (Dec. 18,
2017), http://www.newsbtc.com/2017/12/18/next-monero-client-release-will-full-multisig-support
[https://perma.cc/6UJT-USA9] (“Monero, the coin known for its privacy and anonymity, will receive
multisig support soon.”).
96. GenericShill, supra note 94.
97. It will be interesting to see how Coinbase Custody handles technological challenges and
how many different coins it ultimately supports. See Frank Chaparro, Coinbase is Going After Big Hedge
Fund Money with its New Cryptocurrency Security Platform, BUS. INSIDER (Nov. 16, 2017),
http://www.businessinsider.com/coinbase-going-after-hedge-fund-money-with-new-cryptocurrency-
security-platform-2017-11 [https://perma.cc/5H7S-G2KS].
98. William F. Jarvis, Understanding the Cost of Investment Management: A Guide for
Fiduciaries, COMMONFUND INSTIT. 6 (Oct. 2015),
https://www.caia.org/sites/default/files/understanding_the_cost_of_investment_management.pdf

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
fund expense.99 For funds like Carlson-Wee’s Polychain, which has expertise in
handling numerous digital assets, managers as well as investors may be
interested in avoiding the expense and likely limitations of a qualified custodian.
3. Forks and Airdrops

Sometimes owners of cryptocurrency can gain rights to different coins for
free, with or without any action on their part, which presents qualified custodians
with additional, unforeseen challenges. The two ways this happens are through
“hard forks” and “airdrops.” A hard fork occurs when incompatible sets of rules
governing the ledger emerge.100 As a result, the ledger splits into two different
chains, like a path separating at a fork.101 These forks can be created
intentionally, resulting in a “coin split,” in which all holders of a certain amount
of the original blockchain can claim new coins on the newly created chain. This
process has created Litecoin, Bitcoin Cash, and Bitcoin Gold102. Similarly, an
“airdrop” occurs when the holder of a designated amount of cryptocurrency at a
particular time is rewarded with free coins in another currency. But rather than
creating a fork in the blockchain, an entity initiates an airdrop by taking a “snap
shot” of a particular ledger and sending the new currency to each address on the
ledger that meets a certain holding threshold. Airdrops are a tool for the creator
of a new coin to create publicity, whether to inflate the coin’s value, bring
awareness, or achieve wider adoption. 103
For qualified custodians holding the fund manager’s digital assets, these
giveaways present potential problems. To begin with, the newly awarded coins
do not always show up in the wallet software. Instead, the recipient often must
take extra steps before they can have access to the private keys. After a hard fork
of Bitcoin created BitcoinCash on August 1, 2017, Coinbase did not support the
newly minted currency until January 1, 2018.104 Those who held Bitcoin at the
time of the fork and maintained their assets with Coinbase’s online wallet were
not able to withdraw—or even to see—their BitcoinCash balance until January.
[https://perma.cc/MW7X-75WC] (“As an example, these costs, which are generally 5 to 10 basis points
for U.S. funds, rise to 10 to 25 basis points for large international funds and can easily exceed 25 basis
points for small international funds.”).
99. Kent Oz, Independent Fund Administrators as a Solution for Hedge Fund Fraud, 15
Fordham J. Corp. & Fin. L. 329, 355 (2009).
100. See NARAYAN PRUSTY, BUILDING BLOCKCHAIN PROJECTS 32 (2017).
101. FRANCO, supra note 46, at 108–09.
102. IG Analyst, What are Bitcoin Forks and How Do They Work?, IG (Nov. 20, 2018),
https://www.ig.com/au/trading-opportunities/what-are-bitcoin-forks-and-how-do-they-work--181120,
[https://perma.cc/QJZ8-XFMA].
103. See, e.g., Ermos Kyriakides, All You Need to Know About Airdrops, HACKERNOON (July
31, 2018), https://hackernoon.com/all-you-need-to-know-about-airdrops-98b1b5af7941
[https://perma.cc/C5RN-PG2K].
104. See Bitcoin Cash – Frequently Asked Questions, COINBASE,
https://support.coinbase.com/customer/portal/articles/2853600-bitcoin-cash---frequently-asked-
questions [https://perma.cc/LW4E-4TDH].

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
During that time, BitcoinCash experienced extreme fluctuations in value,

ranging from $200 to $4,000 per coin.105
This illustrates another uncertainty. In the event of a hard fork or airdrop,
could a fund manager compel the independent custodian to update their system
to support and distribute the newly created coin? Qualified custodians should
have legitimate concerns in adopting new coins because they must consider the
safeguards of the storage system.106 Coinbase, for example, was concerned about
the security and feasibility of BitcoinCash when it was first released.107
Similarly, the exchange Poloniex initially held off on committing to support
Bitcoin Gold, stating in a press release that “we cannot be certain about the
security and stability of the software, nor the state or health of the network prior
to launch.”108 This makes the applicability of the custody rule even more
important. For a manager of a smaller fund not subject to the custody rule, the
solution is simple: retake control of the asset prior to the fork or airdrop, and then
return it after, only without the unsupported asset. Funds that exceed $150
million in assets would not have this flexibility. Thus, funds nearing the $150
million threshold at the time of an airdrop or fork might be incentivized not to
cross that threshold until the new asset is delivered.
This odd incentive would also implicate issues of valuation. Though
valuation may be less problematic here than in the case of exchange-traded funds
(ETFs), which must reach a net asset value on each business day,109 hedge funds
must also calculate net asset value to assess investor returns and incentive fees.110
In deciding whether or not to accept a new digital asset, the fund manager may
105. Cryptocurrency Market Capitalizations for Bitcoin Cash, COINMARKETCAP,

https://coinmarketcap.com/currencies/bitcoin-cash [https://perma.cc/5K8K-VEWQ].
106. Coinbase, Updated: What to Expect During the Bitcoin Cash Hard Fork, COINBASE BLOG
(Nov. 13, 2018), https://blog.coinbase.com/what-to-expect-during-the-bitcoin-cash-hard-fork-
f15fd03687db. [https://perma.cc/L2TF-8XVP].
107. See id.
108. See Notice About Bitcoin Gold, POLONIEX (Oct. 24, 2017), https://poloniex.com/press-
releases/2017.10.24-Notice-About-Bitcoin-Gold/ [https://perma.cc/7L66-P7AH]; see also Update as of
Tuesday, November 20, 2018, THE COINBASE BLOG (Nov. 20, 2018), https://blog.coinbase.com/what-
to-expect-during-the-bitcoin-cash-hard-fork-f15fd03687db [https://perma.cc/L2TF-8XVP] (“We will
continue to evaluate the safety of the BCH SV chain . . . We anticipate this development work will take
at least a few weeks, but may take longer . . . If network conditions significantly change or become
unsafe at any point, Coinbase may revise these plans.”).
109. In a staff letter, the SEC cited valuation as one of the concerns in not allowing an ETF to be
listed on an exchange. Staff Letter, Dalia Blass, Director, Div. of Inv. Mgmt., U.S. Sec. & Exch.
Comm’n, Engaging on Fund Innovation and Cryptocurrency-related Holdings (Jan. 18, 2018),
https://www.sec.gov/divisions/investment/noaction/2018/cryptocurrency-011818.htm
[https://perma.cc/9ZUF-ZGT7] [hereinafter Staff Letter] (“Would funds have the information necessary
to adequately value cryptocurrencies or cryptocurrency-related products, given their volatility, the
fragmentation and general lack of regulation of underlying cryptocurrency markets, and the nascent state
and current trading volume in the cryptocurrency futures markets?”).
110. Julia Kagan, Incentive Fee, INVESTOPEDIA (Jan. 9 2018),
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/incentive-fee.asp [https://perma.cc/3Z8D-ERD6]. (“In hedge
funds, where incentive fees are more common, the fee is generally calculated based on growth of the
fund’s or account’s net asset value (NAV).”).

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
have a conflict of interest balancing the security of the fund with the desire to
meet certain high-water marks and hurdle rates. With traditional asset classes,
fund managers already have an incentive to massage results through
discretionary valuation of assets at the end of an accounting period.111 Here, a
qualified custodian may alleviate this concern: the custodian would have less
incentive than a fund manager to take control of new assets before their security
or viability could be verified.
Apart from the issue of whether or not to adopt a token arising from an
airdrop or fork, the custodian and hedge fund manager may disagree on whether
the new token is a fraudulent offering, which could violate securities laws. In
1999, the SEC acted against “free stock” offerings,112 in which companies sought
promotion by giving away free stock through their websites.113 Because future
SEC actions could similarly target the companies involved in airdrops, a
qualified custodian would be hesitant to hold these potentially fraudulent assets.
If the fund manager disagreed with the qualified custodian’s risk assessment,
they would once again be left choosing between violating the custody rule and
forgoing holding the asset.
4. Liquidity―Security vs. Convenience

The need for security also creates problems with liquidity and timing. The
time a custodian takes to move cryptocurrency in and out of storage has a direct
bearing on a hedge fund’s liquidity. Unlike mutual funds and open-ended ETFs,
hedge funds often restrict the limited partner’s ability to withdraw funds through
notice periods, “lock-up” periods, and “gates,” which regulate the amount of
liquidity needed at any one time.114 Therefore, these measures alleviate many of
the concerns raised by the SEC with regard to ETFs’ ability to meet daily
redemptions and the requirements of the new liquidity rule.115 The issue facing
hedge funds will be whether the qualified custodian can release digital assets
quickly enough to satisfy the fund manager’s trading needs. Xapo advertises a
lengthy 48-hour transfer window to bring digital assets from its vault to a third-
111. DONALD R. CHAMBERS ET AL., ALTERNATIVE INVESTMENTS: CAIA LEVEL 1 399 (3d ed.
2015); Vikas Agarwal, Naveen D. Daniel & Narayan Y. Naik, Role of Managerial Incentives and
Discretion in Hedge Fund Performance, 64 J. OF FIN. 2221 (2009).
112. Press Release, U.S. Sec. & Exch. Comm’n, SEC Brings First Actions to Halt Unregistered
Online Offerings of So-Called “Free Stock” (July 22, 1999),
https://www.sec.gov/news/headlines/webstock.htm [https://perma.cc/KHN4-T8S3].
113. See id. (“In each of the four cases, the investors were required to sign up with the issuers’
web sites and disclose valuable personal information in order to obtain shares. . . . Through these
techniques, issuers received value by spawning a fledgling public market for their shares, increasing
their business, creating publicity, increasing traffic to their websites, and, in two cases, generating
possible interest in projected public offerings.”).
114. Houman B. Shadab, The Law and Economics of Hedge Funds: Financial Innovation and
Investor Protection, 6 BERKELEY BUS. L.J. 240, 252 (2009).
115. See Staff Letter, supra note 109.

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
party wallet.116 If fund managers are forced to comply with the custody rule, they
may have difficulty executing certain trading strategies or acting in times of
heavy volatility. For example, if the fund is relying on a prime broker that is not
also a qualified custodian, it may have difficulty meeting margin calls within the
required timeframe.
Secondly, even though hedge funds have discretionary liquidity
restrictions, such as side pockets and gates,117 fund managers may struggle with
liquidity restrictions in periods of mass sell offs. This highlights a problem with
the current custody rule. In the event of a market crash, more nimble funds
holding their own keys would be able to exit the market, further lowering the
market. Meanwhile, non-exempt funds in excess of $150 million would be left
holding the bag as their qualified custodians worked to retrieve their keys from
the vault. Foreseeing this illiquidity, prime brokers may be less willing to extend
long-term credit.118
B. Applicability of The Custody Rule to Particular Assets

To further complicate the application of the custody rule to cryptocurrency
hedge funds, there are valid arguments that the rule should not apply to certain
types of digital assets. As mentioned previously, under the rule, custody means
“holding, directly or indirectly, client funds or securities, or having any authority
to obtain possession of them.”119 Given the unusual characteristics of
cryptocurrency as an asset, there are not yet definitive rules for determining
whether certain tokens are (1) securities, (2) client funds, or (3) exempt from the
custody rule under the private placement exemption, which is discussed in
further detail below. Therefore, until clear rules are established, savvy legal
counsel can draw on each of these points to argue that certain tokens should not
be subject to the rule.
1. Is the Token Asset a Security?

One of the central questions surrounding cryptocurrency regulation is
whether the token asset is a security. The SEC has weighed in several times on
116. Vault: We’ve Built a Fortress for You, supra note 82.
117. A gate limits the amount of a hedge fund’s assets that can be withdrawn by investors. A side
pocket is a type of account used by hedge funds to separate liquid and illiquid assets. See James Chen,
Gate Provision, INVESTOPEDIA (Mar. 26, 2018),
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/gateprovision.asp [https://perma.cc/Q3ZA-YNXP]; James
Chen, Side Pocket, INVESTOPEDIA (Jan. 22, 2018),
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/sidepocket.asp [https://perma.cc/2PS2-CSHD].
118. See GEORGE O. ARAGON ET AL., U.S. SEC. & EXCH. COMM’N, STAFF PAPER: HEDGE FUND
LIQUIDITY MANAGEMENT (2017), https://www.sec.gov/files/dera_hf-liquidity-management.pdf
[https://perma.cc/Y72P-DQKT] (“Interestingly, the committed period of financing from a fund’s
creditors is unrelated to portfolio illiquidity. A possible interpretation for this ‘non-result’ is that, while
funds pursuing illiquid strategies have a greater demand for longer-term financing, its creditors are less
willing to extend long-term loans due to the illiquid nature of the fund’s assets.”).
119. 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2 (2019).

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
whether a particular initial coin offering (ICO) is a security. In a July 2017

investigative report, the SEC reviewed the “DAO,” a “decentralized” group
selling a token to the public in order to raise funds for projects.120 The SEC
applied the test for investment contracts from Securities and Exchange
Commission v. W. J. Howey Co. (the “Howey test”)121 and determined that the
tokens were in fact securities.122 Under the Howey test, an investment contract
is any (1) investment of money, (2) into a common enterprise, (3) with the
expectation of profits, solely from the efforts of the promoter or a third party.123
But others have disagreed with this conclusion. In December 2016, the New
York firm Debevoise & Plimpton wrote a memo explaining why a token was not
an investment contract under the Howey test.124 The memo, later popularized by
Coinbase, stated that if a token had certain characteristics, it could be more like
a franchise or license agreement than an investment contract.125 In a December
2017 public statement, SEC chairman Jay Clayton warned that “just as the SEC
has a sharp focus on how U.S. dollar, euro and Japanese yen transactions affect
our securities markets, we have the same interests and responsibilities with
respect to cryptocurrencies.”126 This includes market participants who “set up
structures to invest in or hold cryptocurrency.”127 It is not yet clear whether the
SEC will take a granular approach towards differentiating “app tokens” with a
use beyond currency from tokens that function more like commodity funds, such
as Bitcoin. For now, fund lawyers can continue to argue that certain tokens are
not securities and therefore fall outside of the custody rule.
2. Are the Tokens “Client Funds?”

Even if a fund manager’s tokens are not securities, the manager will also
have to argue that they are not “client funds” to avoid application of the rule.128
120. SEC. & EXCH. COMM’N, REPORT OF INVESTIGATION PURSUANT TO SECTION 21(A) OF THE
SECURITIES EXCHANGE ACT OF 1934: THE DAO, RELEASE NO. 81207 (July 25, 2017),
https://www.sec.gov/litigation/investreport/34-81207.pdf [https://perma.cc/4MXK-C4YL] [hereinafter
the DAO Report].
121. SEC v. W.J. Howey Co., 328 U.S. 293 (1946).
122. The Dao Report, supra note 120, at 11.
123. SEC v. Shavers, No. 4:13-CV-416, 2013 WL 4028182, at *2 (E.D. Tex. Aug. 6, 2013),
adhered to on reconsideration, No. 4:13-CV-416, 2014 WL 12622292 (E.D. Tex. Aug. 26, 2014);
Alexander B. Lindgren, Blockchain Regulation: Growing Pains of A Financial Revolution, 59 ORANGE
COUNTY LAW. 38, 40 (October 2017).
124. See A Securities Law Framework for Blockchain Tokens, COINBASE (Dec. 7, 2016),
https://www.coinbase.com/legal/securities-law-framework.pdf [https://perma.cc/AEL9-ZBG3].
125. Id.
126. Public Statement, Jay Clayton, Chairman, Sec. & Exch. Comm’n, Statement on
Cryptocurrencies and Initial Coin Offerings (Dec. 11, 2017), https://www.sec.gov/news/public-
statement/statement-clayton-2017-12-11#_ftn5 [https://perma.cc/VMJ2-VMNR].
127. Id.
128. As mentioned previously, custody is defined as “holding, directly or indirectly, client funds
or securities, or having any authority to obtain possession of them.” Advisers Act Rule, 17 C.F.R.
§ 275.206(4)-2(d)(2) (2019) (emphasis added).

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
“Client funds” is not defined in 206(4)-2, but can be logically understood to

mean fiat currency. In Form ADV, Item 9 asks whether there is custody over (1)
“cash or bank accounts” or (2) “securities.”129 Still, it is unclear whether widely
used tokens, such as Bitcoin, Ripple, or Ethereum, are “cash.”
There is good reason for including fiat currency in the custody rule. If a
fund manager were to store bricks of client cash under their mattress, it would
certainly raise all of the concerns that prompted the original adoption of the rule,
such as loss, misuse, and misappropriation. Similarly, if a cryptocurrency fund
manager were to keep their client’s Bitcoin private keys in a safe in their home,
those same concerns would likely arise. The introduction of cryptocurrency debit
cards,130 Bitcoin ATMs,131 and payment options at large vendors132 suggests that
cryptocurrency can function much like fiat currency. Still, cryptocurrencies are
functionally different from any other fiat currency in the world. They are not
regulated by a central authority, they rely on a computer network, and they have
not yet reached general acceptance. As discussed above, a sophisticated
cryptocurrency fund manager handling their own private keys may have a
significant operational advantage over a fund bound by the custody rule. Outside
of the benefits of not having to comply with the rule, on the other hand, a fund
manager dealing in traditional securities would have no operational advantage in
taking custody of their client’s fiat currency, as there is a system of banks and
qualified custodians that are better placed to handle currency.
Even if the SEC determines that cryptocurrencies constitute neither client
funds nor securities, fund managers without a qualified custodian would still fall
afoul of the rule. If an investor requests a redemption, the fund manager may
have to convert the client’s funds from cryptocurrency to fiat on an exchange.
As soon as that transaction occurs, the fund manager could be considered to have
“access to client funds” for purposes of the rule. Funds could avoid this by having
investors invest and take redemptions in only cryptocurrency. Such a policy
would be impracticable for many investors and would require modification of
129. Form ADV: Uniform Application for Investment Advisor Registration and Report by
Exempt Reporting Advisers, Item 9(F), https://www.sec.gov/about/forms/formadv-part1a.pdf
[https://perma.cc/2BVM-CKP7] (added in 2011); see Rules Implementing Amendments to the
Investment Advisers Act of 1940, Investment Advisers Act Release No. 3221, 76 Fed. Reg. 42,950,
42,972 (July 19, 2011).
130. See Gina Clarke, Why Debit Cards and Visa Could Save Cryptocurrencies, FORBES (Oct.
22, 2018), https://www.forbes.com/sites/ginaclarke/2018/10/22/why-debit-cards-and-visa-could-save-
cryptocurrencies/ [https://perma.cc/7AAT-EESN].
131. See Kurt Wagner, World’s First Bitcoin ATM Opens In Vancouver, Canada, MASHABLE
(Oct. 30, 2013), https://mashable.com/2013/10/30/bitcoin-atm-2/#uLHkI4tLRsqC
[https://perma.cc/WUX8-Y96N].
132. See Paying With Bitcoin, EXPEDIA.COM,
https://www.expedia.com/Checkout/BitcoinTermsAndConditions [https://perma.cc/72PZ-B3K6]
(“Our acceptance of Bitcoin is powered by our partner, Coinbase. We do not guarantee and are not
responsible for the availability of Coinbase’s services.”).

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
Form D and many other registration documents that denominate minimum

investment and offering amounts in US dollars.133
3. Do the Tokens Fall Under the Private Placement Exemption?

If a token is a security, it can still be exempt from the qualified custodian
requirement if it falls under the private placement exemption. This exemption
applies to privately offered uncertificated securities.134 To qualify, the token
must be (1) acquired from the issuers, (2) uncertified, with ownership recorded
only on the books of the issuer or the transfer agent, and (3) transferable only
with the consent of the issuer or holders of the outstanding token.135 It is unclear
whether the exemption should apply to many tokens purchased in pre-ICOs—
token sales directed to investors at a discount before the official ICO occurs.
To understand whether pre-ICOs should fit within the exemption, we can
look to the Simple Agreement for Future Tokens (“SAFT”). The SAFT is a
standard agreement promising to deliver future tokens, modeled after an
agreement used by startups entering angel and seed-round investments.136 In the
SAFT and accompanying offering memorandum for Filecoin, for example, the
agreement had a disclaimer explaining to the buyer that they were receiving an
uncertified financial instrument private offering.137 In addition, the tokens
delivered were subject to a “use restriction” under which the investor could not
sell, transfer, or exchange the tokens prior to vesting.138 At face value, it would
seem a pre-ICO sold under a SAFT and accompanying offering memorandum
133. See, e.g., Cryptocurrency Fund L.P., Notice of Exempt Offering of Securities, Form D (July
7, 2017),
https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1711332/000171133217000001/xslFormDX01/primary_doc
.xml [https://perma.cc/83H5-MCRH].
134. See Advisers Act Rule 206(4)-2(b)(2), 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2(b)(2) (2019); HAMMER,
supra note 19, at 326.
135. 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2(b)(2).
136. See JUAN BATIZ-BENET, JESSE CLAYBURGH & MARCO SANTORI, THE SAFT PROJECT:
TOWARD A COMPLIANT TOKEN SALE FRAMEWORK 15 (Oct. 2, 2017),
https://saftproject.com/static/SAFT-Project-Whitepaper.pdf [https://perma.cc/SD6P-AZP7] (“In short,
the SAFT provides investors with the right to fully-functional utility tokens, delivered once the network
is created and the tokens are functional. The SAFT is very likely a security, namely an investment
contract.”); see also Carolynn Levy, Safe Financing Documents, Y COMBINATOR (Sept. 2018),
https://www.ycombinator.com/documents [https://perma.cc/RM2E-97MQ].
137. See SAFT for Filecoin Token Presale (Series S-2), PROTOCOL LABS,
https://coinlist.co/assets/index/filecoin_index/Protocol%20Labs%20-
%20SAFT%20for%20Filecoin%20Token%20Presale-
0f43e05c4ad1c0bd8993b60c4d6bf3cbd4f3d278dd7a62dde1972c9d82c65184.pdf
[https://perma.cc/A3W6-UBFD] (“The offer and sale of this security instrument has not been registered
under the U.S. Securities Act of 1933, As Amended (The “Securities Act”), or under the securities laws
of certain states. This security may not be offered, sold or otherwise transferred, pledged or hypothecated
except as permitted under the act and applicable state securities laws pursuant to an effective registration
statement or an exemption therefrom.”) (alteration in original). The original SAFT template can be
downloaded at https://saftproject.com/static/Form-of-SAFT-for-token-pre-sale.docx
[https://perma.cc/U7SQ-WEJL].
138. See SAFT for Filecoin, supra note 137, at 2.

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
would meet the criteria of the private placement exemption and therefore would
not require a qualified custodian. This would be attractive to fund managers who
invest in a diverse range of pre-ICOs and would otherwise struggle finding
custodians able to accommodate these yet-to-be-released tokens. However, other
difficulties would arise, such as the applicability of a mandatory “holding
period” under Rule 144.139
IV.
INTRODUCING AN ALTERNATIVE MECHANISM FOR COMPLIANCE WITH RULE
206(4)-2
In light of the complications of applying the current custody rule to
cryptocurrencies, the SEC has three possible options. First, it could institute a
period of no action while the market for specialized qualified custodians
develops. Funds would continue operating without fear of immediate censure in
the hope that a mature and sophisticated set of qualified custodians would
develop. Second, a more aggressive SEC could take enforcement action
immediately and fine fund managers that are not complying with the rule. But in
the absence of fraud or tangible harm to investors, wide-reaching fines and cease-
and-desist orders may be hard to justify. Solving the fundamental inconsistency
between the rule and practice requires a more comprehensive regulatory
response. The third option is to issue a no-action letter that specifically sets out
new requirements for the custody rule for investment advisers managing
cryptocurrency hedge funds. This is the best choice. The rule should be adjusted
to allow fund managers to maintain their client’s digital assets on exchanges and
in their own custody, provided certain policies and procedures are met. These
requirements can follow the spirit of the custody rule by mitigating the sorts of
abuses the rule originally set out to prevent: investor funds being “lost, misused,
misappropriated or subject to the advisers’ financial reverses.”140 Where the rule
cannot protect investors, the SEC should encourage the use of insurance to
mitigate losses. This Part explores both the regulatory basis and rationale for
changing the rule and what those modifications should entail.
A. Regulatory Basis and Rationale for Modifying the Rule

To argue for a change in the rule, we must first look at how cryptocurrency
hedge funds fall into the SEC’s regulatory goals. Creating a special set of custody
139. Rule 144 is an SEC regulation that provides an exemption from registration for the sale of a
security if certain conditions are met. One of those conditions set under 144(b)(1)(ii) and (d)(1)(ii) is a
one-year holding period for securities issued by a non-reporting company, which includes the majority
of ICOs. See 17 C.F.R. § 230.144 (“Persons deemed not to be engaged in a distribution and therefore
not underwriters”); Rule 144: Selling Restricted and Control Securities, U.S. SEC. & EXCH. COMM’N,
(Jan. 16, 2013), https://www.sec.gov/reportspubs/investor-publications/investorpubsrule144htm.html
[https://perma.cc/TB63-PYXP].
Release No. IA-2876,68 Fed. Reg. 56,692 (Oct. 1, 2003).

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
rules for digital assets would necessarily discriminate between funds with
traditional assets and funds with digital assets. But doing so is in line with the
SEC’s regulatory goals and prior actions.
The SEC’s long-running mission has three prongs: (1) protect investors; (2)
maintain fair, orderly, and efficient markets; and (3) facilitate capital
formation.141 Under the leadership of Chairman Jay Clayton, the SEC has
focused this mission on the protection of “[m]ain [s]treet” investors.142 To
determine whether the three prongs are being met, the Commission has indicated
that it will look to the “long-term interests of Mr. and Ms. 401(k).”143 Reflecting
this focus, SEC enforcement actions have concentrated on fraudulent initial coin
offerings and other schemes preying on the enthusiasm of retail investors.144 For
hedge funds, the recent focus has been on retail-investor facing funds, namely
cryptocurrency-linked ETFs, as demonstrated by a January 2018 staff letter on
cryptocurrency-related fund innovation.145
In terms of investor protection, hedge fund investors may not demand the
same protections as main street investors. For one, investors in hedge funds are
wealthier than the average individual. Most fund investors will be “accredited
investors,”146 which means they have income in excess of $200,000 per year
($300,000 if filing jointly) or a net worth over $1,000,000.147 Unlike main street
investors, investors in hedge funds bring an understanding of options,
leveraging, and the financial tools and risks that come along with them. Even
when they do not understand the risk, they likely have the assets to recover from
complete loss. Six months after Tim Draper lost forty thousand Bitcoins he held
on the Mt. Gox exchange, he purchased nearly thirty thousand more from a US
141. What We Do, U.S. SEC. & EXCH. COMM’N, (June 10, 2013),
https://www.sec.gov/Article/whatwedo.html [https://perma.cc/F6SZ-LYQL].
142. DIVISION OF ENFORCEMENT, U.S. SEC. & EXCH. COMM’N,: ANNUAL REPORT: A LOOK
BACK AT FISCAL YEAR 2017 (2017), https://www.sec.gov/files/enforcement-annual-report-2017.pdf
[https://perma.cc/E3XL-CMDW].
143. Jay Clayton, Chairman, U.S. Sec. & Exch. Comm’n, Remarks at the Economic Club of New
York (July 12, 2017), https://www.sec.gov/news/speech/remarks-economic-club-new-york
[https://perma.cc/CW8V-RFJJ].
144. See Testimony on “Virtual Currencies: The Oversight Role of the U.S. Securities and
Exchange Commission and the U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission”: Hearing Before the S.
Comm. on Banking, Hous., & Urban Affairs, 115th Cong. (Feb. 6, 2018) (statement Jay Clayton,
Chairman, U.S. Sec. & Exch. Comm’n) (“Cryptocurrencies, ICOs and related products and technologies
have captured the popular imagination – and billions of hard-earned dollars – of American investors
from all walks of life. In dealing with these issues, my key consideration – as it is for all issues that come
before the Commission – is to serve the long-term interests of our Main Street investors.”).
145. See Staff Letter, supra note 109 (“As you know, the U.S. investment fund market is one of
the most robust, varied and successful markets for investment products in the world. Its success can be
attributed, in significant part, to the commitment of fund sponsors to responsible innovation and
continuous improvement of the products they offer. This commitment is especially important because
many of America’s Main Street investors rely on registered funds to help them build toward education,
retirement and other important goals.”).
147. 17 C.F.R. § 230.501(a)(5)–(6) (2019).

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
Marshals’ Service auction of confiscated Silk Road assets.148 Though not a hedge
fund investor, Tim Draper exemplifies a certain appetite for risk in emerging
technologies that we may not want to discourage.
As a counterpoint, although hedge funds were traditionally the target of
wealthy individuals, institutional investors now make up more than 60 percent
of hedge fund assets. 149 These institutions include pension funds, endowments,
and other groups150 where the underlying assets reach retail investors’ savings.
In addition, even if Bernard Madoff and other pre-Dodd-Frank scandals are in
the rearview mirror as far as hedge fund investors are concerned, the securities
rules should not adjust to the often-myopic mood of the hour. The idea of
allowing investment advisers to manage their own funds “under the radar and
outside the vision of regulators”151 is as unappealing today as it was before Dodd-
Frank and Bitcoin.
On the other hand, by not modifying the rule, the SEC would be inhibiting
capital formation in a promising industry, contrary to its third goal of facilitating
capital formation. In Chairman Clayton’s remarks at the Economic Club of New
York in July 2017, he noted that in times of technological change, the SEC must
“strive to ensure that our rules and operations reflect the realities of our capital
markets.”152 In order to facilitate capital formation (prong three), it is necessary
to adjust the typical investor protections.
This has happened before. In the past, the SEC has allowed modifications
to the custody rule when the circumstances were compelling and protections
were adequate. 153 For example, in 2007, the SEC modified the custody rule for
148. Polina Marinova, DFJ’s Tim Draper on Bitcoin’s Rise, Steve Jurvetson’s Exit, and His
Biggest Investing Regret, FORTUNE (Jan. 31, 2018), http://fortune.com/2018/01/31/dfj-tim-draper-
bitcoin [https://perma.cc/KJM3-WQD5]; Robert McMillan, Someone Just Bought $19M in Silk Road
Bitcoins From the Feds, WIRED (July 1, 2014), https://www.wired.com/2014/07/silkroadauction/
[https://perma.cc/4HHQ-6Q2U].
149. See U.S. SEC. & EXCH. COMM’N, STAFF REPORT, IMPLICATIONS OF THE GROWTH OF
HEDGE FUNDS (2003), https://www.sec.gov/news/studies/hedgefunds0903.pdf [https://perma.cc/5UE7-
JQDS] (“The growth in hedge funds has been fueled primarily by the increased interest of institutional
investors such as pension plans, endowments and foundations seeking to diversify their portfolios with
investments in vehicles that feature absolute return strategies”).
150. See id.
151. See Press Release, U.S. Sec. & Exch. Comm’n, SEC Adopts Dodd-Frank Act Amendments
to Investment Advisers Act (June 22, 2011), https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2011/2011-133.htm
[https://perma.cc/7MR6-MHTA].
152. Jay Clayton, Chairman, U.S. Sec. & Exch. Comm’n, Remarks at the Economic Club of New
York (July 12, 2017), https://www.sec.gov/news/speech/remarks-economic-club-new-york
[https://perma.cc/CW8V-RFJJ].
153. See Depository Trust Company of Delaware, LCC dba Delaware Depository, SEC No-
Action Letter, (Sept. 12, 2016) https://www.sec.gov/divisions/investment/noaction/2016/depository-
trust-company-of-delaware-091216.html [https://perma.cc/7SX5-3X8]; Investment Adviser
Association, SEC No-Action Letter, File No. 132-3, at 1 (Sept. 20, 2007),
https://www.sec.gov/divisions/investment/noaction/2007/iaa092007.pdf [https://perma.cc/9YGB-
U3ET].

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
investment advisers.154 In requesting the change, the Investment Adviser

Association pointed out that third parties, like the IRS and class action fund
administrators, were mistakenly sending funds to the client’s investment advisers
instead of to the clients directly.155 The custody rule at the time required the
advisers to return the funds to the sender within three business days.156 The
Association successfully argued that this rule would cause unnecessary delays to
clients and increase the risk of loss.157 It feared that third parties did not have the
“established procedures to properly safeguard client assets.”158 Instead, the
Association argued, advisers should be allowed to directly send these funds to
their clients or their qualified custodian as long as they maintained certain
policies and procedures.159 The SEC was persuaded, noting the Association’s
assertion that reverting funds to third parties “may work to the detriment of their
clients’ interest and ‘create more problems than it solves.’”160 To maintain client
safeguards in absence of enforcement, the SEC noted that it expected advisers to
meet several conditions, including promptly identifying clients assets they
received, forwarding the funds within no more than five days, and maintaining
records of all receipts.161
The SEC has also granted exceptions to custody requirements in other
contexts—such as under the Investment Company Act (ICA)—when there were
sufficient safeguards in place. Like the IAA custody rule, Section 17(f) of the
ICA requires that funds hold securities only with qualified custodians162—
typically banks or members of national securities exchanges.163 When several
precious metal custodians exited the market in 2016 due to increased risks and
costs, one fund requested that the SEC allow them to keep their precious metal
with a non-qualified custodian.164 The fund argued that, although the Depository
Trust Company of Delaware did not meet the definition of a qualified custodian
under 17(f), it was “at least as secure and competent as the same services
available through any entity that would qualify under Section 17(f).”165 The
154. Investment Adviser Association, supra note 151.

155. See id.
156. Id. at 3.
157. Id. at 4.
158. Id.
159. Id.
160. Id.
161. See id.
162. Rule 17f-4 allows registered investment companies to deposit securities it owns into a
securities depository. See Final Rule: Custody of Investment Company Assets with a Securities
Depository, Release No. IC-25934 (Feb. 13, 2003), https://www.sec.gov/rules/final/ic-25934.htm
[https://perma.cc/47L2-2ZVT].
163. Depository Trust Co. of Delaware, supra note 151. (“These qualified custodians include, for
example, banks satisfying the qualifications specified within Section 26(a)(1) of the 1940 Act, a member
of a national securities exchange, or other entities that the Commission has prescribed by rule, regulation,
or order for the protection of investors.”).
164. Id.
165. Id.

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
company was a licensed depository for gold and silver, had advanced internal
control procedures, underwent a third-party audit by a PCAOB-registered
auditor, and possessed a $2 million cybersecurity liability insurance policy.166
The SEC agreed to refrain from enforcement action as long as a majority of the
fund’s board agreed that keeping custody with the company was in the best
interest of the fund and its members.167 This included agreement that the precious
metals would be subject to “reasonable care” and that the company’s custody
was “at least equal in nature and quality to the services that could be provided
by bank custodians . . . after consideration of all of the relevant factors.”168
The SEC has also provided an exception to the 17(f) custody rule for funds
holding cash or securities with the Chicago Mercantile Exchange or other
clearing members while they cleared swaps.169 After Dodd-Frank, the CFTC was
charged with making new rules for the centralized trading of swaps.170 While the
custody issue was in flux during the rule-making process, the SEC issued a
temporary no-action letter, finding “it was appropriate to flexibly apply the
custody requirements” as the CFTC actively worked to improve protections for
customer assets.171 Once a framework for centralized swap clearing was worked
out, the SEC made the no-action letter permanent.172 However, the no-action was
contingent on each clearing member following certain policies and procedures
that brought the Exchange in line with the requirements of 17(f).173
166. Id.
167. Id.
168. Id.
169. See Chi. Mercantile Exch., SEC No-Action Letter (Dec. 19, 2017),
https://www.sec.gov/divisions/investment/noaction/2017/chicago-mercantile-exchange-121917.htm
[https://perma.cc/4YE5-TY26] [hereinafter Chi. Mercantile Exch., No-Action Letter (Dec. 19, 2017)].
170. See Chi. Mercantile Exch., SEC Staff No-Action Letter (July 29, 2011),
https://www.sec.gov/divisions/investment/noaction/2011/cme072911-17f.htm
[https://perma.cc/G4RF-YGW6] [hereinafter Chi. Mercantile Exch., No-Action Letter (July 29, 2011)];
Chi. Mercantile Exch., SEC Staff No-Action Letter (Mar. 24, 2011),
https://www.sec.gov/divisions/investment/noaction/2011/cme032411-17f.htm [https://perma.cc/FPA4-
LUXA]. [hereinafter Chi. Mercantile Exch, No-Action Letter (Mar. 24, 2011)]. Swaps are over-the-
counter (not traded on an exchange) contracts through which two parties exchange cash flows or
liabilities from two different financial instruments. For an assessment of the post-Dodd-Frank CFTC
rules on swaps, see J. CHRISTOPHER GIANCARLO, PRO-REFORM RECONSIDERATION OF THE CFTC
SWAPS TRADING RULES: RETURN TO DODD-FRANK (Jan. 29, 2015),
https://www.cftc.gov/sites/default/files/idc/groups/public/@newsroom/documents/file/sefwhitepaper0
12915.pdf [https://perma.cc/LM4L-7KFG].
171. See Chi. Mercantile Exch., SEC No-Action Letter (Dec. 19, 2017), supra note 169.
172. See Chi. Mercantile Exch,. SEC No-Action Letter (July 29, 2011), supra note 170; Chi.
Mercantile Exch., SEC No-Action Letter (Mar. 24, 2011), supra note 170.
173. These included following regulation for swap collateral, promptly furnishing copies of asset
records, and preserving the ability of the fund to withdraw assets if the custodial arrangement ever falls
out of line with 17(f). See Chi. Mercantile Exch,. SEC No-Action Letter (July 29, 2011), supra note 170;
Chi. Mercantile Exch., SEC No-Action Letter (Mar. 24, 2011), supra note 170.

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
Although most cryptocurrency hedge funds will be exempt from the

Investment Company Act and not subject to rule 17(f),174 the above examples
show that the SEC has modified custody requirements for funds when (1) an
inefficiency presents a clear and compelling rationale for doing so, and (2) the
alternative provides protections that are at least as adequate as the qualified
custodians under the original rule. The challenges in applying the current custody
rule present a compelling case for modification. A difficult question is whether
the current exchanges can provide adequate protections to satisfy concerns about
investor protection.
B. Modifying the Rule

Unlike the funds in previous no-action letters, hedge funds do not have a
viable qualified custodian option for their cryptocurrency assets. Therefore, there
may be a low bar if we are merely looking for a modification that is “at least as
secure and competent as the same services available” through the existing
custodians.175 In addition, forcing funds to meet the current custody rule “may
work to the detriment of their clients’ interest and ‘create more problems than it
solves.’” 176 The more challenging question the SEC and investors should be
asking is whether it is “appropriate to flexibly apply the custody requirements”
when there have been several instances of security breaches and ensuing losses
on digital currency exchanges.177 But I argue that the best option is for the SEC
to issue a no-action letter allowing hedge funds to hold possession of their digital
assets with themselves or on an exchange as long as certain policies and
procedures are met. These would include (1) the fund hiring an independent,
third-party administrator; (2) requiring the administrator to receive direct pricing
from the exchange; (3) quarterly audits; (4) mandatory policy on custody and
security; (5) adequate disclosure of risk; (6) mandatory best interest
determination; and (7) encouraging the use of insurance. Although these
procedures cannot eliminate all of the security risks digital currency exchanges
present, they provide reasonable safeguards under which the industry can
develop.
174. “Company Act section 3(c)(1) excludes any pooled investment vehicle from the definition
of ‘investment company’ if it does not have more than 100 beneficial owners of its outstanding securities
(‘the 100-Owner Limit’) and does not make or propose to make a public offering of its securities.”
HAMMER, supra note 19, at 70.; see also 15 U.S.C. § 80a-3(c)(1).
175. See Depository Trust Co. of Delaware, supra note 151; see also Chi. Mercantile Exch., SEC
No-Action Letter (July 29, 2011), supra note 170; Chi. Mercantile Exch., SEC No-Action Letter (Mar.
24, 2011), supra note 170.
176. See Investment Adviser Association, supra note 151; see also U.S. SEC. & EXCH. COMM’N,
STAFF REPORT, IMPLICATIONS OF THE GROWTH OF HEDGE FUNDS vii (2003),
https://www.sec.gov/news/studies/hedgefunds0903.pdf [https://perma.cc/5UE7-JQDS].
177. See Chi. Mercantile Exch., SEC No-Action Letter (Dec. 19, 2017), supra note 169. For a
list of security breaches on cryptocurrency exchanges, see Alex Munkachy, 30+ Cryptocurrency
Exchange Hacks — A Comprehensive List, COINIQ (June 21, 2018), https://coiniq.com/cryptocurrency-
exchange-hacks [https://perma.cc/SK3U-BQTE].

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
1. Independent, Third-Party Administrators

First, many protections offered by a qualified custodian can be replicated
by requiring the fund to hire an independent, third-party administrator to handle
clients’ fiat currency, record keeping, and selection of auditors. Without holding
the private keys, a third-party administrator could still add protections for
investors by holding the fund’s fiat currency and by maintaining reporting and
disclosure records. For example, clients could direct their investments in fiat
currency directly to a bank account under the control of the administrator. The
fund manager would have no ability to withdraw funds from this account. The
administrator would then take responsibility for directing the fiat currency to
third parties, such as exchanges or parties to private negotiations. Since fiat
currency does not present the same problems as digital assets, there is no reason
to extend an exemption to custody for it.
In addition, the fund administrator would keep records on the fund’s assets.
These records would then be used to provide reports to investors and to calculate
the fund’s net asset value. If the fund manager involves any brokers or third-
party traders in their transactions, the administrator must take responsibility for
reconciling the accounts.
2. Direct Pricing from the Exchange

Second, the custody rule requires the fund to deliver account statements to
customers to deter general partners from reaching into the cookie jar and taking
improper payments.178 To replicate the value of independent statements, the
third-party administrator could be required to receive direct pricing from the
exchange. To maintain records of the fund’s trading activity, the administrator
would not be permitted to rely solely on self-reporting by the fund.
Cryptocurrencies do not have a standard pricing and the price of any coin can
differ from exchange to exchange.179 As such, there is room for manipulation in
reporting. The third-party administrator should develop a methodology that
looks to either the application programming interface (API)180 of a particular
exchange or an averaged blend of data from different APIs. Navigating APIs
requires the administrator to employ technical knowledge. However, unlike
178. See HAMMER, supra note 19, at 328.; see also Custody of Funds or Securities of Clients by
Investment Advisers, Adviser Act Release No. 2176, 68 Fed. Reg. 56,692, 56,694 (Oct. 1, 2003).
179. For a simple explanation, see Bob Pisani, Here’s Why Bitcoin Prices are Different on Each
Exchange, YAHOO FINANCE (Dec. 12, 2017), https://uk.finance.yahoo.com/news/apos-why-bitcoin-
prices-different-221200635.html [https://perma.cc/B6U4-SNVD].
180. APIs, or application programming interfaces, are sets of protocols and standards that
applications use to communicate with other applications. Several exchanges provide free APIs that can
be used to gather real-time and historical market data with time stamps. See, e.g., BITTREX,
https://bittrex.com/home/api [https://perma.cc/B3A8-PAZA]; COINBASE,
https://developers.coinbase.com [https://perma.cc/2AY3-Z4CT]; GDAX,
https://docs.gdax.com/#pagination [https://perma.cc/DEL9-BKK2].

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
storing cryptocurrency, the use of APIs is standardized and widely understood.181

Just as qualified custodians for traditional assets can identify the authenticity of
financial statements, third-party administrators could use APIs as a tool to
achieve accurate reporting without the threat of manipulation by the fund
managers.
3. Quarterly Audit
Third, like the surprise examination, a quarterly audit would help make sure
that the assets that the adviser is telling its clients are there are actually there.
Increasing the frequency of audits from annually to quarterly would extend
protections to investors by decreasing an ill-intentioned fund manager’s window
of opportunity for fleecing their clients. Rather than extending a fraudulent
scheme for years, as in the case of Bernard Madoff, a quarterly audit would detect
misallocation or misappropriation of cryptocurrency and flag the issue for
gatekeepers and regulators. While the procedures for storing cryptocurrencies
are plagued with technological difficulties and malicious actors, accounting
firms are fully capable of auditing digital assets. The only barrier to competency
is whether accounting firms are willing to commit resources to learning the field.
Many firms have already heeded the SEC’s Chief Accountant’s 2017 call for
“lighting a lamp” to see how cryptocurrency affects financial reporting and have
performed audits for cryptocurrency hedge fund clients.182
4. Custody and Security Policies

Fourth, the fund must have a policy in place to address custody and security,
including cybersecurity. This differs from anything found in the current custody
rule. However, having a custody and security policy in place would help identify
failures and warn investors of risks. In the case of a malicious actor, it would
provide the SEC and non-malicious fund managers a roadmap for understanding
where the failure occurred and how it could be remedied. In addition, policies
would provide additional materials for investors to do due diligence. Especially
in the context of cybersecurity, investors would have the opportunity to read the
policy and determine whether it provided enough assurances to make them
comfortable enough to invest. This is perhaps an idealistic notion―had Madoff
provided potential investors with an accurate custodial policy, it is unclear how
many would have been deterred. The exercise of drafting a policy would have
181. See, e.g., Google Data APIs, G SUITE DEVELOPER,

https://developers.google.com/sites/faq_gdata [https://perma.cc/6H7Q-S28Y].
182. Wesley R. Bricker, Chief Accountant, U.S. Sec. & Exch. Comm’n, Remarks before the
Financial Executives International 36th Annual Current Financial Reporting Issues Conference:
Effective Financial Reporting in a Period of Change (Nov. 14, 2017),
https://www.sec.gov/news/speech/speech-bricker-2017-11-14 [https://perma.cc/2YTP-KPN2]; Brady
Dale, Top SEC Accountant Wants Auditor Eyes on Crypto, COINDESK (Nov. 14, 2017),
https://www.coindesk.com/sec-top-accountant-cryptocurrency-study [https://perma.cc/V5SW-4F29].

13.234.121.200 ff:ffff:ffff on Thu, 01 Jan 1976 12:34:56 UTC
benefits regardless. For example, a market for compliance consultants may

evolve and create industry standards.
5. Disclosure of Risks
Fifth, the fund must provide investors with a special disclosure stating risks
stemming from the custody arrangement and trading on exchanges. Hedge funds
file disclosures on Form ADV and/or Form PF.183 In addition to traditional risks,
fund managers who plan to have custody of their clients’ digital assets should
make an additional, separate disclosure stating the risks involved in that
arrangement. This would put potential investors on notice that the fund manager
is relying on an SEC no-action letter and that, by investing into this arrangement,
the investor is potentially subjecting their digital assets to complete loss.
6. Best Interest Determination

Sixth, the general partner of the fund or fund manager must determine that
holding client funds or securities on an exchange is in the best interest of the
limited partners (investors). In the September 12, 2016, no-action letter to the
Delaware Depository discussed in Part IV.A supra, the SEC’s decision to allow
the company to have custody of the fund’s gold or silver was contingent on a
majority of the fund’s board members determining that “maintaining
custody . . . with the Company is in the best interest of the Fund and its
shareholders.”184 To make this determination, the SEC suggested the board
consider whether (1) “the Gold and Silver will be subject to reasonable care,”
and (2) custody will be “at least equal in nature and quality” to custody by “bank
custodians in the same market(s) after consideration of all of the relevant
factors.”185
In the context of cryptocurrency funds, this is an attractive provision for
investors. It puts the onus on the fund manager to ensure that it is meeting
standards of safety when handling clients’ digital assets. As time goes on and
familiarity with this asset class increases, “reasonable care” may come to have a
clearer definition. In the meantime, “reasonable care” provides needed flexibility
to a field lacking technological standards.
7. Insurance
These requirements alone might still be insufficient. Do these rules provide
a custodial framework that is “at least equal in nature and quality to the services
183. See HAMMER, supra note 19, at 189–97. Form PF is used by hedge funds to report assets
under management to the Dodd-Frank-established Financial Stability Oversight Council. For an
example, see Reporting Form for Investment Advisers to Private Funds and Certain Commodity Pool
Operators and Commodity Trading Advisors, FORM PF (Paper Version),
https://www.sec.gov/rules/final/2011/ia-3308-formpf.pdf [https://perma.cc/8LWE-TJGQ].
184. Depository Trust Co. of Delaware., supra note 151.
185. Id.

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
that could be provided by bank custodians . . . after consideration of all of the

relevant factors?”186 If the comparison is to current bank custodians without
“established procedures to properly safeguard”187 digital assets, then the answer
is presumably yes. If the comparison is to current custodians holding traditional
asset classes, then the answer becomes less clear. There is little stopping a fund
manager who has custody over the fund’s digital assets from taking off with
those assets. He is no different from the individual storing cash under a mattress.
Even more importantly, holding cryptocurrency on an exchange could subject
the funds to a total loss. Although there has never been a case of a cryptocurrency
hedge fund absconding with assets, recent history is replete with large-scale theft
of digital assets held on cryptocurrency exchanges.188 The set of guidelines
proposed above would provide significant protections to avoid funds being “lost,
misused, misappropriated or subject to the advisers’ financial reverses.”189 But
they would not reduce the risk to the same level as traditional asset classes held
with a qualified custodian.
Some of the risk inherent to keeping custody of cryptocurrencies can be
mitigated through insurance. And insurance might make the SEC more willing
to tolerate a set of rules that allows significantly more risk of misappropriation
and loss from theft, depending on what type of assets a given hedge fund
manager chooses to invest in. Although there is not yet a mature market for
insuring cryptocurrency, it is foreseeable that one will evolve. For example,
despite a lack of data and adverse results, Waymo’s autonomous ride sharing
program was able to partner with an insurer.190 In 2015, Xapo engaged an
insurance consultant to set up a captive insurance plan.191 In granting a no-action
letter to the Delaware Depository, the SEC noted the company’s extensive
insurance regime, including one billion dollars in coverage to cover losses by
customers and funds while in custody and a two-million-dollar cybersecurity
liability insurance policy.192 The ability of cryptocurrency hedge funds to point
to a comprehensive insurance policy would alleviate some concerns over the
potential for investor losses.
In addition, new technologies and innovations may dramatically reduce the
risk of fund managers and exchanges maintaining custody of digital assets. The
private company Chainalysis offers investigative tools that can track Bitcoin
186. Id.
187. See Investment Adviser Association, supra note 151.
188. See Munkachy, supra note 177.
Release No. IA-2876, 68 Fed. Reg. 56,692 (Oct. 1, 2003).
190. Peter Rudegeair & Nicole Friedman, Riders in Alphabet’s Driverless Car Will Be Insured
by Startup Trov, WALL STREET J. (Dec. 19, 2017), https://www.wsj.com/articles/riders-in-alphabets-
new-driverless-car-will-be-insured-by-a-startup-1513688581?tesla=y&mod=e2tw
[https://perma.cc/92WP-TBP8].
191. 2015 Power Broker, RISK & INSURANCE, http://riskandinsurance.com/2015pb-financial-
service [https://perma.cc/L72A-6DGH].
192. Depository Trust Co. of Delaware., supra note 151.

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC
transactions to wallets.193 It is conceivable that a third-party administrator with

sufficiently powerful investigative software could maintain an eye over digital
assets such that custody becomes a minor concern. Furthermore, the recent
failures of exchanges to prevent attacks may also be remedied by innovation.
“Cross-chain atomic swaps”194 (a simultaneous transaction between
cryptocurrencies) and “decentralized exchanges”195 (exchanges operating
without ownership by a single company) are examples of potential security
improvements currently being introduced to the market.
CONCLUSION
As hedge funds continue to invest in cryptocurrency, the market for
custodial services will adapt to the changing landscape. In the meantime, the
SEC will have to manage the challenge of applying the custody rule to a
technologically complex asset class that was not contemplated during the rules’
inception. My proposed alterations of the custody rule will allow hedge funds to
continue to invest in cryptocurrency while providing investors a higher degree
of security. These requirements might still fall short of achieving protections that
are “at least equal in nature and quality to the services that could be provided by
bank custodians”196 holding traditional assets. Still, they are preferable to the two
likely alternatives: hedge funds acting as their own bank by holding
cryptocurrency themselves, or a rigid application of the rule that stifles the
industry. The question will be whether the SEC can stomach the idea of allowing
funds to hold assets in a way that is known to contain significant risk of loss.
193. See CHAINALYSIS, https://www.chainalysis.com [https://perma.cc/7B8F-CLYG].

194. See Will Warren, What is a Decentralized Exchange?, COIN CENTER (Oct. 10, 2018),
https://coincenter.org/entry/what-is-a-decentralized-exchange [https://perma.cc/J3M9-SSJK].
195. Id.
196. See Depository Trust Co. of Delaware., supra note 151.

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC

13.234.121.200 on Tue, 31 Jan 2023 07:35:29 UTC

(I) Regulating Crypto Hedgefunds (CaLR)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

(I) Regulating Crypto Hedgefunds (CaLR)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

California Law Review, Inc.

Applying the SEC Custody Rule to Cryptocurrency Hedge Fund Managers

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26850867

This content downloaded from

Introduction .......................................................................................... 1382

This content downloaded from

B. Modifying the Rule ............................................................ 1408

This content downloaded from

misappropriated or subject to the advisers’ financial reverses.”7 Failure to do so

7. Custody of Funds or Securities of Clients by Investment Advisers, Investment Advisers Act

This content downloaded from

A. Basic Mechanics of the Custody Rule

This content downloaded from

3. Delivery of Account Statements

22. 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2.

This content downloaded from

B. Hedge Funds and the Custody Rule

32. See id. § 275.206(4)-2(a)(4).

This content downloaded from

This content downloaded from

A. The Nature of Cryptocurrency

This content downloaded from

This content downloaded from

However, because this information is public, moving cryptocurrency from one

B. How Private Keys are “Held”

58. Id. at 11.

This content downloaded from

major cryptocurrency exchanges.65 These online hosted “wallet services” work

65. For examples of wallet services, see Wallet Services, COINBASE,

This content downloaded from

74. CAETANO, supra note 61, at 17.

This content downloaded from

A. Challenges with Qualified Custodians

1. Lack of Qualified Custodians

This content downloaded from

reporting, and “geographically distributed” offline keys.84 Brian Armstrong,

2. Different Coins Require Different Storage

This content downloaded from

This content downloaded from

3. Forks and Airdrops

This content downloaded from

During that time, BitcoinCash experienced extreme fluctuations in value,

105. Cryptocurrency Market Capitalizations for Bitcoin Cash, COINMARKETCAP,

This content downloaded from

4. Liquidity―Security vs. Convenience

This content downloaded from

B. Applicability of The Custody Rule to Particular Assets

1. Is the Token Asset a Security?

This content downloaded from

whether a particular initial coin offering (ICO) is a security. In a July 2017

2. Are the Tokens “Client Funds?”

This content downloaded from

“Client funds” is not defined in 206(4)-2, but can be logically understood to

This content downloaded from

Form D and many other registration documents that denominate minimum

3. Do the Tokens Fall Under the Private Placement Exemption?

This content downloaded from

A. Regulatory Basis and Rationale for Modifying the Rule

This content downloaded from

This content downloaded from

This content downloaded from

investment advisers.154 In requesting the change, the Investment Adviser

154. Investment Adviser Association, supra note 151.