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University of Nebraska–Lincoln Extension, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources

Know how. Know now.

G1490
(Revised September 2014)

Drinking Water Treatment:

Reverse Osmosis
Bruce I. Dvorak, Extension Environmental Engineering Specialist;
Sharon O. Skipton, Extension Water Quality Educator

Homeowners can find out more about reverse cides, solvents and volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) are
not removed by RO. Refer to Extension Circular EC703,
osmosis in this guide, which discusses the principles
Drinking Water Treatment: An Overview for a discussion of
and process of RO treatment for household drinking
possible water quality problems and appropriate treatments
water.
for these contaminants. The RO membrane’s efficiency in
reducing the amount of contaminant in the water depends
Contaminants removed from water by reverse osmosis on the contaminant concentration, chemical properties of
the contaminant, the membrane type and condition, and
Reverse osmosis (RO) membrane filters frequently are operating conditions. Refer to the section in this guide on
used to reduce the levels of total dissolved solids and suspended the RO process for explanation of these factors.
particles within water. Some contaminants treated effectively No one piece of treatment equipment manages all con-
by RO membrane filters are listed in Table I. This table is not taminants. All treatment methods have limitations and often
an exhaustive list of contaminants that RO may remove, but situations require a combination of treatment processes to
rather lists those for which RO can be a practical treatment effectively treat the water. Activated Carbon (AC) filtration
method for treating household drinking water. and/or sediment filtration is commonly used in conjunction
with RO filters. Sediment filters help remove silt particles
Table I. Contaminants removed by household reverse osmosis units.
that may foul the RO membrane. AC filters remove chlo-
Ions and Metals Arsenic, Antimony, Aluminum, Barium, Beryllium, rine and certain pesticides and organic solvents that the RO
Cadmium, Calcium, Chloride, Chromium, Copper, membrane is not as effective in removing (see Table II). The
Fluoride, Iron, Lead, Magnesium, Manganese, section in this guide on equipment discusses this concept.
Mercury, Nitrate, Potassium, Radium, Selenium,
Silver, Sodium, Sulfate, Thallium, Zinc Table II. Contaminants removed by activated carbon filter commonly
Particles Asbestos, Protozoan cysts, Cryptosporidium included in a household reverse osmosis system.
Pesticides Endrin, Heptachlor, Lindane, Pentachlorophenol Ions and Metals Chlorine, Radon
Radionuclides Radium, Uranium Organic Chemicals Benzen1, Carbon tetrachloride,
Dichlorobenzene, Toluene, Trichloroethylene,
Total Trihalomethanes­(THMs)
Reverse osmosis can remove microorganisms. However, Pesticides 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene, 2,4-D, Atrazine
it is not recommended for that use (i.e., only coliform-free
water should be fed to the system) because membrane
deterioration­can occur due to the bacteria, and contamina- Water testing
tion may occur through pinhole leaks.
Regardless of the water treatment system being
Contaminants not removed from water by reverse considered, the water should first be tested to determine
osmosis­ ­ which contaminants are present. Public water systems are
routinely tested for contaminants. Water utilities are required
Contaminants not removed from water by RO filters to publish Consumer Confidence Reports (CCRs), which
include dissolved gases such as hydrogen sulfide, a com- inform consumers on the source of the water, contaminants
mon nuisance contaminant with characteristic rotten egg present, potential health effects­of those contaminants, and
odor, which passes through the RO membrane. Some pesti- methods of treatment used by the utility. Depending on the
 Feed Water
Storage Tank Under Pressure

Concentrated
Dilute

Treated Water Rejected Contaminants

(Diluted) (Concentrate)

Semipermeable Water Flow

Membrane
Water Flow
Figure 1. In osmosis, water moves across the membrane from the dilute Semipermeable Waste Stream
to the concentrated solution. From “Water Treatment Notes: Membrane to Drain
Reverse Osmosis Treatment of Drinking Water,” Cornell Coopera-
tive Extension, New York State College of Human Ecology. Figure 2. In reverse osmosis, pressure is applied to the concentrated
solution reversing the natural direction of flow, forcing water
across the membrane from the concentrated solution into the
more dilute solution. From “Water Treatment Notes: Reverse
Osmosis Treatment of Drinking Water,” Cornell Cooperative
population served by the utility, CCRs may be mailed, posted Extension, New York State College of Human Ecology.
in newspapers or posted on the Internet. Copies of the CCR
can be obtained from the local water utility. Public supplies
must conform to federal standards established by the Safe on the concentrated side of the membrane are washed away
Drinking Water Act. If contaminants exceed the Maximum as wastewater. Figure 2 shows the reverse osmosis process.
Contaminant Level (MCL), the water must be treated by The amount of treated water that an RO membrane typi-
the supplier to correct the problem and/or another source of cally used in the home can produce, per day, is in the range
water suitable for drinking must be provided. of 10 to 35 gallons per day. The amount of treated water pro-
In contrast, monitoring private water systems is the duced depends on several factors, including membrane type
con­sumer’s responsibility. Therefore, contamination is more and condition, operating conditions (such as flow control and
likely to go undetected in a private water supply. Knowledge pressure) and feed water quality (i.e., contaminant concentra-
of what contaminants may be present in the water should tion, temperature, and pH).
guide the testing, since it is not economically feasible to test Two measures of performance of an RO membrane
for all possible contaminants. are recovery rate and rejection rate. Recovery rate refers
It is essential to know what contaminants are present, to the fact that only part of the water that flows into an RO
their quantities, and reasons for removal (i.e., health risks, system comes out as treated water. Part of the water fed into
tastes or odors, etc.) prior to selecting treatment methods or the system is used as wastewater to wash away the rejected
equipment. Refer to NebGuide G907 Drinking Water: Testing contaminants. The recovery rate is therefore a measure of
for Quality for testing information. efficiency calculated as:

Treatment principles % Recovery = (Volume of treated water produced /

Total volume of feed water) x 100
RO is based on the principle of osmosis. In osmosis,
a membrane separates two solutions containing different The use of large quantities of water to produce little treated
amounts of dissolved chemicals. The membrane allows some water may be avoided by properly designed RO systems. Most
compounds like water to pass through it, but does not allow household RO systems are designed with a 20 percent - 30
larger compounds through (i.e., a semipermeable membrane). percent recovery rate.
Pressure differences cause pure water to pass through the This means that a system with 100 gallons/day of un-
membrane from the dilute to the more concentrated solution. treated water fed to it and a 20 percent recovery rate would
The pressure is called osmotic pressure and this process is yield 20 gallons/day of treated water and dispose of 80 gal-
osmosis. The natural tendency is for water to move through lons/day in the waste stream. Proper adjustment of the flow
the membrane from the dilute to the concentrated solution regulator on the side of the waste stream is important. If the
until chemicals reach equal concentrations on both sides of flow of wastewater is slow, more time is available for water
the membrane. Figure 1 shows the natural osmotic process. to pass through the membrane, so the recovery rate is higher.
In reverse osmosis, pressure is applied to the concen- However, RO membranes are readily fouled if concentrated
trated side of the membrane (the contaminated side). This contaminants are not washed away soon enough. Conversely,
forces the osmotic process into reverse so that, with adequate if the waste flow rate is too fast, the recovery rate is low and
applied pressure, pure water is forced from the concentrated excessive water flows down the drain.
(contaminated) side to the dilute (treated) side. Treated water Closely related to flow rate, water pressure is another key
is collected in a storage container. The rejected contaminants factor in RO systems. The incoming feed line pressure must
be adequate to overcome the osmotic pressure and any back Activated Carbon
pressure generated from the storage tank “down-line” from Prefilter Sediment
(optional) Prefilter
the membrane. Auxiliary pumps can be added to increase Pump Feed
incoming water pressure as necessary. Generally, the higher (optional) Water
the pressure difference across the membrane the better the
rejection of contaminants and recovery rate. Also, some RO Dispensing
Faucet
systems have shut off valves to stop flow whenever storage Activated High Pressure
tank pressure is too high for efficient recovery or if the stor- Carbon Switch
RO
age tank is full. Mem- Postfilter
Temperature and pH of the feed water are also factors brane
in performance. There is a 1 to 2 percent decrease in treated Storage
Flow Tank for
water produced for every degree below the standard 77oF. Well Restrictor Product Water
water at 45oF (a typical temperature for Nebraska groundwater)
would produce about half the amount of treated water that Drain
would be produced at 77oF. Also, slightly acidic feed water
may prolong the life of the membrane and help decrease scale Waste Flow
buildup in the system. Figure 3. A schematic of a typical RO system. From “Water Treatment
The rejection rate is the percentage of contaminant that is Notes: Reverse Osmosis Treatment of Drinking Water,” Cornell
not allowed to move through the membrane. A rejection rate Cooperative Extension, New York State College of Human
Ecology.
is calculated for each contaminant separately, as well as for
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS). For contaminants that cause age microbial growth on the membrane surface. In this case,
health concerns, the rejection rate needs to be high enough only a sediment pre-filter is recommended. AC post-filters can
to reduce the contaminant to a safe level. The quality of the also remove certain pesticides and organic solvents that the
incoming water, or feed water, is crucial here. For example, if RO membrane does not remove. The AC treatment process is
the water supply contains nitrate at 40 mg/L, an RO membrane also improved since the RO membrane removes compounds
with 85 percent rejection would reject 40 x 0.85 = 34 mg/L that may hinder adsorption by the carbon.
nitrate, leaving 6 mg/L in the treated water. Membrane selection is an important aspect of RO
However, if the water supply contains 80 mg/L nitrate, an treatment that can significantly affect performance. RO
85 percent rejection rate would reduce the nitrate concentra- membranes are generally made of thin film composite
tion to 12 mg/L in the treated water. This nitrate level, even (TFC), cellulose acetate (CA), or cellulose triacetate (CTA).
after RO treatment, is above the maximum contaminant level TFC membranes have better durability as well as generally
(MCL) of 10 mg/L nitrate set by the EPA. higher rejection rates than CA/CTA membranes. All are
synthetic fibers.
Equipment TFC membranes are more costly, but have greater
strength and durability than cellulose-types. They have higher
Treatment systems can be classified as either Point-of-Use total dissolved solids rejection rates, are more resistant to
(POU) or Point-of-Entry (POE). POU devices treat water at microbial attack, and are more tolerant of high pH. Cellulose
the point it is used, such as the faucet. Most RO systems are type membranes are less costly and can tolerate chlorine,
POU systems placed under the sink or on the countertop. A which is commonly used for disinfection of drinking water.
separate faucet is generally installed at the sink to allow the TFC membranes deteriorate in chlorinated water. If the feed
option of using treated water only for drinking and cooking. water is chlorinated and a TFC membrane is used, an AC
Water treated by RO can be more corrosive than untreated prefilter is needed to remove chlorine from the water. The
water so special plumbing, in addition to the faucet, is installed membrane can be spiral wound (like a rolled-up newspaper),
with RO systems. or individual hollow fibers can be bundled together. This
POE devices treat water as it enters the household so all provides a very large surface area for water treatment within
water used within the house is treated. POE reverse osmosis a compact tube element.
units are more costly to purchase, install and operate than The storage tank generally has a capacity of 2 to 5 gal-
POU systems. lons. It is pressurized to provide adequate flow when the tap
Although the RO process is simple, the complete system is open. Post-filters can be used for removing any taste and
is often complex. Typical RO systems consist of a pretreat- odor compounds or residual organics not removed by the RO
ment filter, the RO membrane, flow regulator, post-treatment process. If an AC filter is used for pre-filtration, post-filtration
filter, storage tank and dispensing faucet as shown in Figure can be eliminated.
3. AC or sediment filters before the RO membrane and AC Monitoring gauges and lights are also becoming
filters after the RO membrane are commonly used. Pre-filters increasingly­common. Shut-off valves are important to stop
help extend the life of the system by removing silt and other water flow when the storage tank is full, so excess water is
large particles and/or chlorine that may be harmful to the RO not wasted. Since RO treatment uses significant amounts of
membrane. If the feed water is not chlorinated, AC filters water, consideration must be given to the adequacy of the
should not be used for pre-filtration because they can encour- household septic system. The wastewater, carrying rejected
contaminants, typically is connected to a household drain Other important guidelines for consumers purchasing
and this wastewater increases the load on the septic system. drinking water treatment equipment are discussed in NebGuide
As with any drinking water treatment system, regular G1488 Drinking Water Treatment: What You Need to Know
maintenance is important to extend the life of the system and When Selecting Water Treatment Equipment. The NebGuide
to help ensure peak performance. Pre-filters and post-filters drinking water treatment series focuses on contaminants most
require regular replacement. The length of time before prefilter likely to be encountered in Nebraska drinking water supplies.
replacement depends upon water volume, quality and con- It is possible that some water supplies may contain contami-
taminant concentration. Post-filter replacement also depends nants not addressed here, such as cryptosporidium, giardia,
on contaminant concentration, as well as membrane rejection hexavalent chromium, and others. Reverse osmosis systems
percentages and AC removal efficiency. Manufacturers and may remove some of these contaminants as well.
dealers can assist in determining replacement intervals.
Microorganisms (alive or dead) can clog RO membranes. Summary
This is called bio-fouling. Disinfect RO systems regularly
with products provided by the manufacturer. Clogged RO Drinking water treatment using RO is one option for
membranes can decrease water flow in the system and cause the homeowner to treat drinking water problems. RO is an
poor performance. If membrane fouling is detected early, it effective method to reduce certain ions and metals, such as
is possible to clean and regenerate the membrane; the method nitrate and arsenic. It is often used in combination with AC
depends on the type of membrane and fouling. Completely filtration. Selecting an RO system should be based on water
clogged or torn membranes require replacement. However, analysis and assessment of the individual homeowner’s needs
damaged RO membranes are not easily detected. Periodically and situation. Regular maintenance of the membrane and
test water to determine if the membrane is intact and functioning replacement of any filters/cartridges are critical factors in
properly. For relatively hard water, pretreatment of the water maintaining effectiveness and reducing bacterial contamina-
by a softener can increase the life of the membrane. Many tion of the system. NSF and the WQA test and certify products
systems are equipped with a monitor that indicates high total and this certification and validation can help guide selection.
dissolved solids content or inadequate TDS rejection, one
indicator of improper functioning. Other monitors measure Acknowledgment
the cumulative water treated since the membrane was last
replaced, another indicator of expected membrane life. The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of
former UNL extension engineer Jodi Kocher, who collaborated
Selection Requirements with them in the previous version of this NebGuide.

Federal, state, or local laws do not regulate home RO drink-

ing water treatment systems. The industry is self-regulated.
The National Sanitation Foundation and the Water Quality
Association evaluate performance, construction, advertis-
ing, and operation manual information. The NSF program
establishes performance standards that must be met for en-
dorsement and certification. The WQA program uses the same
This publication has been peer reviewed.
NSF standards and provides equivalent American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) accredited product certifications.
WQA-certified products carry the Water Quality Association
Gold Seal. Though these certifications and validations should
UNL Extension publications are available online
not be the only criteria for choosing an RO system, they are
at http://extension.unl.edu/publications.
helpful to ensure effectiveness of the system.

Index: Water Management

Drinking Water
2003-2008, Revised September 2014

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