Chapter 8 Roofs
Chapter 8 Roofs
Chapter 8 Roofs
Chapter -8
Roofs
A roof may e defined as the upper most part of the building provided as a structural covering, to protect the
building from external weather exposure such as rain, sun, wind, etc. Basically, a roof consists of structural
elements, which support roof coverings. The structural element may be trusses, beam, slabs, shells or
domes. The roof coverings may be corrugated metal sheets, reinforced concrete slab, tiles, etc. Roof
covering material is laid over network of frames. The availability of the materials and the climate of the
place governs the particular type of roof. The roofs may be classified as follows:
Types of Roofs
The selection of the type of roof depends upon the shape or plan of the building, climatic conditions of the
area and type of constructional materials available. Pitched roofs have sloping top surface. They are
suitable in those areas where rainfall/snowfall is very heavy. Buildings with limited width and simple shape
can generally be covered satisfactorily by pitched roofs. Buildings irregular in plan, or with long spans,
present awkward problems in the design of a pitched roof, involving numerous valleys, gutters and hips.
Buildings of large area, such as factories, require internal gutters in the valleys when covered by a series of
parallel- pitched roofs.
1. Sloping or Pitched Roof
Pitched roof is is a type of roof which slopes in one or more directions. It is the most common form of roof
and is generally regarded as the cheapest alternative for covering a structure. Pitched roof is almost always
constructed in wood or steel. The different shape can be provided to the pitched roofs. The various shapes,
which can be given to roofs of this type, depend on the area covered, materials available, type of lighting
and ventilation needed inside, available appliance etc. In pitched roofs a slope of less than l in 3 is generally
not considered satisfactory from drainage point of view in areas of heavy snowfall, steeper slopes( 1:1.5
or1:1) incidence of snow load on the roof
Shed roof: It is the simplest type and slopes only in one direction .It is used for smaller span and is also
known as lean to roof. At the upper ends, the rafters are nailed to the wooden wall plate, which may be of
stone, brick or steel. At the lower end the rafters are notched and nailed to the wooden post plate.
Gable roof: It slopes in two directions and is commonly used. It is formed by a pair of inclined rafters with
their upper ends nailed to a common ridge piece and their low ends. Notched and nailed to the wooden wall
plates embedded in masonry on the top of the wall on either end. Gable roofs slope in two directions but
there is a break is slope.
Hip roof: It slopes in four directions such that the end formed by intersection of slopes results in triangular
and/ or trapezoidal form.
Butterfly roof: It slopes in two directions and intersects at the centre of the span and will have common
drainage system.
Gambrel roof. This type of roof slopes in two directions but there is break in slopes.
Mansard roof. This type of roof slopes in all the four directions but there is break in slopes.
North light roof. This type of roof is commonly used in factories to admit sufficient light through the glass
panels fixed on the steep sloping sides of the roof.
Pyramid roof: It is similar to hip roofs, slopes in four directions and the intersections of slopes make a
pyramid
Hipped end: It is the sloped triangular surface formed at the end of a roof.
Verge: The edge of a gable, running between the eaves and ridge, is known as a verge. It is the edge of
sheets or tiles, projecting beyond the gable end.
Tie beam: It is a beam subjected to tensile stresses only and is used in a truss to hold the end or feet of the
rafters to prevent them from spreading out.
Collar: It is a beam used in a truss about halfway up the rafters.
Purlin: A purlin is a beam running longitudinally from principal tp principal as support for the common
rafter. Purlins are sometimes framed in between the principal rafters. The purlins are generally notched
where they rest upon the principal rafters, so as to keep the latter rigidity apart. They are horizontal
members placed over principal rafters to support common rafters (Fig. 15.2). They may be horizontal
wooden or steel members, used to support common rafters of a roof when span is large. Purlins are
supported on trusses or walls.
Eaves board or Facia board: It is a wooden plank or board fixed to the feet of the common rafters at the
eaves. It is a board fixed along the eves joining the common rafters. It is usually 25mm thick and 20cm
wide. The ends of lower most roof covering material rest upon it. The eaves gutter, if any can also be
secured against it.
Battens: These are thin strips of wood, called scantlings, which are nailed to the rafters for laying roof
material above. They are small sections of the timber which are fixed to the rafters for placing tiles/CIS on
the sloping roof.
Truss: A roof truss is a framework, usually of triangles, designed to support the roof covering or ceiling
over rooms. It is a framework of triangles and used to carry the load of roof covering materials and other
members of the roof.
Gable. It is the triangular upper part of a wall formed at the end of a pitched roof.
Wall-plates. These are the members placed at the top of wall to receive the common rafters.
Cleats. They are small sections of steel or timber, fixed to the rafters of the truss to support purlins.
Hipped end. It is formed at the end of a roof in the shape of a sloped triangular surface (Fig. 15.1).
Template. It is a masonry block under the end of tie beam to distribute the load from the roof over a large
area.
1. Single Roof
This roof consists of common rafters that are secured at the ridge and wall plates The various forms of this
type are as follows:
Lean to roof: This is the simplest type of pitched roof and consists of rafters that slope in one direction
only (Fig. 15.3). Generally, it is used to cover the veranda of a building and projects from the main wall of
the building. At the upper ends, the rafters are fixed by nails to the wooden wall plates which are placed on
corbel of the main wall. The lower ends of the rafters are notched and nailed to the wooden post plate. The
post is of timber section which runs parallel to the wall and is supported on the intermediate columns or
posts. Battens are placed and fixed over the rafters and it is finally covered by suitable roof covering
materials. It is suitable for spans upto 2.5 metres and is generally used for sheds, out- houses attached to the
main buildings, verandahs, etc.
Couple roof: It is formed by a pair of inclined rafters and their upper ends are nailed to a common ridge
piece and their lower ends are notched and nailed to the wooden wall plates which are fixed at the top of the
walls. The battens are fixed over the rafters suitably spaced. Over the battens the suitable roof covering
material is fixed. This type of roof is suitable upto a span of 3.60 metres. (Fig. 15.4).
In this types of roof, each couple or pair of common rafters is made to slope upwards from the opposite
walls and they are supported at the upper ends at the ridge piece or ridge board in the middle. The lower
ends of the common rafters are fixed to the wall plates embedded in the masonry on the top of the walls.
Couple close roof: It is similar to a couple roof except that the legs of the common rafters are closed/joined
by a horizontal tie known as tie beam as illustrated in the Fig. 15.5. This tie beam is connected at the feet of
the common rafters to check their tendency of spreading out wards and hence save the walls from the danger
of overturning. The tie may be a piece of wood or a steel rod in tension. Under normal loading conditions,
this type of roof can be used for a maximum span of 4.5m. For increased spans or greater loads, the
rafters have a tendency to sag in the middle To check this tendency, a couple-close roof is
supported by a central vertical rod, known as king rod or king bolt between the ridge piece and the center of
the tie beam.
It is very similar to the couple roof but the legs of the common rafters are joined by a tie beam as illustrated
in the Fig. 15.5. The tie beam checks rafters from spreading out and, therefore, the overturning of the wall is
prevented. The tie beams also serves the purpose of ceiling joists when false roofing is to be used. It can be
used economically upto a span of 4.20 metres.
Collar beam roof: This is similar to the couple-close roof, except that the horizontal tie is now raised up
form the feet the rafters to almost the middle of the rafters. This raising up of the tie beam checks the
tendency of sagging due to further increase in span or excessive loading conditions. Collar beam roof is
considered suitable for spans varying between 4 and 5.5m.
It is used for spans between 4 metres and 5.5 metres. A collar of the same width as the rafter is fixed to
every pair of rafters and it is attached at a height of half to one third of the vertical height between the wall
and the ridge. The collar is dovetailed with the rafter and the use of bolts can be done as an additional
safety. It is desirable to place the collar as low as possible to provide maximum strength to the roof (Fig.
15.6)
Collar and tie roof. It is used when the roof span exceeds 5.5 metres. It is a combination of collar beam roof
and couple close roof. The rafters are supported by purlins and the purlins rest at the ends on walls. A collar
and struts are employed to support the purlins and rafters. Its use is recommended where purlins may be
supported at the ends with reasonable economy (Fig. 15.7).
1. Double Roof
Purlins are introduced to support the common rafter at intermediate point. The purlins are used to tie the
rafters together and act as intermediate support.
1. Trussed Roof
Trussed roofs are sloping roofs used when the span exceeds 5m. In other words for greater span than
5metres, when no intermediate supporting walls for the purlins are available, framed structures known as
trusses are used. The spacing between trusses is guided by the load coming on the roof, material of the truss,
span and the location of cross-walls, if any.
Generally they are spaced not more than 3m centre to centre. There are three elements in a trussed roof
system:
A. Rafters which support the roofing materials,
B. Purlins to provide intermediate support to rafters, and
C. Trusses to provide support to the ends of purlins.
The trusses are connected to each other through purlins, which are placed at right angles to the sloped rafters
and are secured to them through nails or cogged joints and cleats.
The various types of trusses include the following.
1. King-post truss
2. Queen post truss
3. Mansard truss
4. Steel trusses
5. Composite Trusses
King-post truss
In a king-post truss, the central vertical post, called as king post provides a support for the tie beam. The
inclined members are known as struts are used to prevent the principal rafters from bending at the centre. A
king-post truss can be used economically for spans 5 to 8 metres.
The joint between the king-post and the tie beam is ordinary mortice and tenon joint. An iron strap is also
provided to strengthen the joint further. For joining principal rafters and the king-post, a tenon is cut in the
principal rafter and the corresponding mortice into the head of the king-post. A bridle joint is provided to
connect the principal rafter with the tie beam. Joints between the king-post and the strut are also mortice and
tenon joint. A king-post truss with the details of different junctions is illustrated in Figs. 15.8 to 15.14.
Queen post truss
It can be used for spans 9 to 14 metres. It varies from the king-post truss in having two vertical members
known as queen-posts. The heads of the queen-posts are put apart by a horizontal member known as
straining beam. The head of the queen post is made wider to receive the principal rafter and the straining
beam. The top end of the principal rafter and the end of the straining beam are tenoned into the widened
head of the queen-post. A three way iron or mild steel strap is fixed to further strengthen the joint. The
bottom end of the queen-post is tenoned into the tie beam and a steel stirrup strap is fixed by gibs and
cotters to make the joint more strong. The tenon of the inclined strut is inserted into the splayed shoulder of
the queen-post. The other joints in this truss are similar to that of king-post truss. Figs. 15.15 to 15.17
illustrate the various components of a queen-post truss.
Mansard truss
It is a combination of king-post and queen post truss. The upper portion has a shape of a king-post truss and
the lower portion resembles to queen-post truss. The truss has two pitches. The upper pitch varies from
300 to 400 and the lower pitch varies from 600 to 700. This type of truss is economical in cost and in space
and an extra room may be provided in the room. The construction of various joints is similar to that of the
king-post and queen-post trusses. The Fig. 15.18 illustrates a mansard roof truss.
Steel trusses
The use of steel trusses become economical for spans greater than 12 metres. Various standard shapes and
sizes or rolled steel are available for the fabrication of steel trusses. This type of truss is designed in a
manner that members are either in compression or in tension, and bending stress is not allowed to develop in
them. The size and type of the truss depends upon the roof slope, span, centre to centre distance of the
trusses and the load coming over the roof. T-sections are best suited for use as principal rafters, whereas
angle iron or channel sections are used as struts. The tension members should preferably be of a flat or
round section. The different members of the truss may be fabricated with two or more sections joined
together. The members of a truss are joined by rivets or bolts or welding the plates known as gusset plates.
The minimum spacing of the rivets should pot be less than 3 times the diameter of the rivet and the
maximum spading is limited to 150 mm and 200 mm respectively in compression and tension members.
The minimum number of rivets to be used at any joint should not be less than two Gusset plates are
designed for the forces coming at the junction but the least thickness should be adopted as 6 mm.
The ends of the trusses are placed on bed plates provided on the walls. The bed plate may be of stone or
concrete. The ends of the truss are bolted down with Lewis or rag bolts which hold down the truss firmly.
The small trusses are pre-fabricated in the workshop on the ground and then they are placed in the required
positions.
The bigger trusses-are pre-fabricated in smaller parts and then they are erected to the required positions and
fixed by gusset plates and riveting or welding, as the case may be. Figs. 15.20 to 15.31 illustrate the various
types of steel trusses used for different spans.
Composite Trusses
Composite trusses are fabricated with timber and steel. Steel is used for tension members of the truss and
the timber employed for compression members of the truss. Special fittings are used to connect the wooden
members with steel members. A typical composite truss is illustrated in Fig. 15.32.
Standard mild steel angles complying with the recommendations of the relevant standards, are usually
employed as the structural members and these are connected together, where the centre line converge, with
flat shaped plates called gussets.
The basic requirements for covering materials to steel- roof trusses are:
1. sufficient strength to support imposed wind and snow loadings,
2. resistance to the penetration of rain, wind and snow,
3. low self weight, so that supporting members of an economic size can be used,
4. reasonable standard of thermal insulation,
5. acceptable fire resistance,
6. Durable to reduce the maintenance required during the anticipated life of the roof.
A roof, which is nearly flat, with angles less than 100 to the horizontal, is known as flat roof. With the
advent of very reliable waterproofing and heat insulating material, flat roof construction has replaced the
pitched roofs in many types of constructions. Although flat roofs have high initial cost, they are extensively
adopted even in places where rainfall is heavy.
It is becoming more popular with the introduction of suitable building material. It may be constructed in
reinforced concrete, flat stone supported on rolled steel joists (RS.J.), bricks, concrete or tiled arches, etc.
This roof is provided with slight slope in one direction to drain off the rain water easily. The construction of
flat roof is similar to the construction of floor except that the top surface is protected against rain water.
Drainage of flat roofs is one of the basic requirements. The rainwater should be drained- off from roof
surface easily and quickly; otherwise it will lead to leakage. To achieve watertight roof surface, the selection
of slopes and drain-outlets, depending upon the roofing materials and climatic conditions, should be done
carefully.
Advantages of Flat Roof
1. The roof can be used as terrace for playing or for sleeping or for other domestic purposes.
2. The construction and maintenance of the flat roof is simpler.
3. It provides better architectural appearance to the building.
4. It is easier to make the flat roof fire resistant.
5. It possesses good insulating properties.
7. It avoids the need of false ceiling.
8. The construction work of upper floor can be readily taken up in case of flat roof, whereas in case of
pitched roof, the entire roof has to be dismantled before the construction.
9. Pitched roof need much more area of roofing material than flat roofs.
Disadvantages of Flat Roofs
1. A flat roof cannot be used for long spans without using columns and beams.
2. In the areas of heavy rainfall, the flat roofs are not suitable.
3. Initial cost is more.
4. Due to greater variations in the temperature, sometimes cracks develop on the surface of the roof,
which is difficult to repair
5. The speed of construction is slower than that of a pitched roof.
6. If proper slope is not provided on the roof to drain off the rain water, pockets of water are formed on
the surface of the roof which leads to the leakage of the roof.
A shell structure consists of relatively thin slab, which is curved in one or both direction and may be
stiffened along its edges to maintain its curvature. Due to large floor spaces being covered uninterrupted by
columns and for economical reasons, shell roof is becoming very popular for industry buildings, research
labs, hangers and other large buildings. It has advantages of saving a lot of materials and appreciable
reduction of dead weight, as the section needed is very thin. A shell concrete roofing, though similar in
appearance to dome or vault , it is designed on quite different principles. It does not act structurally as an
arch and setup no lateral pressure at its point of support; it is infact a bent or folded slab. It spans like a slab
but gains additional strength from its shape. It is used for covering big structures.
Reinforced cement concrete shell roofs are becoming very popular these days. Very less quantity of
materials are required to build up a shell' roof as compared to other conventional methods of roofing for the
same span. The design of the shell is made as thin as practical requirements will allow such that the dead
load is decreased and the shell acts as a membrane free from large bending stresses. Least quantity of
materials is used to the maximum structural advantage.
Though consumption of materials are less, sometimes the cost of formworks makes the shell roofs quite
expensive. It proves to be more costly when only a few similar units are to be constructed. Thin-shell roofs
are economical when many identical units are to be built and the forms can be reused several times.
The forms are usually fabricated from timber battens lined with steel sheets or' plywood (Fig. 15.35).
Sometimes plastic forms are also used to obtain special surface textures. The materials of formwork and the
lining are selected in consideration of the number of reuses in a particular project. Economy may be
achieved in two ways for the formworks. Firstly, by using movable formwork (Fig. 15.36), when the shell is
to be cast is situ. Second way is to use the precast shells.
The cement concrete (1 : 2 : 4) used for casting shells should have stiff consistency. If it is very fluid, it will
tend to slump down the steep slopes but if the concrete is too dry, proper compaction becomes difficult.
Needle and form vibrators are used to compact the concrete with special attachments. A pneumatic hammer
attached to a rod welded to plate may be used for compaction of the concrete. The reinforcement is properly
tied on the sloping surface of t e shell. The shell should be properly cured for three weeks, otherwise it will
develop many shrinkage cracks.
The sequence of removing centring is fixed by the designer at the time of shell design itself. The decentring
sequence should be such that the shell is not subjected to concentrated or unsymmetrical loads for which it
is not designed.
As the shells are very thin, some type of thermal insulation is provided either at the top of the shell or under
the shell. Insulation boards, fiberous boards, light weight foam concrete block, etc. are used as insulating
materials.
Advantages of Shell Roof Construction
1. 'The cost of shell-roof construction is less.
2. The maintenance cost is less. .
3. Reinforcement required is less, hence economy in steel.
4. The larger column free floor area is available for use.
5. Good ventilation is obtained.
6. Better appearance and good reflecting surfaces are obtained.
Roof Covering
Roof covering material is provided to protect the surface of the roof structure. It also prevents heat,
moisture, rain-water, etc. to enter into the building. It is not supposed to carry any structural load. The
structural loads are directly taken by the roof. However, the roof covering must be strong enough to carry
some occasional light loads. There are various types of roof covering .materials available for use under
varying conditions.
The following are the various factors which need considerations in selecting a roof covering for a building:
(1) Climate of the locality
(2) Type of the building
(3) Initial cost (4) Maintenance
(5) Durability
(6) Resistance to fire
(7) Heat insulation
(10) Weight of the roof covering
(8) Appearance
1. Climate of the Locality. The selection of roof covering material depends upon the geographical position
of the place and prevailing climate throughout the year. Wooden shingles may be suitable for dry places
whereas they may prove very unsuitable for wet places. Corrugated G.I. sheet are not suitable for very hot
places.
2. Type of the Building. The roof covering material must be selected to match the building and type of roof
structure over it.
3. Initial Cost. The cost consideration is after all most important factor for guiding the selection of roof
covering material. The initial cost varies from place to place and it also depends on the time. Clay tiles are
cheaper at places where good brick-earth is available with facilities of making good tiles. State roofing or
wooden shingles will prove cheaper in hilly areas. At the time of considering the initial cost of roof covering
materials, the additional cost due to the supporting members should be also considered.
4. Maintenance. The cost of maintenance is an important consideration at the time of deciding the type of
roof covering material. Wooden shingles and tiles require less maintenance than that of thatch roof
covering.
5. Durability. The economy of the roof covering material depends upon the durability of the material. It is
governed by many factors and varies from place to place. Under normal prevailing conditions slate, tiles,
etc. have longer life. Asbestos cement sheets or wooden shingles have medium life. Thatch roof covering
has very limited life.
6. Resistance to fire. Fire-resistant property of roof covering material should be also considered. Clay tile,
metal sheet or slates are more fire resistance as compared to thatch roof covering.
7. Heat Insulation. The rooms of the building will be heated, if heat is allowed to be transmitted through the
roof covering. This may be undesirable in tropical countries.
Clay tile or thatch provides sufficient protection against thermal effects. Corrugated metal roof covering has
low resistance against heat. Asbestos cement sheets, unless used in double layers, have got a very low
resistance to the transmission of heat. R.C.C. shell roof has also low resistance against heat,
8. Appearance. Appearance of the roof covering material is an important consideration from the
architectural point of view . Clay tiles or shingles impart good appearance in some cases. Cement tiles are
satisfactory for industrial buildings. Asbestos cement coverings do not look attractive unless some special
treatment is made.
9. Type of Construction. To provide a particular type of roofcovering material, some special type of
supporting structures may be required.
10. Weight of the Roof Covering. Heavier roof covering materials required stronger supporting structure.
This increases the cost on the whole. Clay tiles and slates are the heavier types of the roof coverings
whereas asbestos cement roof covering are lighter. The metal sheet roof coverings are very light in weight.
of water. The screws are not driven until the adjacent sheet has been lapped over the first. About 75 to 150
mm lap should be provided at the ends of the sheet. For restricting the heat flow from such roof covering,
tiles can be placed over this type of covering.
The gauges indicate the thickness, for instance SWG 24 has 0.549mm; SWG 26has 0.457mm; SWG 28 has
0.376mm; SWG has SWG 30 has 0.315mm, SWG 32 has 0.274mm and SWG 35 has 0.200mm thickness.
Generally it is required that a sheet should be strong enough to carry without buckling, the load of a full
grown man. A roof of corrugated iron consists of mainly separate sheets fixed so that water is prevented
from penetrating through, between and under the sheets. One sheet should overlap the other both laterally
and longitudinally.
The lateral over lap (or side lap) is usually 11/2 corrugations. For temporary buildings, or for places with
very little rain, ½ corrugation overlap may be sufficient. The length of longitudinal overlap depends on the
pitch of the roof (side slope) and the wind force as well as on the exactness in laying the sheets. The greater
the pitch, the less overlap is required. The roofing sheets are fixed to the purlins by means of nails, which
should be rust resisting just as the sheets. Since different qualities of galvanized nails exist it is always
important to choose the best quality. The amount of nails to be used per sheet varies. It should however, not
be less than 4 nails at the bottom and top parts of the sheet and 3 nails in the middle. The most common
practice otherwise is one nail per every second corrugation at the top and bottom parts and one for every
fourth corrugation at the middle parts of the sheet.
In Ethiopia, galvanized corrugated sheets should comply with the recommendation of the relevant Ethiopian
standard, which specifies the size, number of corrugations and the quality of zinc coating or galvanizing.
Corrugated Asbestos cement Sheets
Corrugated asbestos cement sheets were frequently used as the major covering material for mainly steel roof
structures, It was made from cement and about 15% asbestos fibres together with a controlled amount of
water. The sheets made out of these materials are light, cheap, impervious, and durable and fire resisting. It
does not necessarily require any protective paint and cannot ne eaten by vermin.
Nowadays, however, concern with the health risk attached to the manufacture and use of asbestos- based
products has led to the development and production of alternative fibre-based materials.
Aluminium sheeting
This form of roof covering is available in a corrugated or troughed profile. The sheets are normally made
from an aluminium-manganese alloy resulting in a non-corrosive, non-combustible lightweight sheet (2.4-
5kg/m2)
Clay Tiles
These tiles are made from good clay and well burnt to make them quite strong and durable. They are
suitable for villages and towns both. Various colours can be imparted to the tiles. They are very suitable for
residential houses. They are non-conductors of heat and help to prevent extreme changes of temperature
within building.
However, there are some disadvantages of clay tiles also. Since tiles are heavy and smaller in sizes, they
require more laps which increase the total weight of the roof covering to an appreciable extent. The
supporting structures are closely spaced and thus increase the total weight considerably.
Similar to the construction of concrete floor slabs, the following steps are considered to be important in the
construction of reinforced concrete roof slabs.
1. a well designed formwork and false work is required to support its own weight and the superimposed
loads,
2. the reinforcement is then placed in position on the interior surface which has been finished first with a
thin coat of oil,
3. the concrete is then poured around the reinforcement and for the required thickness of the slab,
4. the fresh concrete is properly compacted, finished taking into consideration the drainage pattern of the
roof system and cured,
5. After the concrete has sufficiently hardened, the formwork is removed and the upper and under
surfaces of the slab are treated as desired.
with cold working but its original dead soft temper can be restored by the application of heat with a
blowlamp or oxyacetylene torch and quenching with water or by natural air-cooling. If the dead soft temper
is not maintained, the hardened copper will be difficult to work and may fracture. On exposure to the
atmosphere, copper forms on its upper surface a natural protective film or patina, which varies in colour
from green to black, making the copper beneath virtually inert.
Rolled copper is used for flat roof coverings. Rolled copper is available in three forms:
Sheet: flat material of exact length, over 0.15mm up to and including 10.0mm thick and over 450mm in
width
Strip: material over 0.15mm up to and including 10.0mm thick and any width, and generally not cut to
length. It is usually supplied in coils but can be obtained flat or folded.
Foil: material 0.15mm thick and under, of any width supplied flat or in a coil. Because of its thickness foil
has no practical application in the context of roof covering.
Assignment 8