Transilvania, 1946 - English
Transilvania, 1946 - English
Transilvania, 1946 - English
TRANSYLVANIA
BCU Cluj-Napoca
BIBCN201201046
1946
^X<ÍCENTRAU
Z^JjClANBuS^
* “ION KAȚIU”
S-Uj. naPOCN
This book purports to present the reader with the most characte
ristic aspects of Transylvania. United to the Roumanian State
by the free decision of the vast majority of its inhabitants in 1918,
following the collapse of the Habsburg monarchy, and recognized
in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon as an integral part of Roumania,
this province, consequent upon the « Diktat » that Hitler and
Mussolini imposed upon it at Vienna on August 30th., 1940,
was cruelly mutilated and forced for a time to bear again the poli
tical chains that it had cast off twenty years earlier.
Each of the chapters in this book is the result of far-reaching
labours on the part of the „Study and Research Centre for Transyl
vania”, and of the most eminent of its collaborators. Indeed, since
its foundation near the University of Cluj, the Research Centre
has diligently, and by the most reliable methods, pursued the exhau
stive and objective examination of all the problems affecting the
province in which it functions. The aim of this book is to bring
to light the chief objectives of the Centre's programme.
In order to make this account as authoritative as possible, the
Research Centre had recourse to fully qualified and recognized
experts, whom it is our pleasant duty to name here and to thank :
Mr. Vintila Mihailescu, Professor of Geography at the University
of Bucharest; Dr. Sabin Manuila, Head of the Central Statis
tical Institute; Mr. I. Argesan, one-time Chairman of Social
Insurance; Dr. Iosif Stoikitza, Professor of Public Health at
the University of Cluj; Professor Constantin Kiritzescu, one-time
Director and Chief Secretary of the Ministry of Public Instruction;
Mr. Lazar Iacob, Professor of Canon Law at the University
of Bucharest; Dr. D. Raducanu, Assistant of the Academy of
Higher Commercial Studies at Cluj; Professor Ion Chinezu,
8 TRANSYLVANIA
GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE
have carried towards the West — the high plains of the Nyir, in
Hungary; of the Muresh, in Roumania; and of the Deliblat in
Yugoslavia.
On the elevated plains or at their foot, settlements, cultiva
tion and roads have appeared between the inhospitable swamps ;
and on their very edges too, as though beside real fords, the
large towns of the plain have taken root and grown up, inter
connected by the one great highroad which was possible in the
past, and which is still to-day the most natural: Satu-Mare-
Oradea-Arad-Timisoara-Vârsetz (Vrsac)-Biserica Alba (Bela
Crkva). The roads and towns situated further west are the
result, for the most part recent, of the drainage of the lowland
plain. Thus, they have been and are capable of autonomous
development within the limits of the region which gave birth to
them, and which is the cause of their continued existence to-day.
This difference in the character and evolution of the two types
of plain — the high plain, linked more especially with the Car
pathians, and the lowland plain, whose life is relatively autono
mous— goes even so far as to affect the lives of the inhabitants
of Crisana and Banat.
600 millimetres average for the whole country, and which attains
1.200 millimetres in the Apuseni Mountains (at the station
of Moneasa).
There is a distinct difference in climate between the different
levels, that of the plains, that of the hills and that of the moun
tains. In the mountains which surround geographic Transyl
vania, above 1.800 metres there is not a single month in which
the temperature rises above 10° C., whereas the cold season with
its snows and late frosts lasts more than 6 months. These
features are less marked at the foot of the mountains. At the
level of the hills, which includes the inter-Carpathian depres
sions or “ countries ”, there are more strongly marked contrasts
in temperature, and the rainfall varies from 600 to 750 milli
metres per year, with the exception of the Transylvanian
plateau, where the rainfall is less than 500 and even 400 milli
metres annually.
Finally, the level of the plains is the most continental in
climate and has the least rainfall. In contrast, however, with
the lower Danubian plain, the Tisza plain receives, apart from
the South-Western region of the Banat plain, roughly 600 milli
metres of rain annually, i.e. nearly double the amount received
by the former. It is also in the plains—though not exclusively
there — that climatic influences of distant countries are most
strongly felt : a slight Mediterranean influence on the Banat and
the South-Western corner of Transylvania proper; a slight oceanic
influence, and a rather stronger central European influence, on
Crisana, the Salaj hills and the Transylvanian plain.
The Watercourses of Transylvania are all, with the exception
of the Olt, set by the natural surface elevations in the direc
tion of the Tisza and the Danube; they form groups of secondary
bazins: the Somesh, with the Crasna and the Lapush, in the
North; the Muresh, with the Tárnave, the Ariesh, the Ampoi and
the Strei, in the centre; and the Bega and the Timish, with the
Pogonish and the Berzava, the Crish, the Nera and the Cerna,
in the south, that is, in Banat.
The flow of these rivers is characteristic of all regions with
an extreme continental climate, intensified in the spring by the
melting of the mountain snows. During the years of abundant
snow and premature thaw, the lowland plains of the West,
notably, are threatened with catastrophic inundations. It is
true that above low-water mark, the overflow does not ordina-
The Muresh
»»AM Dtf
GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE 21
3. - The population.
Körös
GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINE 25
lation. One should consider as an evilly inspired myth, the
declaration that the Roumanians have been superior in number
to the Hungarians and Germans precisely since the century
(the 18th) in which, for the first time, there appeared more
exact data concerning the racial elements cohabiting in Tran
sylvania. Those of other races, who came as conquerors, as
occupants of the frontiers (Szeklers), and as merchant founders
of towns (Saxons), have found in Transylvania, ever since the
beginning, a predominant Roumanian population. It is only
in the 19th and 20th centuries that one can speak of massive
infiltrations and of agricultural, urban, mining or industrial colo
nization: Hungarian and, to a lesser degree, Swabian, in the Cri-
sana plain; Swabian and Serbian in the Banat plain; Hungarian,
Jewish and Swabian in the majority of the towns, but above all
in those of the Tisza plain; Hungarian, German and Slovakian
in the mining regions of the Arama mountains, in the upper
basin of the Jiu and in the mountains of Banat. These recent
colonizations and infiltrations are of greater importance than
those of the Middle Ages, because they occurred in great masses,
especially in the Western plain, and in a relatively short space
of time.
I. — MOUNTAIN REGIONS
I. 1. — Prevalent timbering industry; rearing on rational basis; important watering-
places : Sân-Georz, Vatra Dornei; principal by-ways; peat-bogs.
I. a. 1. — Prevalent timbering industry; mineral waters at Borsec; rational rearing.
I. a. 2. — Timbering industry and rational rearing on mountain pastures; spas and
watering-places at Vâlcele, Bodoc, Zizin, Malnash, Covasna; agriculture and
extensive industry in hollow of Brasov; important cross-roads for trans-
carpathian traffic.
I. a. 3. — Gold mining; orchards.
I. b. — Traditional transhumance, gradually superseded by modern system of
rearing; rich coal-basin in Upper Valley of the Jiu, with working-centre
at Petroșani; thermal waters at Herculane.
I. c. — Timbering industry; timbering for domestic purposes; casual agriculture in
mountainous pasture-land.
I. c. 1. — Gold mining at Rosia and Brad.
I. c. 2. — Timbering industry; vine-growing on Western Border.
I. c. 3. — Iron and coal-mining and smelting at Resitza; rational rearing; timbering
industry of average importance.
be. This situation was even aggravated when the three “ pri
vileged nations ”,the Hungarians, the Szeklers and the Saxons,
concluded a pact in 1438, for the purpose of supporting one ano
ther in the political direction of Transylvania, and to exclude from
power the fourth nation, the Roumanians, who, then as now,
were far more numerous than the other three nations together.
After 1526, at the instigation of the Magyar princes, condi
tions became worse in proportion as the exploitation took on
more and more of the character of a struggle between nations.
When the Habsburgs took possession of Transylvania in 1690,
the situation of the Roumanians did not improve greatly,
although a large number of them went over to Roman Catholicism.
3.
- Saxon Immigration and Szekler Colonization.
-
4. Roumanian preponderance as a Determining factor in
THE FATE OF TRANSYLVANIA.
That is why they accorded all the less liberty to the Roumanians
and their priests ”.
The term “ nation ” denoting a de facto political collectivity
not recognized “ de jure ”, with all the attributes of liberty, was
thus linked with the name of the multitudinous Vlachs, who were
reduced to accepting a change of religion in order to obtain a
few of their most legitimate rights.
These promises moreover the Court of Vienna was scarcely
to keep, and its lack of sincerity provides the dramatic element
in the struggle undertaken by the Roumanian bishop Innocent
Micu, with a view to bringing about the effectual observance of
the pact. “ If there are no objections to the Roumanians bea
ring the burden of contributions, like the other nations, and
even to a greater extent than all the others together, as far as
both taxes and remuneration of officials are concerned, why do
the Roumanians then not rank equal with the other nations,
when the law of nature itself has it that those be honoured who
were afflicted?” Setting out from these arguments, the bishop
demanded as from 1730 the recognition of thè Roumanians as
the fourth “ nation ”, in the constitutional system of Transyl
vania. The Court of Vienna, not at all inclined to satisfy this
demand, made him bring forward his grievances in the Diet of
the country, where the Calvinist notables, in alliance with the
Catholics and the Lutheran Saxons, prevailed in their refusal
to grant the Roumanian people the elementary rights they were
claiming.
The ascendant powers, consisting of Hungarians, Szeklers and
Saxons, realised no doubt that the proposals formulated by Micu
would inevitably entail a complete change in the political system
then in force, as the Roumanian section of the population, on
account of its greater numbers, would assert itself over the whole
territory then under exclusive Hungarian and Saxon domination.
The coinciding of their own interests with the prevailing poli
tical system thus dictated an attitude of unyielding opposition.
The Micu memorandum truly expressed the desires of the
entire Roumanian nation, nobility, clergy and serfs. It was
indeed the function of the two Roumanian bishops of Transyl
vania to be the spokesmen of this suppliant nation and the
clergy, grouped around them, addressed themselves to the
monarch in their turn to support the action of the bishops. The
meeting of a national assembly was also planned, in which
46 TRANSYLVANIA
break out that very year, distinctly expressed the decision of the
Roumanians to shake off the yoke: they would continue to fight
for the abolition of the injustices from which the Roumanian
people suffered, and for the establishment and maintenance of
their indispensable right to national existence, to political asse
veration and to the victory of their religious and economic
interests.
That is all a people desirous of liberty wanted to obtain, after
centuries of bondage. All that was required was that the magic
formula of oppressed nations, the right of self-determination, be
declared valid.
The war that burst upon the world in the summer of 1914,
precipitated at last the day of reckoning for all peoples under the
oppression of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Roumanians
had fully understood the historical importance of events, and
that is why the policy they pursued during the years of crisis
must not be judged without taking the realities of those times
into consideration. Although linked to the Central Powers by
a treaty of alliance, the Kingdom remained outside the conflict,
persisting in a policy of neutrality that left the door open for
all eventualities.
In their political orientation, the Roumanians of Transylvania
also showed themselves to be conscious of the importance of the
moment, and to have full confidence in their own destiny. As
the free Kingdom saw her prestige growing, so her brothers,
separated from her by an artificial barrier, looked with increasing
hope and persistency towards the future liberator, a second
Piemont, and the fulfilments he should bring. The Roumanian
Government took account of this development, and Ion I. C.
Rratianu assumed the historic role of placing himself in the van
of the movement for political unity. The declaration of war
handed to the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy on the 27th August,
1916, forcibly expressed the Roumanian challenge : Roumania
can no longer look on with passivity at the unacceptable situa
tion being created for the Roumanians of Transylvania. During
the course of a thirty years’ alliance, the Monarchy never showed
IN THE LIGHT OF HISTORY 51
sequences that would follow, with one stroke breaking off rela
tions with the Hungarian State, and reserving to a national assem
bly and its dependent bodies the right of determining the future.
By the imperial manifesto, published on October 17th, Austria
was transformed into a federal state, that left each nation free
to set up its own government within its ethnological territory,
but that retained the integrity of the countries belonging to
the Hungarian crown. That same day, Wekerle, President of
the Council, announced to Parliament the separation of Hungary
from Austria. Thus, the great Danubian Power ceased to exist.
She had lost the war, not only as a dual Monarchy, but also in
so far as the two constituent members were concerned indivi
dually.
The President of the Chamber and the President of the
Council emphasized on this occasion that the Roumanian inten
tions ran contrary to the Hungarian Constitution. However,
the Roumanians of Transylvania understood very well the impor
tance of the resolution of their executive Committee, and the
significance of the fact that the resolution had been read in
Parliament. The Roumanians received the resolution with
perfect discipline. The solidarity of the Roumanians, who all
stood loyally united behind the Committee right up to the pro
clamation of national unity, is a striking proof of the unanimous
consent to the political formula chosen. The clear and resolute
definition of the Roumanian people’s attitude in the midst of
growing chaos, created the feeling that security lay ahead, and
this strengthened the confidence of the masses in their chosen
leaders. The Committee of the National Party, the only poli
tical organization of the Transylvanian Roumanians, had been
for half a century their recognized form of representation, and
was elected at the national conference, by delegates invested
with powers conferred by all the Roumanian constituencies.
The Committee, in taking upon itself to speak in the name of
the Roumanian people, whilst awaiting the meeting of the Natio
nal Assembly, was unanimously approved, and the measures it
took were respected by all.
The days which followed the 18th October brought unexpec
ted developments, which necessitated new measures on the part
of the Committee, established as a “Directory Council”. Pre
sident Wilson’s reply to the request of the Austro-Hungarian
Monarchy for peace was made known on October 18th. It made
54 TRANSYLVANIA
DEMOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS
1. - Introduction.
Natural
Years Births Deaths Increase
1921 ........................ 175.187 117.552 + 57.635
1922 ........................ 174.195 118.577 + 55.618
1923 ........................ 163.580 113.987 + 49.593
1924 ........................ 166.141 119.042 + 47.099
1925 ........................ 157.566 114.423 + 43.143
1926 ........................ 158.707 118.965 + 39.742
1927 ........................ 153.330 118.000 + 35.330
1928 ........................ 158.545 105.836 + 52.709
1929 ........................ 156.393 113.753 4- 42.640
1930 ........................ 160.004 101.208 + 58.796
1931 ........................ 153.425 105.790 + 47.635
1932 ........................ 156.897 110.879 + 46.018
1933 ........................ 142.639 102.782 + 39.857
1934 ........................ 140.824 103.612 + 37.212
1935 ........................ 138.488 108.483 30.005
1936 ........................ 145.956 102.616 + 43.340
1937 ........................ 146.636 105.395 + 41.241
1938 ........................ 144.722 105.883 + 38.839
1939 ........................ 142.035 101.160 + 40.875
* For the years 1911-1918, the statistical facts have been taken from
the Hungarian publications : “ Magyar Statitztikai Közlemények ”.
** For the years 1919 and following, the facts have been collected
by the Central Statistical Institute of Roumania, from the official birth
and death registers.
Diagram I
Natural Increase of the population in Transylvania
BETWEEN 1911 AND 1939.
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74 TRANSYLVANIA
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Table III
Population
In 1910* In 1930
Provinces Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban
1910 1930
Table IV
Groups of localities
according to their importance Population 0/
/o
Total for Transylvania........................ 5.545.475* 100.0
Total for toums (urban population)............ 963.418 17.4
a) Towns of over .... 100.000 inhabit. 100.844 1.8
b) - — 50.001 to 100.000 — 362.175 6.5
c) — — 30.001 to 50.000 — 87.862 1.6
d) - — 10.001 to 30.000 — 253.142 4.6
e) — — 5.001 to 10.000 — 123.520 2.2
f) - — under. . . 5.000 — 35.875 0.7
Total for villages (rural population) ..;... 4.582.057* 82.6
g) Villages of over.. . . 10.000 inhabit. 91.195 1.6
h) - — 5.001 to 10.000 — 244.685 4.4
i) ~ — 4.001 to 5.000 — 205.590 3.7
j) — — 3.001 to 4.000 — 333.618 6.0
k) - — 2.001 to 3.000 — 707.603 12.8
1) - — 1.001 to 2.000 — 1.523.179 27.5
m) — — under.. . 1.000 — 1.476.187 26.6
* Leaving out the three villages of the district ct Maramuresh divi
ded by the frontier and which, in 1930, in their Roumanian section,
counted 2.888 inhabitants.
Table V
Diagram II
7.
Table VI
6
82 TRANSYLVANIA
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DEMOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 83
On the other hand, in order that we may be able to study the
situation of Transylvania in its relation to the whole country, we
present here a Diagram which shows the distribution into
ethnical groups of the entire population of Roumania.
Chart 1
1930
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Table VII
Diagram IV
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92 TRANSYLVANIA
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Table X . —P roportion of Germans in the rural
and urban populations of T ransylvania (1). Percentage 1910 and 1930.
DEMOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS
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DEMOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS 95
Table XII
Table XIII
that the increase is far more important with respect to the Rou
manian urban population, that is to say, precisely in the area
where the other nationalities are most strongly represented ; this
remark holds for all the districts of Transylvania, without
exception.
Table IX shows that, unlike the Roumanians, the Hunga
rians are experiencing a regressive evolution. In every town,
without exception, their proportion has noticeably declined, being
26,7 % less in 1930 than in 1910. That of the “ various other
ethnical elements ” (Table XI) presents, in 1939, a considerable
increase, due to a stricter method of registration. Indeed, all
the Jews and a good many Tzigans who, in 1910, figured
amongst those inhabitants who had as mother tongue Hunga
rian or German, in 1930 are included in this group : see, with
reference to this, Tables XII and XIII, which show the propor
tion of the inhabitants of Mosaic religion in 1910, and that of the
inhabitants who, in 1930, declared themselves of Jewish natio
nality. Those same Tables permit us to ascertain that, in
Transylvania taken as a whole, the number of Jews is decreasing,
as moreover is that of the Germans (Table X).
Table XIV
Natural Increase in each ethnical group
FROM THE 29th DECEMBER 1930 TO THE 31st DECEMBER 1939.
1. - District of Alba.
2. - District of Rrasov.
3. - District of Cluj.
4. - District of Fagarash.
5. - District of Hunedoara.
6. - District of Muresh.
7. - District of Nasaud.
8. - District of Salaj.
9. - District of Sibiu.
4
Brasov................ 137.621 41.056 96.565 67.040 11.786 55.254 39.223 17.831 21.3*1 10.841 19.183 1.334 598 736 1.560 1.417 143
Carash ................ 219.756 28.969 190.787 150.947 11.282 139.665 8.927 3.629 12 12.216 18.096 29.57C 1.842 27.728 1.194 648 •546
Ciuc.................... 136.785 13.819 122.966 11.879 201 11.678 123.185 13.339 109.8rf<1.014 171 843 707 108 599 2.084 577 1.507
275.142 66.002 209.140 156.717 8.013 148.704 110.831 55.403 55.4Ù1.543
4
Cluj.................. 1.704 839 5.051 882 4.169 12.516 8.119 4.397
Fagarash............ 89.898 6.579 83.319 69.159 2.174 66.985 7.571 3.357 1.003 10.350 1.815 45 1.770 900 514 386
32.9W
Hunedoara........
Maramuresh*, . .
335.726
142.128
38.067
23.657
297.659
118.471
267.361
73.420
14.540
3.632
252.821
69.788
52.674
27.200
19.729
18.143 J
106.51||.
2.730
1.310
5.367
25.158
7.594
15.040
1.068
572
6.526
14.468
5.667
31.880
2.425
8.535
3.242
23.345
Muresh................ 263.321 34.437 228.884 108.395 3.161 105.234 133.589 27.077 3.675 10.714
9.11 6.948 524 6.424 8.214 3.619 4.595
Nasaud.............. 137.686 16.737 120.949 93.653 6.974 86.679 12.791 3.602 6.043 21.044 4.155 118 4.037 7.464 2.027 5.437
Odorhei.............. 132.211 10.244 121.967 2.421 115 2.306 129.041 9.888 119.1» 212 297 240 29 211 1.605 256 1.349
Satu-Mare.......... 265.475 52.191 213.284 132.925 3.893 129.032 123.028 47.235 75.7».
823 6.582 2.117 240
127-4J 1.877 21.232 8.864 12.368
Salaj.................... 317.629 31.025 286.604 152.831 1.504 151.327 157.255 29.279 102 1.355 6.086 140 5.946 15.192 4.346 10.846
Severin.............. 248.428 36.423 212.005 187.825 13.859 173.966 24.654 10.290 1
10.799 14.862 10.288 1.475 8.813 3.607 2.572 1.035
Sibiu.................. 169.050 33.489 135.561 107.214 8.824 98.390 11.129 7.252 3.ÍW 16.832 30.642 3.233 581 2.652
34.5|l 13 1.510 1.307 203
Somesh.............. 207.713 18.309 189.404 153.743 4.792 148.951 47.206 12.621 635 3.478
ll.ll 2.651 261 2.390 11.133 2.941 8.192
Târnava-Mare.. . 134.532 20.213 114.319 56.056 5.760 50.296 16.115 4.402 '14 9..352 45.462 7.547 699 6.848 1.114 571 543
6.866 3O.Sfe
Tâmava-Mica . . 136.699 12.492 124.207 71.210 4.320 66.890 37.255 793 21.765 5.676 513 5.163 2.079 832 1.247
Timish-Torontal. 500.918 80.419 420.499 174.697 10.897 163.800 85.924 30.506 55.« 34,.048 151.107
55.142 4.968 50.174 9.714 7.090 2.624
14.331 107.7Ï5
Trei-Scaune .... 137.154 14.744 122.410 13.543 158 13.385 122.092 195 383 941 60 881 1.189 478 711
Turda................ 162.085 14.011 148.074 117.880 3.777 114.103 40.860 9.823 31-<W 103 435 2.807
2.462 308 2.499
497 1.965
Câmpulung-
Bucovina........ 1.532 1.532 987 987 116 424 5| 5 149 149
*Within this figure has not been included the population of the villages of Bocicoiul-Mare, Lunca (Jg}* c>
“ian’e7?Ach on.]y in Part united to Roumania in 1919. —The sum total of the nonnUtinn
Transylvania has been computed by the Central Statistical Institute of Roumania, on the basis « ^ted with Rnr ^tlon ^as ^een made at the end of this Table, but without adding it up to the total
of the population of two villages wich, before 1918, were part of the district of Nasaud and have been, H covina, so that their census was taken, in 1930, within the district ofPCâmpulung.’
[j^rana-Maramuresh after the census of 1930.
Table II. - Population of Transylvania, Banat a
e administrative division of 1930.)
(Distributed into ethnical groups accordi
nationality
Total ethnical,
OF THE POPULATION Germans Jews Others
Roumanians Hungarians
Total 1 ' Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural
Total Urban Rural Urban Rural Total Urban Rural
Crisana- 67.174 8.411 58.763 88.459 46.267 42.192 67.988 9.628 58.360
Maramuresh* 1.387.529 276.254 1.111.275 843.636 91.389 752.247 320.272 120.559 199.
7.583 2.746 4.837 2.995 2.078 917 4.742 1.260 3.482
Alba.................. 212.749 33.365 179.384 173.401 19.606 153.795 24.028 7.675 16.:
52.202 6.130 46.072 9.048 7.057 1.991 21.672 3.646 18.026
Arad.................. 423.649 77.181 346.468 258.239 30.370 227.869 82.488 29.978 52.!
2.288 1.020 1.268 21.982 15.731 6.251 18.997 2.461 16.536
Bihor.................. 510.318 102.277 408.041 314.109 27.047 287.062 152.942 56.018 96.!
21.11
33.348 13.014 20.334 2.438 2.267 171 3.630 1.310 2.320
Brasov................ 168.125 59.232 108.893 83.948 19.372 64.576 44.761 23.269
25.654 12.792 12.862 603 401 202 29.989 1.240 28.749
Carash................ 200.929 29.453 171.476 139.651 12.434 127.217 5.032 2.586 2.4?
439 142 297 2.383 846 1.537 1.381 236 1.245
Ciuc.................... 145.806 15.162 130.644 20.976 1.230 19.746 120.627 12.708 107.111
j 2.788 2.516 272 17.163 14.080 3.083 10.142 3.045 7.097
Cluj.................... 334.991 106.245 228.746 204.139 36.032 168.107 100.759 50.572 50.1« [(0.750
969 9.781 442 388 54 2.704 144 2.560
Fagarash............ 86.039 7.841 78.198 67.375 4.246 63.129 4.768 2.094 2.1
Í8-282 2.762 5.520 4.662 2.735 1.927 9.307 1.427 7.880
Hunedoara........ 332.118 41.234 290.884 272.283 21.761 250.522 37.584 12.549 25.1
j 3.154
5.: 161 2.993 33.462 10.526 22.936 18.655 1.501 17.159
Maramuresh*.. . 158.687 27.270 131.417 92.765 9.658 83.107 10.651 5.424 fl 1.283
97.3! 2.854 8.429 9.959 6.384 3.575 12.268 1.005 11.263
Muresh.............. 289.546 47.807 241.739 132.719 11.607 121.112 123.317 25.957
.20.785
6.Í 4.544 16.241 6.339 2.596 3.743 6.521 504 6.017
Nasaud.............. 144.131 17.640 126.491 103.010 8.535 94.475 7.476 1.461
464 172
6.928 112-4 292 1.289 283 1.006 2.762 173 2.589
Odorhei.............. 130.282 8.518 121.764 6.382 962 5.420 119.385
9.530
454 1.100 8.430 23.967 12.953 11.014 8.664 2.020 6.644
Satu-Mare.......... 294.875 69.526 225.349 178.523 24.314 154.209 74.191 29.139
16.010
92.« £... 1.788 14.222 13.380 4.266 9.114 13.474 1.033 12.441
Salaj.................. 343.347 31.830 311.517 192.821 10.058 182.763 107.662 14.685
9J 9.897 13.221 2.160 1.848 312 15.058 2.757 12.301
Severin.............. 239.586 40.456 199.130 183.412 19.141 164.271 15.838 6.813
£6.999
2.1 21.598 35.401 1.400 1.308 92 6.397 1.298 5.099
Sibiu .................. 194.619 49.345 145.274 120.738 18.620 102.118 9.085 6.521 j 351
26.1 197 154 10.546 4.365 6.181 4.646 1.006 3.640
Somesh.............. 219.355 21.718 197.637 169.942 8.979 160.963 33.870 7.171
58.810
6.772 10. 11.210 47.600 1.061 848 213 4.397 1.138 3.259
Târnava-Mare .. 147.994 28.538 119.456 66.307 8.570 57.737 17.419
24.011 807 23.204
5.688 1.631 848 783 7.930 948 6.982
Târnava-Mica... 149.482 15.252 134.230 80.604 6.961 73.643 35.306
74.395 29.729
28.601 144.666 8.485 7.382 1.103 51.574 4.838 46.736
Timish-Torontal 499.443 97.580 401.863 188.020 27.030 160.990 76.969
781 260 521 714
12.456 371 343 3.487 394 3.093
Trei-Scaune.... 136.122 15.925 120.197 21.759 2.444 19.315 109.381
742
9.943 528 1.323 2.224 852 1.372 4.787 921 3.866
Turda................ 183.282 20.023 163.25E 136.315 7.779 128.536 39.214
426
Câmpulung- — 426 111 _ 111 7 7
Bucovine.... 1.443 — 1.443 887 887 12i
*See Note to Table I.
Table III. - Population of Transylvania, Ban
Crisana-Maramuresh AFTER THE CENSUS OF 1930.
(Distributed after the mother tongues, accordi
the administrative division of 1930.)
Total mother
fO N G u E
of the population
Roumanian Hungarian
Germans Yiddish Others
Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural
Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total Urban Rural
Total* 5.545.475 963.418 4.582.057 3.232.747 331.131 2.901.616 1.479.970 431.641 1.048.3
130.074 410.674 110.918 48.206 62.712 181.092 22.366 158.726
Transylvania.. .. 3.217.988 519.675 2.698.313 1.873.691 186.924 1.686.767 997.653 21.161 766.4
66.289 180.298 52.008 25.259 26.749 48.049 10.042 38.007
Banat. 939.958 167.489 772.469 520.041 59.370 460.671 105.584 44.174 61.4
56.770 174.292 757 532 225 82.514 6.643 75.871
Crisana-
Maramuresli* 1.387.529 276.254 1.111.275 839.015 84.837 754.178 376.733 156.306 220.4
7.015 56.084 58.153 22.415 35.738 50.529 5.681 44.848
16.ioij
Alba 212.749 33.365 179.384 176.852 20.132 156.720 24.513 8.404
7.617 2.808 4.809 1.751 1.120 631 2.016 901 1.115
Arad. 423.649 77.181 346.468 259.884 28.537 231.347 96.756 41.161 55.59^
50.005 4.617 45.388 1.002 687 315 16.002 2.179 13.823
Bihor 510.318 102.277 408.041 313.404 25.509 287.895 172.322 69.466 102.851
2.364 1.236 1.128 7.497 4.347 3.150 14.731 1.719 13.012
Brasov 168.125 59.232 108.893 85.519 19.378 66.141 46.798 24.977 21.82
33.592 13.276 20.316 615 537 78 1.601 1.064 537
Carash 200.929 29.453 171.476 142.315 12.409 129.906 5.113 2.727 28.622 13.253 15.369 53 29 24 24.826 1.035 23.791
Ciuc 145.806 15.162 130.644 18.455 1.025 17.430 124.971 13.428
145 358 1.413 457 956 464 107 357
Cluj 334.991 106.245 228.746 206.559 35.962 170.597 109.165 58.048
2.724 240 9.949 7.523 2.426 6.354 1.988 4.366
Fagarash 86.039 7.841 78.198 69.685 4.303 65.382 5.049 2.327
1.056 9.772 58 51 7 419 104 315
Hunedoara 332.118 41.234 290.884 277.705 22.556 255.149 40.375 14.259 7.422 2.745 4.677 2.268 1.090 1.178 4.348 584 3.764
Maramuresh*. . . 158.687 27.270 131.417 92.142 9.195 82.947 13.543 7.014 3.144 199 2.945 32.882 9.989 22.893 16.976 873 16.103
Muresh, 289.546 47.807 241.739 131.825 11.293 120.532 133.045 29.273 11.437 2.957 8.480 6.344 3.549 2.795 6.895 735 6.160
Nasaud 144.131 17.640 126.491 106.558 8.557 98.001 7.174 1.581 11.056 4.752 16.304 5.915 2.312 3.603 3.428 438 2.990
Odorhei 130.282 8.518 121.764 4.888 931 3.957 123.885 7.295 404 168 236 619 80 539 486 44 442
Satu-Mare 294.875 69.526 225.349 173.585 21.596 151.989 94.112 38.665 7.586
963 6.623 16.772 7.392 9.380 2.820 910 1.910
Salaj 343.347 31.830 311.517 191.144 8.757 182.387 125.544 19.737 '8.706 396 8.310 9.501 2.562 6.939 8.452 378 8.074
Severin 239.586 40.456 199.130 187.021 20.068 166.953 17.048 7.786
10.898 13.791 85 58 27 10.743 1.646 9.097
Sibiu 194.619 49.345 145.274 125.686 19.006 106.680 9.325 6.782
22.045 35.170 691 671 20 1.702 841 861
Somesh 219.355 21.718 197.637 172.607 9.000 163.607 34.710 7.993
222 256 9.709 3.964 5.745 1.851 539 1.312
Târnava-Mare... 147.994 28.538 119.456 68.259 8.761 59.498 18.094 7.138
11.394 47.576 511 406 105 2.160 839 1.321
Târnava-Mica. .. 149.482 15.252 134.230 83.504 7.206 76.298 36.461 6.144
789 23.237 932 383 549 4.559 730 3.829
Timish-Toronta). 499.443 97.580 401.863 190.705 26.893 163.812 83.423 33.661
32.619 145.132 619 445 174 46.945 3.962 42.983
Trei-Scaune .. .. 136.122 15.925 120.197 16.748 2.257 14.491 117.868 13.139
266 359 175 120 55 706 143 563
Turda 183.282 20.023 163.259 137.697 7.800 129.897 40.676 10.636
546 198 1.557 434 1.123 2.608 607 2.001
Câmpulung-
Bucovina. 1.443 _ 381 109 109 3 3
*See Note to Table I.
CHAPTER IV
THE CHURCHES
-T/ie
C. Concordat. - The position of the Catholic Church,
already determined by Law governing the organization of reli
gious bodies, is further defined by the Concordat established
between Roumania and the Holy See on May 10th, 1927, ratified
on May 11th, 1929, and published in the “ Official Gazette”,
No 126, June 12th, 1929. This agreement lays down rules as to
the organization of the Catholic Church as a whole, that is inclu
ding the Byzantine rite (Greek-Catholic Church) and the Latin
and Armenian rites. It also assures to the Catholic Church the-
128 TRANSYLVANIA
In the laws governing relations between the State and the diffe
rent Confessions, the Roumanian Government makes allowance
9
130 TRANSYLVANIA
for the material needs of these and for supplementing the emo
luments of those holding office in the Church: the governmental
budgets of Roumania are proof of this. The Religious Rodies
in minority thus enjoy support such as was quite unknown under
Hungarian rule. The following are examples: The Hungarian
laws determining the stipends of the clergy (Law 14 - 1898 and
Law 13-1909) envisaged an obligation on the part of the State
to supplement the stipends of those priests having received supe
rior training, to the extent of 1.600 crowns, and those having
undergone less extensive training, to the extent of 800 crowns
per annum. Only priests conversant with Hungarian were eli
gible for the additional allowance (Art. 3, Law 13 - 1909), which
could be suspended by the Ministry should the priest in question
show an unpatriotic attitude (Art. 22 of the Scholastic Law of
Count Apponyi 1907). The law too considered unpatriotic any
opinion at variance with the national Magyar character of Tran
sylvania, and any resistance to the propagation of the Hungarian
tongue. Thus, many Roumanian Orthodox and United Church
priests have been deprived of this supplement to their salaries,
any pro-Roumanian manifestation on their part being considered
as though directed against the State. The stipends of the
Catholic clergy of Latin rite were then supplemented to the
amount of 800 or 1.600 crowns on condition that the“ Religious
Purposes Catholic Fund ” contributed to it annually a sum of
1.200.000, and the chief ecclesiastical beneficiaries (bishoprics,
chapters and abbeys) richly endowed, a sum of 700.000
crowns. The Roumanian State has never made any such res
trictions, nor regarded its bounty towards its subordinates as
conditional. Practically speaking, abandoning the principle of
supplements, the State has preferred to pay integrally to each
of the clergy, even those belonging to a minority, the salary due
to him, without taking into consideration, in the case of Catholics,
the riches with which the Hungarian State had endowed their
Church. The generosity of the Roumanian State will be more
readily appreciated on referring to the budgetary data given
below.
In 1918, the Hungarian State gave to all the bishoprics,
Catholic, Reformed, Unitarian or Lutheran, a sum totalling
2.020.570 crowns, while the Roumanian Government, in 1940,
accorded to them the sum of 75.568.430 lei. It should be men
tioned that a great part of the Catholic bishoprics of Timisoara
THE CHURCHES 131
B.
-The Greek-Catholic Church (The United Church of Rou
mania).-The Constitution regards the Greek-Catholic Church
as a Roumanian Church and places it immediately after the
Orthodox Church. This Church is spoken of as “ united ” since
it had its origin in the union of a group of Roumanians from
Transylvania with the Roman (Latin) Church, Oct. 7th, 1698.
The “ united ” Roumanians came, in the first place, under the
canonical control of the Metropolitan Latin See of Esztergom.
This control came to an end in 1853, when the United Church
was transformed into the metropolitan province of Alba-Iulia
and Fagarash, comprising the archbishopric of Rlaj and three
suffragan bishoprics: Oradea (1777) Gherla and Lugoj (1853).
The United Church, although having its own governing rules,
was not privileged with an autonomy equal to that of the
other religious groups in Transylvania. Her very existence was
threatened by the Greek-Catholic Magyar bishopric, founded at
Hajdudorog in 1912, at the instance of the Hungarian Govern
ment. Within this bishopric were subjugated scores of parishes
torn away from the Roumanian dioceses. The Magyar Latin
Church endeavoured in this way to confine the Church of Rou
mania within the Catholic autonomy.
After 1918, the Roumanian United Church gave proof of
profitable activity. The Roumanian parishes in the diocese of
Hajdudorog were returned to their respective bishoprics, their
re-integration being confirmed by Papal Decree, July 9th, 1919.
Protected by the Law controlling the organization of Religious
Bodies and by the Concordat, and owing to the generosity of the
Roumanian State, the United Church was able to make notable
progress ; the first step forward being the securing of full auto
nomy in the government of its own affairs, while the Sovereign
Patronage, which had limited the freedom of the church, ceased
operating after 1918.
According to the terms of the Concordat, the hierarchy of the
Greek-Catholic Faith of Transylvania includes the ecclesiastical
province of Alba-Iulia and Fagarash, with the Metropolitan See
of Blaj, and its four suffragan bishoprics of Oradea, Lugoj,
Gherla (transferred to Cluj in 1930), and Baia-Mare, for the Mara
muresh, established in 1930. The membership of this Church
136 TRANSYLVANIA
the abbots and the canons, the Pope having only the right
of confirming the nomination. It was in the. King’s power to
transfer the dignitaries he had nominated and to establish the
higher church-livings. He retained, administered and used the
funds belonging to endowments and livings, and could have
sequestered the incomes of those beneficiaries who neglected the
churches and livings entrusted to them. The revenues of vacant
livings reverted to him by law, as did the inheritance derived
from the estate of a prelate. Bishops were not free to leave by
will, to sell or to let for longer than three years, any ecclesiastical
property without the approval of the government.
ö) In what concerns Catholic autonomy, the Law 20
of 1848 decreed the principle of equal authorisation for all
Christian Confessions. For this reason, the Roman Catholic
Church ceased to be the Church of the State, though it conti
nued to be predominant on account of its influence, and more espe
cially because of its material endowment. All confessions, the
Catholic and the rest, were, therefore, organized on the basic
principle of equal authorization and were, sooner or later, accor
ded autonomy. One and all desired to establish an independent
organization, in which laymen would participate to a large extent,
their chief objective being the free administration of their concerns.
There, where other Religious Bodies had succeeded, the
Catholics failed. Despite great effort, expended between 1848
and 1917 to win back its independence, the Catholic Church of
Hungary did not succeed in overcoming, on this capital point, the
opposition of the Hungarian Government.
Through the Concordat of 1927, the Catholics of Transyl
vania at last succeeded in solving this problem. Although no
particular clause had suggested the suppression of the Sovereign
Patronage as the sovereign right, all the essential rights included
in it have in fact been abolished. Now the bishops are nominated
by the Pope, and the canons and abbots by the bishops. The
Sovereign Patronage scarcely operates. The restrictions con
cerning ecclesiastical property have been set aside, this property
being put at the disposal of the Church, which administers it
as the true owner rather than a mere life-renter. Catholic auto
nomy has become actual fact in Transylvania.
At last free and enjoying complete autonomy in directing its
own affairs, the Catholic Church of Transylvania achieved
through her remarkable material position an undeniable supe-
THE CHURCHES 139
r, Fag»'
EDUCATION 153
Grammar schools
(Lycées)...................... 4 7,3 54 79,4 7 13,2
High schools and middle
schools........................ 6 4,9 106 87,7 9 7,4
Commercial schools .... 1 5,2 17 89,4 1 5,2
Normal schools ............ 8 26,6 24 63,3 2 10,0
Handicraft schools........ — — 10 100,0 — —
Industrial apprentice
ship schools................ 2 1,5 125 92,5 8 5,9
Commercial apprentice
ship schools ............ — — 25 96,2 1 3,8
was the sole language used for teaching. During the same period,
this was the condition of the denominational schools: the Rou
manians had 4 grammar schools (lycées), 1 high school (gymna
sium) and 5 middle schools; the Hungarians had 29 grammar
schools and 28 middle schools. Thus, the Roumanian popu
lation, which was in a majority throughout the entire province,
had 10 secondary schools in all, whilst the Hungarian minority
had 160 secondary schools. This inequality was reflected in
the number of the pupils: in 1918, the year of the last census of
the pupils in schools, the grammar schools catered for 10.751
Hungarian children as against 4.413 Roumanian children; of
these latter, 2.720 attended Hungarian schools and only 1.693
attended the Roumanian schools. The inequality was empha
sized still in middle schools, in which the number of
Hungarian pupils amounted to 13.003 as against 2.721 Rouma
nian pupils; what is more, 2.361 of these Roumanian pupils
attended Hungarian schools, and 360 only Roumanian schools.
When the Roumanians regained political sovereignty in
Transylvania, the whole system of the State schools passed into
the control of the Roumanian State. Roumanian became the lan
guage used for teaching in the nationalized schools. Now,
although the Hungarians had at their disposal a system of deno
minational education in Hungarian, powerful as well as wealthy,
— that the Roumanians had left untouched — they were still
offered the facilities of a large number of State schools or
classes in the State schools, in which education was to be conduc
ted in Hungarian.
This then wTas the posi tion of secondary schools in Transylvania
in 1922-1923, taken from the aspect of the language in which
education was conducted: the Roumanians had 23 State gram
marschools and 44 State middle schools, as well as 7 denomina
tional grammar schools; the Hungarians maintained 33 deno
minational grammar schools and 64 middle schools; moreover,
Roumania allowed them 9 grammar schools and Hungarian
State classes, as well as 22 State middle schools, in which Hun
garian was the language used for teaching. Thus, all in all,
during the first years of Roumanian sovereignty, the predomi
nant Roumanian population owned 74 schools and the Hunga
rian minority had 128.
Still, the Hungarians forsook the State schools and classes,
which had to be partly cancelled, one after the other. That is
EDUCATION 165
built in order to house the books. Here are some figures of the
situation under the Hungarian regime: 1910-1911, 51.676 rea
ders; 1913-1914, 49.869. Under the Roumanian regime: 1925,
102.976; 1928, 147.979. Atthetimeof the Hungarian era (1913),
the reviews numbered 451 (97 Hungarian, 223 German, 71 French,
8 Italian, 4 Roumanian, etc.); at the time of the Roumanian
regime, their number rose to 1.457 (742 Roumanian, 232 Ger
man, 122 French, 21 Italian, 33 Hungarian, etc.). The number
of books borrowed increased in the same proportion, as did that
of the volumes of the Popular Library, created for the benefit
of pupils and of the town population, to whom it is open on
holidays and the afternoons of working days.
Naturally, the students have constantly been the object of the
greatest attention: their daily life and their work were facili
tated by the foundation of a “ University Office ”, divided into
several sections: advisory bureau, medical assistance, physical
education, information and social insurance. Their many clubs
are placed under the friendly guidance of the University autho
rities and enjoy, within the scope of the law, the freedom
necessary to the development of social responsibility and the
sense of social obligations.
The last foundation of the University of Cluj was that of the
Academic College, inaugurated on June 13th, 1938, in the pre
sence of the King and the Government. This magnificent
building, erected next to the former University Hall, which it
completes according to the needs of a modern institution, cost
30.000.000 lei. Its object is to further the solution of three
University problems: the contact of the professors amongst
themselves and with the public, the possibility of large meetings,
and the development of undergraduate life in a suitable atmo
sphere. Therefore, the building contains a magnificent amphi
theatre of 1.500 seats for lectures and festivities; sitting rooms,
halls, convocation rooms for the professors, comfortable rooms
for guests, dining rooms for the students’ canteens, premises for
the clubs and gatherings of these latter.
The number of students at the University of Cluj varied
during the last forty years as follows:
180 TRANSYLVANIA
two sections: one for mechanical and electric engineers, and the
other for mining engineers. At the beginning, it was located in
an old school building, placed at its disposal and installed by the
Borough Council of Timisoara. In 1923, a new building of large
size was constructed, and part of the lecture rooms and labora
tories were transferred there, some remaining in the old pre
mises. A third building, inaugurated in 1927, houses the
Students’ hostel, which takes 220 boarders. Finally, in 1930, were
finished three of the buildings of the Professors’ Home, in
which were housed 11 families. The courses of the School
are grouped around 26 chairs and 11 lectureships, secon
ded by 21 assistants (1937), with the use of 11 Laboratories,
7 collections and 3 Seminars; 4 of those Laboratories are also
equipped for industrial analysis. The courses are spread over
5 years, of which one year is preparatory and two more destined
to the teaching of the basic principles of the engineering pro
fession, the last two being taken up by special studies. The
diploma of engineer is conferred on the basis of a thesis exami
ned orally by a commission.
On an initiative taken by the Polytechnic School, the first
publication of this school was created in 1921, called the “ Timi
soara Mathematical Review ”; it is aimed at spreading a liking
for Mathematics and stimulating the study of it amongst
grammar school pupils. In 1923, the “ Scientific Society of the
Polytechnic School of Timisoara ” was founded; the members of
the teaching staff read their original scientific and technical
papers to this association. These papers are published in the
periodical review of the school, the “ Scientific Bulletin of the
Polytechnic School of Timisoara ”, which has reached its 9th
volume. The library numbers approximately 8.000 volumes,
specialised and technical, as well as 100 reviews, which are
obtained by subscription or are sent in exchange for the
“ Bulletin ”.
The yearly number of students for the 5 years of study
has settled down around an average of 400; 40 to 45 engi
neering diplomas are conferred each year. From its foundation
till 1937, the Timisoara Polytechnic School has given the country
557 engineers, of whom 297 were mechanical or electric engineers
and 260 mining engineers.
4.- Conclusions
1. - Literature
land ”, later published at Cluj, saw the light of day at Sibiu and
was directed by the novelist Ion Agârbiceanu. Also at Cluj
appeared, shortly afterwards, “Will ”, edited by a group of young
writers of great promise, “ Fraternity ”, under the direction of
the literary critic D. Tomescu, as well as a weekly paper, “ Rou
manian Conscience ”, devoted to the noble task of constructive
criticism.
The same new flourishing was to be seen in the world of
reviews. In the spring of 1921 appeared at Cluj “ Gândirea ”
(Thought), young and vigorous, disdaining all school or party
dogma, animated with the one ambition of raising the standard
of literary taste and production. Most of the names that are
to be met with in those pages were to make Roumanian litera
ture famous, — Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Rlaga, Adrian Maniu,
Perpessicius, Cesar Petrescu, Gib Mihaescu, side by side with
Transylvanians such as Agârbiceanu, Tolan, Muresanu, a Ruco-
vinian such as G. Voevidca, a Ressarabian such as L. Donici,
and many others, whom life was to disperse later on. During its
brief existence at Cluj, before its establishment in Bucharest, the
review “ Gândirea ” succeeded in reanimating the intellectual
atmosphere of Transylvania, throwing a bright, Latin light on
the discussion of ideas, asserting the validity of advanced lite
rary forms and opinions, and spreading appreciation of the trea
sures of a fine, vivacious Roumanian language, the need for
which was very strongly felt by Transylvania, which had only
just emerged from the torpor of its long subjection.
It was, however, a decree of fate that, by reason of its very
virtues, “ Gândirea ” should not take root in Cluj. Its somewhat
scoffing, off-hand manner rendered it suspect in the eyes of
a public whose habits and traditions it outraged to a certain
extent, and whose acceptance it could not gain.
The Transylvanian public found pasture more suitable to its
stage of evolution in the venerable “ Transylvania ”, founded
49 years earlier, and which had just reappeared in 1918. In 1922,
there also reappeared at Cluj the very generous review
“ Cosânzeana ” (The Fairy), which, since its foundation in 1911,
had made itself the modest heiress to the traditions of “ Lucea
fărul ”, In it, good honest writers published prose and
verse not without merit, but excessively faithful to a rather old-
fashioned traditionalism. In the same somewhat dim atmos
phere, “Evolution ” had to lead its brief existence, during which
LITERARY AND ARTISTIC LIFE 191
of Under their Yoke, The Feast of Death, With Marching Men, To-
Morrow, etc.. Here we find the violent, untamed lyricism of a
lover of social justice, possessed with the quivering vitality and
the clenched will of a wrestler, which relate him to Walt Whit
man and the Czech poet Petr Bezruc. Cotrus calls up in his
poetry a nightmare world of apocalyptic landscapes and gigantic
cities, in which forces are set free. This magnified and frightful,
monstrous vision is swept along by an “enormous” rhythm, and
is expressed in elliptical and breathless lines, that are profoundly
impressive.
It was however reserved to Transylvania to produce in the
person of Lucian Blaga the most complete and most profound
expression of the Roumanian spirit of our days.
Lucian Blaga (born in 1895, at Lancram, near Alba-Iulia)
indeed sums up in his person so fine a constellation of latent
Roumanian qualities, and was able to put these qualities to such
good account, creating works of so high a standard, that his
personality assumes heroic proportions, like one of those great
figures of the Renaissance, of whom one cannot say what belongs
to the individual, what to the nation, and what to the whole of
humanity.
We see in him a visionary of the absolute, and we have well
considered the importance of the term. A poet, dramatist, phi
losopher, one would say that everywhere in his work Blaga was
listening for the echo of an existence more real than our own
and for the call of the Beyond. He answers in a fascinating
series of collections of poetry, from Poems of Light (1919),
Steps of the Prophet, The Great Passing, In Praise of Sleep,
The Watershed Line, In the Courtyards of Desire, to Secret Steps,
which represent the latest stage of the poet’s thought.
Parallel with this lyrical output, the poet revealed his thought
in several plays, showing highly original workmanship and rare
symbolic power. Such are : Zalmoxis (1922), which is the tra
gedy of the founder of a religion; Master Manole, a play derived
from a popular Roumanian legend, in which are presented the
torments of an artist in the clutches of the occult forces which
inspire him, and in which one can see a parallel attempt to Paul
Valery’s Eupalinos; Avram Iancu (1934), in which the hero of the
Roumanian highlanders’ insurrection against the Hungarians
in 1848 embodies the age-old avenging will of a whole oppressed
nation; The Crusade of the Children, etc..
196 TRANSYLVANIA
‘ION KAȚIU
V
202 TRANSYLVANIA
***
Side by side with the Roumanians, on the hospitable soil of
Transylvania, the Hungarians and Saxons continued their own
spiritual existence in complete independence. Let us try and
give a picture of their principal lines of development during the
twenty years that separate the two wars.
First of all, Hungarian literature. It is well known that, by the
dualist pact of 1867, Transylvania, till then autonomous, was
made part of Hungary. One of the consequences of this event
was the policy of centralization that increasingly concentrated
in Budapest, to the detriment of the provinces, all the spiritual
energies of the nation; indeed, Hungary’s own capital, strongly
impregnated with German influence, had to be Magyarized as
quickly as possible. Hungarian literature in Transylvania, at
the time flourishing, felt immediately the effects of this policy
and was accordingly impoverished, and this to such an extent,
that in a study entitled Transylvanismus. published in the review
“Erdélyi Szemle” (1926, p. 279) Mr. George Kristóf, professor of
Magyar literature at the University of Cluj, declared without
hesitation: “ Let us admit frankly that, after the union (1867),
Transylvania was treated with indifference and neglect ”.
Without being consecrated in Budapest, no writer, no matter
what his talent might be, could hope to assert himself. Better
still, in the eyes of the Hungarian politicians, everything that
recalled former Transylvanian independence was to disappear,
as well as every trace of regionalism down to the very name of
LITERARY AND ARTISTIC LIFE 203
St. 0. Iosif and Lucian Blaga, Aprily being one of those who
worked for a better understanding between Roumanians and
Hungarians. By his side stands Remenik Sandor, who has
been called the “ prophetic poet ” of Transylvania, and whose
principal theme, ceaselessly remoulded in different symbolical
forms, is the idea of sacrifice and humility, which makes him
conceive poetry as a priestly act, and reject with horror the doc
trine of art for art’s sake.
Surrounded by the peace of country life, which he shares with
the peasants of the region of Dej, the youthful writer Bartalis
Janos wrots poems in free verse, laden with the harsh odour of
the earth, which are like the devout meditations of one who,
with this peaceful and harmonious soul, and by his very artless
ness, was able to penetrate into the heart of things.
Daida Jenö, who died in the full flower of his youth, was a
subtle poet, full of delicacy and fancy, and perhaps the greatest
hope of Magyar lyrical poetry in Transylvania. His transla
tions of Eminescu, Blaga, Pillát and Arghezi are still unequalled.
The finest verse in “ Erdélyi Helikon ” appear still to-day over the
name of Kiss Jenö.
At the time of the union of Transylvania with the former
Kingdom, the septuagenarian Benedek Elek, a story-teller who
had delighted several generations of children, left Budapest and
the important position that he had created for himself there, to
establish himself in his native village in Transylvania. His name
became the main prop of the “ Transylvanism ” of which men
tion has been made, and by which the new generation of Hun
garian men of letters attempted to define themselves. It was
moreover he who was to initiate in post-war Transylvania
the new Magyar prose, which was to experience rich and
varied development. The historical novel was principally cul
tivated, and writers such as Bishop Makkai Sandor, Kos
Karolyi, with his many activities, and the journalist Tabéry
Géza excelled in it. Other prose writers sought inspiration in
problems created by the new political situation in Transylvania.
Such were Ligeti Ernő, Berde Mária and Gulácsy Iren. The
Szeklers Nyirö Joszef and Tamási Aron, using a language enlive
ned by provincialism, portrayed in their books the life of their
compatriots in the centre of Transylvania.
A writer with a European horizon is Kuncz Aladar, who, in
LITERARY AND ARTISTIC LIFE 205
his novel Fekete Kolostor (The Black Monastery), set down his
impressions as a prisoner of war.
The flowering of Hungarian literature during the post-war
period in Transylvania is no doubt due to the talent of its repre
sentatives. It is none the less true that the complete liberty
which the Hungarian spirit enjoyed in Roumanian Transylvania
and which, after 1918, attracted into this province numbers of
Hungarian refugees, surrounded Hungarian literature with the
atmosphere it needed to raise itself to a level which it had never
before attained in Transylvania. On this point, we are once more
in perfect agreement with Professor Kristóf, who declared in
1928: “ Nobody here wishes us to be torn from the unity of
Hungarian culture. As far as literature is concerned, nothing
and nobody sets a limit to our liberty, nor forces us to adopt this
judgment or that poetry. In this matter, our literary conscience
is alone responsible ”.
In this connection, it is perhaps not pointless to add that
Roumania was officially represented by the greatest writers of
the country at all the commemorative festivals of Hungarian
literature, — at Petöfi’s centenary (1922); at Jókai’s (1925), at
the commemoration of the poet Ady (1924), etc.; that for several
years the Hungarian historian Bitay Árpád gave lectures on
Hungarian literature at the popular University of Valeni-de-
Munte, directed by Nicholas Iorga; and that the first attempt at a
systematic and critical presentation of Hungarian literature in
Transylvania stands to the credit of professor Ion Chinezu, a
Roumanian.
*
* *
The Saxon literary movement in post-war Transylvania fol
lowed the lines laid down by the review “ Die Karpathen” and its
editor Adolf Meschendörfer, a native of Brasov, who completely
renewed the spiritual life of the Saxons, submerged in regiona
lism. The generation issued from the war grew up in the atmos
phere created and entertained by Meschendorfer’s review; but
nevertheless, it wanted to move forward. It considered Meschen-
dörfer’s theoretic aestheticism too placid, his scepticism out
moded, and the whole atmosphere of the review, fed on 19th
century positivism, unbearable.
From this “ war of generations ” was born in 1924, again at
206 TRANSYLVANIA
since then, every year, during the summer and autumn, we used
to tour Transylvania and the Banat, going to a great deal of
trouble, sleeping sometimes, never making a penny. But we
put our hearts into it and the enthusiasm of the public that came
together from every part of the country helped us to hold out. ”
His was the honour of being the first director of the “ Bouma-
nian National Theatre ” of Cluj, “ a dream which he had kept
intact and pure and fondled during his whole youth ”.
As its company was made up of artists of real value, who
were replaced, as the need arose, by pupils of the dramatic depart
ment of the Cluj “ Conservatory ”, the National Theatre quickly
realized that its position in the scale of values placed it side by
side with the University and the other important cultural ins
titutions. On this point, its repertory speaks eloquently: out of
374 plays presented during the course of the twenty years,
12 were by Shakespeare, 9 by Molière, 7 by Ibsen, 6 by Piran
dello. In this connection, mention must be made of the expe
riment of V. Papiban who, in his capacity as director of the
Theatre, succeeded during the season 1936-1937 in creating a
small Theatre, in which were staged plays by authors of high
standing, which are not easily accessible to the public or even to
the actors. The performance was preceded by a lecture to
explain the merits of the play to be shown. In this way, the
public were introduced to Pirandello, to Tchékhov, to Wedekind,
and above all to Paul Claudel, whose work was here for the first
time put on a Boumanian stage.
In order to give an idea of the Boumanian public’s taste for
the theatre, we will cite some interesting ventures. At Sibiu,
a Theatre of the association “Astra” functioned fora time under
the direction of Nicholas Baila ; at Oradea, about 1928, the Society
“The Boumanian West” collected together a company made up of
young actors who, directed by Aurel Banutz and Stefan Marcush,
gave a series of shows in all the towns of Transylvania and the
Banat; at Brasov, a children’s Theatre was created.
On similar lines to those of the National Theatre and in
the same place, was opened the “ Boumanian Opera House ” at
Cluj. Like the Theatre, the Opera looked back on a past full of
heroic efforts, a past from which stand out particularly the
figures of Ion Vidu, with his famous Banat choirs, and above all
the Transylvanian G. Dima, who, from 1866 onwards, organized
performances of opera in Boumanian with considerable success.
LITERARY AND ARTISTIC LIFE 213
ECONOMIC LIFE
2. - Agriculture.
3. - Sylviculture.
4. - Stock-raising.
5. - Industry.
% of
Industrial industries created
Towns Firms between 1919-1930
Arad................................ ........ 1.300 62,3
Brasov............................ ........ 1.130 54,3
Cluj.................................. ........ 1.547 60,2
Lugoj .............................. ........ 533 46,9
Mediash.......................... ........ 232 54,3
Oradea ............................ ........ 1.445 65,9
Petroșani........................ ........ 128 67,3
Resitza............................ ........ 202 67,8
Satu-Mare ...................... ........ 955 50,2
Sibiu................................ ........ 1.007 55,4
Târgu-Muresh................ ........ 731 57,0
Timisoara........................ ........ 1.649 66,0
Turda.............................. ........ 448 56,5
The Table given above shows that the value of the industrial
products of Transylvania and the Banat doubled between 1922
and 1927, rising from 59 millions of dollars to 120 millions. This
increase is due as much to the wider openings found by Transyl
236 TRANSYLVANIA
The drop in coal production, from 1931, is due to the fact that
the chief buyer of Roumanian coal, the Railway Company,
began in that year to use fuel oil far more extensively.
Divided according to grades, the 1939 production was as
follows:
Brown Coal 1.656.920 tons
Pit-coal.... 282.006 —
Lignite ..., 38.107 —
Anthracite , 1.593 —
The data given above shew that the Roumanian regime has
proved itself to be a creative and a dynamic regime, especially in
the different sectors of industrial economy. By appropriate
legislative measures, by a skilful Customs policy, by the grading
of railway tariffs, by the facilities granted to the importation of
machinery and raw materials, the Roumanian regime — at a
period when Roumania herself was also deeply affected by the
consequences of the economic depression of the years 1929-1934
— managed to encourage in a methodical and persevering way
the setting up of new firms: metallurgy, textile, wood, chemistry,
food, glass ware, building materials, leather goods, paper and
graphic arts, china and the electro-technical industry.
As has been seen, it is in the districts of Timish, Brasov, Arad
and Bihor that are to be found the greatest number of firms
set up under the Roumanian regime. Apart from Brasov,
the three other districts lie on the western frontier of Tran
sylvania. This is a positive fact, which refutes the insinuations
according to which the tracing of the Roumanian-Hungarian
frontier has cut off the frontier districts from a hinterland
indispensable to a great economic progress, whereas it is pre
cisely these outlying districts which have benefited especially
from the industrial development offered them by the Roumanian
economic territory. The industrial evolution which has gone on
in Roumanian Transylvania can only be explained by this
obvious fact: the firms existing in 1919, as well as those which
have been created since that date, have only found their real
possibilities of expansion under the Roumanian regime.
6. - Trade.
8. - Lines of Communication.
As a result of its geographical position, Roumania has always
needed a system of communications which would allow it, on
the one hand, to establish links with the economic territory of
which it was part, and on the other, to have means of access to
the great international navigable routes: the Black Sea, the
Adriatic or the Baltic, and the Danube. It was normal that the
law of the least effort should govern the satisfaction of these
demands, and that they should try to establish the most conve
nient connections, either with the Danube, or with the nearest
sea, the Black Sea.
The old roads, since the Roman epoch, followed the lines of
the valleys which crossed the Carpathians, and spread out over
the surrounding plains. They followed either the Bistritza, the
Bistricioara, the Trotush, the Buzau, the Prahova, the Dâmbo-
vitza, the Olt and the Jiu, to reach the Danube or the Black Sea,
or else the Muresh, the Crish and the Somesh, to reach the wes
tern plains and assure a connection with the means of access
to the Adriatic or the Baltic. These roads did not cease to be
used in the Middle Ages, or even later; they allowed traders to
bring their goods to the Roumanian Countries, and to take
away agricultural products.
A guiding thought inspired by these historical tendencies
governed the creation and the modernization of the present
Transylvanian road and rail network: at whatever epoch the
work took place, this network has tended to become part of the
250 TRANSYLVANIA
1.
- The political-juridical situation of the pre-war
Kingdom at the time of the Union.
- Political evolution
2. of Roumanians in Transylvania
AT THE TIME OF THE UNION.
the law and enjoyment of the same political and civil rights,
without distinction of race, language, or religion ”. “ Admis
sibility at public office and the right to exercise a profession
or to engage in industry without distinction of race, language,
or religion ”. “ Free use of each language in private or commer
cial dealings, on questions of religion, in the press or any kind
of publication, and for public meetings ”. “ The right for citi
zens of other languages or religions to found, direct and control
at their expense charitable, religious or social institutions,
schools or other educational institutions, with the free use of
their own tongue within them, and the free exercise of their
own religion and, in addition, the right to receive instruction in
their own language in the State elementary schools ”.
The Treaty grants, as well, to residents of other languages,
material possibilities to use their own language in courts of law,
grants scholastic and religious independence to the Szeklers and
Saxons of Transylvania, and places great facilities in the disposal
of inhabitants of the incorporated territories for acquiring Rouma
nian citizenship, with complete freedom of choice and the right
of option for any nationality.
The terms of the Treaty of December 9th, 1919, were duly
incorporated among the first articles of the Constitution of
March 29th, 1923. The Roumanian government thus fulfilled
its undertaking to give to the clauses of the Treaty of 1919 the
force of constitutional law.
7. - Personal freedom,
10.-Freedom of Assembly.
this was followed by the Law for the organization of the local
administration of August 3rd, 1929, and the Law on the admi
nistration of March 27th, 1936.
In conformity with these laws, local administrative life was
organized on a broad basis of decentralization. The districts
and municipalities were given considerable independence in
matters of finance and administration, with suitable organs of
government and revenues, and a power to make decisions in
keeping with their respective charges. One of the provisions of
these laws illustrates clearly the degree of autonomy which the
local administration in Roumania enjoyed : the one which lays
down that the aforesaid administration can contest, before
Administrative Courts, acts of sequestration of their funds, while
the superior authority cannot dictate to the local administra
tions on the drawing up of certain acts, but can only attack their
validity before the Administrative Courts, if the law has not been
complied with.
By means of the equal and direct manhood suffrage, the citi
zens of the minorities, particularly in those regions where they
formed the bulk of the population, have been able to send
representatives to the departmental and municipal Councils,
and to take an effective part in administrative and commercial
affairs, within the limits of a considerable degree of independence.
Hence, after the Union, right from the very start, Transylva
nia has been the scene of intense local, political activity.
It is not without interest to point out that in Hungary, at
the time of the Union, there was no secret ballot, and lists of
voters were drawn up on a property owning basis.
-
15. Political life in Transylvania after August23rd, 1944.
all the sections ”, says Article 103, “ alone has the right to decide
whether a law is constitutional or not and to declare null and
void those contrary to the Constitution
Thus then, the principles expressed in the Constitution, quite
apart from their quality of being among the most liberal, have
still another quality in that it is beyond the power of the ordi
nary legislator to modify or limit them as the case may be. They
stand out, above any temporary government policy, like fixed
standards in life, unaffected by any political fluctuations.
It should be remembered that under Magyar government
the “ rights of man ” were regulated by simple ministerial
rulings, in a most repressive form.
Besides the possibility of setting aside laws contrary to
constitutional principles, the Roumanian Constitution of 1923
makes it possible to challenge administrative acts contrary to
laws and regulations : “every citizen whose rights suffer”, says
Article 127 of the Constitution, ” as a result of official decision or
official action contrary to the laws and regulations, or through
unwillingness on the part of administrative authorities to enter
tain a demand concerning a right, can place his request before the
proper judicial authorities with a view to obtaining regress.
Judgment is then given on the legality or illegality of the act
which may be cancelled; damages may be awarded up to the
time of the restoration of the rights of the injured party, for the
court is competent to decide and to aw’ard damages, either
against the administrative authority in question, or against the
offending officials ”. The institution created by Article 107 of
the Constitution is called “ Administrative Contentious Court ”.
It has been regulated by a Law dated December 23rd, 1925.
Particular attention should be given to the Administrative
Courts organized in their original form under the name of
“ Revision Committees ” by the Law on the organization of local
administration of August 3rd, 1939 (Art. 325-327), by the Law
on the organization of the central and local revisional committees
of these same courts of April 21st, 1933, and finally, in their pre
sent form and under the name of “Administrative Courts”, by
the Law of March 27th, 1936 (Art. 244) and by. the Law of
March 15th, 1939.
The Administrative Courts are competent to judge actions
brought by private individuals on the matter of illegal acts of
local administrations, where a right or simply a real and legiti
CONSTITUTION AND JURISDICTION 283
PUBLIG HEALTH
3. - Realization.
Diagram I.
Veor 1918
Year 1940
Diagram II.
Number of the population per hospital doctor
in 1918 and 1940.
Population
40000
35000 •
30000 -
25000 -
20000 -
15000 ■
10000 -
5.0C0 ■
0 -■
28397 _ <1032 39973 .15496
Transylvania Territory
re-attached to Hungary
Explanation
M Year 1918
Year 1940
292 TRANSYLVANIA
tition: this rule holds good for the circuit doctor, the district
hygienist, the divisional doctor and the head municipal medical
officer; the divisional hygienists are required to follow a special
course of one year’s duration.
b) Public Health (feminine) Workers. - Before the Union,
the institution of Public Health auxiliaries was unheard of in
Transylvania. Purely Roumanian in its essence, it was born of
the needs peculiar to the Roumanian population, and it proved
itself to be in the highest degree useful in educating the local
inhabitants as to the methods of preventive medicine. In a
general way, no organization in the pre-union Transylvania,
apart from the Roumanian Association “ Astra ”, had similar
aims; the Public Health Service itself was entirely ignorant of
these problems, which it would have been incapable of solving,
for the simple reason that the official doctors were not conver
sant with the different languages of the conglomeration of races
of which Hungary was made up.
Immediately after the Union, the first “ Institute for the
Professional Training of Public Health Auxiliaries ” was created
at Cluj. Similar foundations later sprang up at Iassy, Bucarest
and Timisoara. Thus, several groups of competent workers
were placed at the disposal of the Preventive Medicine organi
zation. In Transylvania, 245 auxiliary health assistants took
up work, the majority, in the rural areas, where they rendered the
greatest service in improving public health conditions. It is
interesting to mention that, among the auxiliary workers trained
in the Roumanian institutions, are to be found many students of
Magyar nationality, so that education in practical hygiene and
public health has been carrried out simultaneously in the Rou
manian and in the Hungarian municipalities.
c) Social welfare workers. - In order that the action taken in
giving help to the physically and socially needy might be sys
tematic, an Institution for women welfare workers was esta
blished. These workers are destined in the first place to do ser
vice in the towns. Under the former Maygar domination, the
problem of social welfare was never gone into, and it could not
have been solved in the slightest degree. The post-war era,
with so many new social problems and so many families in dire
distress, not to mention the grave problem of unemployment, has
caused serious concern to the Roumanian Authorities.
With this end in view, several institutions were established
PUBLIC HEALTH 293
Diagram III.
Number of the public health
workers in Transylvania
FOR THE YEARS 1918 AND 1940.
fieolth Services'
Stoff
1000 -I
900
500 -
700
600
500
400
300
J
200
100
0
O l€ O 2A5
Social Welfare Public health Public health Midwives
Workers Workers Officers
Explanation
■ Yeor 1918
On Year 1940
294 TRANSYLVANIA
Diagram IV.
Number of the Transylvanian population per hospital
AND HOSPITAL BED, IN 1918 AND 1940.
Population
aoooo n
70Û0Û -
6000D -
50000 ■
40000 -
30000
20000 -
JOOOO ■
0
76065 42688 779 412
per hospital per hospital bed
Explanation
Year 1918
Year 1940
298 TRANSYLVANIA
a large number of hygiene experts have been fitted for this work.
Nomination to the posts of district and regional hygienist has
been made conditional on the obtaining of a special diploma of
specialized hygienist.
Likewise at Cluj, a second institution of applied science has
sprung up, under the name of “ Institute for the Study and Pro
phylaxis of Cancer ”. This Institute has been provided with
the most up-to-date equipment for research concerning malignant
tumours, and possesses a department for radium and radiothe
rapy, a section of morbid anatomy and a hospital and experi
mental department; it thus displays remarkable activity in all
the fields concerned with the study and prevention of cancer.
f) Maternity and Child Welfare Institutions. - The care of
mothers and new born infants is one of the most urgent problems
for Roumania. Under Roumanian rule, the number of women’s
hospitals has increased. New schools for midwives have been
created with a more complete syllabus. New centres for the
care of infants have come into being and, in towns as well as in
the country, a large number of child welfare institutions have
been organized, intended to provide women (especially those
living in the country, with instruction as to the normal care and
hygienic methods to be used in the up-bringing of young chil
dren. No stone was left unturned and considerable expendi
ture was agreed to in order to ensure the satisfactory working
of these institutions. The large number of consultations given
in the child welfare centres shows that thereby valuable means
have been provided for fighting mortality among infants, while
the great confidence of the population in the institution itself
is, at the same time, proved by their assiduity.
In the whole of Transylvania, maternity and child welfare
centres existing before the Union scarcely numbered 6, while they
were increased to 159 under Roumanian rule.
g) Anti-rabies Centres and Sub-Centres. - Transylvania has
always found itself in an unfavourable situation in regard to
Rabies, by reason of the great number of sick dogs and wild ani
mals responsible for numerous victims amongst the population.
Before the Union, not one single anti-rabies centre existed in the
whole of Transylvania. In order to receive preventive treat
ment, patients had to be sent to Budapest. It is not surprising
therefore if many went without any treatment, and if others
sought advice only after considerable delay.
300 TRANSYLVANIA
CENTRALA Umji,
301
302 TRANSYLVANIA
SOCIAL INSURANCE
These figures show that the insured have more and more
recourse to the doctors and consult them at an earlier stage of
their illness, thus helping to prevent invalidity through sickness.
c) Pharmaceutical assistance. - As regards the pharmaceu
tical service, we may observe that as from 1920, when a stock
(1) This refers to the average number of insured. We must also
take into account the members of their families, which-also enjoy the
privileges of the medical service.
316 TRANSYLVANIA
Preface........ ................... 7
Chapter I. - Geographical Outline .................................... 11
Chapter II. - In the light of History....................... 31
Chapter III. - Demographical Aspects............... 60
Chapter IV. - The Churches............................... 121
Chapter V. - Education.......................................................... 145
Chapter VI. - Twenty years of literary and artistic
LIFE..................................... 185
Chapter VII. - Economic Life. . ........................................... 215
Chapter VIII. - Outlines of the Constitution and
Jurisdiction............................................... 253
Chapter IX. - Public Health........................... 285
Chapter X. - Social Insurance...................... 305
Printed in France.