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General Biology 2nd Quarter Reviewer
General Biology 2nd Quarter Reviewer
General Biology:
All Lessons
Peripheral Proteins
Carbohydrates
- found on the outside and inside
surfaces of membranes, attached - 3rd major component of the cell
either to integral proteins or to membrane
phospholipids - Cell identification
- Sometimes act as enzymes to speed - Help you identify blood that belongs
up reactions or attaching to the to you and distinguish it from
cytoskeleton structure foreign invaders
- tend to be more loosely attached - form distinctive cellular markers,
sort of like molecular ID badges, that
Transmembrane Proteins allow cells to recognize each other
- Proteins that extend all the way
across the membrane
Smaller molecules pass through the cell
membrane much easier
In summary:
Glycoproteins
- Protein that has a carbohydrate
attached to it
Glycolipid
- A phospholipid that has a
carbohydrate attached to it
- Together with glycoprotein is known
as glycocalyx
Fluid Mosaic Model
- Often what we use to describe the Aerobic Respiration
cell membrane C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
Hydrogen
- Bonds easily with other elements Krebs Cycle
- Sticks elements together very well - Harvests hydrogens
- Also known as “citric acid cycle”
- Takes place in the mitochondrial
PROCESS
matrix
- Oxygen is present, therefore it is
aerobic
- completes the sugar-breaking
process begun in glycolysis and fuels
the generation of more ATP
- The pyruvate molecules oxidize to
form Acetyl (2C) then react with an
enzyme cofactor known as
Coenzyme-A to form Acetyl-CoA.
Acetyl-CoA eventually enters the
Krebs Cycle
Net Yield: 6NADH, 2 FADH2, 2ATP, 4 CO2
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Electron Transport Chain
Chemiosmosis
- Takes place in the inner membrane
of the mitochondria
- The hydrogens produced in the
Krebs cycle are carried across the
electron transport chain by a specific
electron carrier molecule known as
Dehydrogenased NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP
molecules
- Takes off hyrdogens
Phospholipid Layer
Decarboxylased
- Embedded in this layer are large
- Takes off carbons protein channels called
Co-Enzyme A CYTOCHROMES that will transfer
electrons and assist in the
- responsible for transferring the production of ATP molecules
acetyl group from pyruvate
oxidation to oxaloacetate yielding Electron Transport Chain
citrate - generate an electrochemical
- basically, a transport mechanism gradient and transfer electron from
that acts as a wheelbarrow for one enzyme complex to another
Acetyl until the electron is received by the
NAD final acceptor (oxygen)
OSMOSIS
- the movement of solvent particles
across a semipermeable membrane
Lactic Acid Fermentation
from a dilute solution into a
- Done by muscle cells concentrated solution
- Muscle cells can shift from aerobic - red blood cells swelling up when
respiration to lactic acid exposed to fresh water
fermentation if they experience - plant root hairs taking up water
oxygen debt - always occurs across a
- Also done by bacteria that are semipermeable membrane
involved in making yoghurt and the - movement of water or other
lactic acid can contribute to its sour solvents
taste - only the solvent molecules (water
molecules) cross the membrane
SIMILARITIES
- equalize the concentration of two
solutions
- passive transport processes, which
means they do not require any input
of extra energy to occur
- particles move from an area of
DIFFUSION higher concentration to one of lower
concentration
- A process in which the particles
move from an area of higher PASSIVE TRANSPORT
concentration to lower - a type of membrane transport that
concentration does not require energy to move
- perfume filling a whole room substances across cell membranes.
- drop of food coloring to water - High conc. low conc.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- High conc. low conc.
- Needs protein channels to let
particles pass through because they
may be too large or have other
characteristics that prevent them
from directly travelling across a
selective membrane
- Sugar, amino acids & water
molecules (Aquaporins) go through
this VESICULAR TRANSPORT
- Water: aquaporins
Endocytosis
- GLUT4: glucose
- Sodium and Potassium: NaKATPase - Outside to inside
- AQP3: membrane protein transport - Requires vacuoles and ATP
(regulates dryness and skin - Done by bacteria and
moisture) macromolecules
- Engulf extracellular material
3 types of endocytosis
Phagocytosis
- To eat
- WBC looking for debris, bacteria,
and dead cells to eat
- Macrophage eating streptococcus
- The macrophage surrounds the
ACTIVE TRANSPORT strep by engulfing it through its
- Low conc. high conc. Pseudopods
- Requires carrier proteins and ATP - The cell forms a phagosome
- Ions, sugar, and amino acids go
through this
- Sodium potassium pumps are great
example
- The phagosome meets the lysosome
which contains digestive enzymes
and fuse together forming
PHAGOLYSOSOME
- The enzymes destroy the bacteria by
its acidic components
Exocytosis
- Inside to outside
- Requires cell vesicles and ATP
Receptor-mediated endocytosis - Done by macromolecules
- Pits with receptor proteins - Expel material into extracellular
- Clathrin link up together to form a space
shell around the LDL - Starts with the golgi apparatus and
- Once the vesicle moves further in takes proteins, lipids, and hormones
the cytoplasm, the clathrin detaches produced by the RER and SER and
itself packages them into a vesicle which
will be transported by the
cytoskeleton
ENZYMES
- They act as protein catalysts that
speed biochemical reactions by
facilitating the molecular
rearrangements that support cell
function
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Organisms that use photosynthesis:
Plants
Algae
Cyanobacteria
Heterotrophs - contains the DNA, ribosomes, and
enzymes
- organism that cannot produce its
own food, instead taking nutrition Thylakoid
from other sources of organic
- help absorb sunlight in order for
carbon, mainly plant or animal
photosynthesis to occur
matter
Stomata
Chemoautotrophs
- to take in carbon dioxide and release
- those that make their own food by
oxygen
chemosynthesis
Grana
Chemosynthesis
- stacks of thylakoids
- is a process by which some
organisms, such as certain bacteria,
use chemical energy to produce
carbohydrates.
Ecosystem
- a biological community of
interacting organisms and their
physical environment Light Dependent Reaction
Mesophyll - photolysis reaction
- middle layer of cells in the leaves - takes place in the presence of light
- contain chloroplasts, the organelles - takes place in the thylakoid
responsible for converting light membranes
energy into chemical energy.
Chloroplast Energy from the sun hits the chlorophyll in
- are membrane-bound organelles the thylakoid membranes
that act as the main centers for
photosynthesis
Water is split which releases oxygen as
Stroma waste gas (also answers the question in our
- colorless fluid surrounding the grana mastery as to why oxygen is both a reactant
within the chloroplast which and a product of photosynthesis) and also
provides volume around the releases hydrogen ions which is used to
different structures inside the make NADPH and ATP
chloroplast for protection
The hydrogens go through ATP synthase,
providing energy to merge ADP + Pi to form
ATP
More in depth process: Final products are NADPH and ATP that will
be used in Calvin cycle
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