Cai Et Al. - 2022 - Determination of Dynamic Capillary Effect On Two-P
Cai Et Al. - 2022 - Determination of Dynamic Capillary Effect On Two-P
Cai Et Al. - 2022 - Determination of Dynamic Capillary Effect On Two-P
Petroleum Science
journal homepage: www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/petroleum-science
Review Paper
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The relationship between capillary pressure and saturation plays a critical role in the characterization of
Received 20 October 2021 two-phase flow and transport in aquifers and oil reservoirs. This relationship is usually determined
Received in revised form under the static condition, where capillary pressure is the only function of saturation. However,
20 January 2022
considerable experiments have suggested that the dependence of capillary pressure on desaturation rate
Accepted 21 January 2022
Available online 27 January 2022
is under the dynamic condition. Thus, a more general description of capillary pressure that includes
dynamic capillary effect has been approved widely. A comprehensive understanding of the dynamic
Edited by Yan-Hua Sun capillary effect is needed for the investigation of the two-phase flow in porous media by various
methods. In general, dynamic capillary effect in porous media can be studied through the laboratory
Keywords: experiment, pore- to macro-scale modeling, and artificial neural network. Here, main principle and
Dynamic capillary effect research procedures of each method are reviewed in detail. Then, research progress, disadvantages and
Capillary pressure advantages are discussed, respectively. In addition, upscaling study from pore- to macro-scale are
Two-phase flow introduced, which explains the difference between laboratory experiment and pore-scale modeling. At
Modeling method
last, several future perspectives and recommendations for optimal solution of dynamic capillary effect
are presented.
© 2022 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This
is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/
4.0/).
1. Introduction a a
Pnw Pw ¼ Pc ðSw Þ ¼ f ðSw Þ (1)
The constitutive relationship between capillary pressure (Pc) However, static representation by Eq. (1) leads to a poor pre-
and wetting phase saturation (Sw) is the foundation for the char- diction of two-phase flow behavior, especially for the case of high
acterization of immiscible two-phase flow in porous media (Cai and flow velocities (the injected phase) as shown in experimental data
Yu, 2011; Cai et al., 2014, 2021; Ansarinasab and Jamialahmadi, (Topp et al., 1967; Wildenschild et al., 2001; Oung et al., 2005;
2016; Gao et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2019). Pc is regarded as the pres- Camps-Roach et al., 2010; Sakaki et al., 2010). In this case, Pc is
sure difference between the average non-wetting (Pnw a ) and wet-
dependent not only on the saturation but also on the desaturation
a
ting (Pw ) phases (Bear and Verruijt, 1987). In general, the average rate vS/vt. The saturationerate dependency during two-phase flow
PceSw relationship is determined under the static condition where at non-equilibrium condition is called the “dynamic capillary ef-
desaturation (Zhou et al., 2021) rate (vS/vt) is assumed as zero. A fect”. Several phenomena have been reported as responsible factors
diagrammatic sketch of the non-linear and static PceSw relation is for the presence of a dynamic capillary effect, such as air and/or
given in Fig. 1a. Mathematically, the relation is described as: water entrapment, pore water blockage, air entry effect, and dy-
namic contact angle (Friedman, 1999; Wildenschild et al., 2001).
The difference between dynamic and static PceSw curves was firstly
revealed by Topp et al. (1967). In their experiment, the dynamic
* Corresponding author. capillary pressure is always larger than the static one (Fig. 1b).
E-mail address: [email protected] (C.-H. Sun). Dynamic capillary coefficient t, which refers as the relaxation time
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petsci.2022.01.017
1995-8226/© 2022 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
J.-C. Cai, Y. Chen, J.-C. Qiao et al. Petroleum Science 19 (2022) 1641e1652
Fig. 1. The schematic of PceSw curves: (a) static curves (Pc is only related to Sw); (b) dynamic curves (Pc is related to Sw and its change rate over time) (Topp et al., 1967).
or damping coefficient, is a parameter for directly measuring the phase tensiometer (Pw), and one moisture probe (Sw) are installed
dynamic capillary effect. Specifically, t controls the speed of at different depths. The local values of Pnw, Pw and Sw are then
reaching the equilibrium state. A larger value of t indicates that measured at different depths. To up-scale these local values to the
more time is required for flow to reach the equilibrium after a core-scale, an averaging process is needed. The conventional way of
disturbance (Li et al., 2018). More detailed summarizations on averaging is expressed below:
influential factors of the dynamic capillary effect, the influencing
0Pm P 1
mechanism and tendency of each factor could consult the recent m
1 Swj Pnwj Swj Pwj
review work by Chen et al. (2022). Bj¼1 C
B j¼1 C
From the perspective of research methods, this work mainly Pcc t ¼ B m m C (2)
n @ P P A
reviews laboratory experiments, pore- to macro-scale modeling, 1 Swj Swj
j¼1 j¼1
and artificial neural network (ANN). The research procedures of tn
each method for determining the dynamic capillary effect are
introduced. For pore-scale modeling, the application condition, where Pcc jtn represents the core representative capillary pressure at
disadvantages and advantages of lattice Boltzmann method (LBM), a specific saturation and experimental time, tn denotes the time at
pore network model (PNM) and pore-unit assembly model are nth count of data generated, j ¼ 1, 2, …, m, with m being the total
discussed systematically. For macro-scale modeling, the in- number of measurement depths in the whole sample column. Next,
novations (taking different factors into account) of each model are dynamic capillary coefficient can be determined by:
presented, which contributes to adopting appropriate model in
vSw
specific case. In addition, the cause leading to the deviation be- Pcd ðSw Þ Pcs ðSw Þ ¼ t ðSw Þ (3)
tween pore-scale modeling and laboratory experiment is also vt
explained. Lastly, several challenges for future research directions
are presented. where Pcd refers to the dynamic capillary pressure (the instanta-
neous local pressure difference between the two phases), Pcs sig-
nifies the static capillary pressure (Pc in a static displacement).
2. Laboratory experiments for dynamic capillarity effect Thus, Pcd eSw, Pcs eSw and vSw/vteSw curves are required to obtain
the value of t.
In laboratory, flow experiments are better performed by To determine the PceSw curves, a filter system should be
changing boundary conditions monotonically since such changes equipped with a tensiometer. Such a choice is based on two con-
prevent the occurrence of hysteresis interference (Sakaki et al., siderations. On the one hand, the filter system prevents the micro-
2010). In addition, packed soils in laboratory can reduce the com- particles in porous media from transporting to the tensiometer. On
plications that might arise from soil heterogeneity. Meanwhile, the other hand, it allows the tensiometer to contact with one fluid
noise of surrounding environment can be minimized, which im- solely, thus determining the pressure of each phase, respectively. A
proves the accuracy of measurement data (Diamantopoulos and common filter system is shown in Fig. 3 (Oung et al., 2005), whose
Durner, 2012). As demonstrated by Lo et al. (2017), acoustic exci- core component is a semi-permeable membrane (hydrophilic or
tation results in a change in contact angle and air-entry pressure, hydrophobic). The membrane is too thin, where a filter plate is
thus affecting the dynamic capillarity effect in sample column. required to support it. One of the major drawbacks of this filter
However, experimental approach is time and cost consuming. system is the limitation of applied pressure (<0.1 MPa). To assess
Meanwhile, laboratory experiments are difficult to determine some this issue, a tensiometer is developed by connecting ceramic porous
micro-scale parameters, such as interface tension and wettability. cup to pressure transducer (Camps-Roach et al., 2010), however,
Additionally, the deviation in experiment is unavoidable owing to this arrangement may damage the structure of the porous medium.
manual operation errors. To determine the PceSw curves more rapidly, the sample column
The schematic of the experimental apparatus is shown in Fig. 2. is always placed between the hydrophobic and hydrophilic mem-
Along the vertical direction of pressure cell, a set of probes con- branes (Topp et al., 1967; Kalaydjian, 1992; Sakaki et al., 2010).
sisting of one non-wetting phase tensiometer (Pnw), one wetting Nevertheless, several studies have speculated that membrane may
1642
J.-C. Cai, Y. Chen, J.-C. Qiao et al. Petroleum Science 19 (2022) 1641e1652
Fig. 2. (a) A schematic of experimental set up (Goel and O'Carroll, 2011), wetting phase saturation and pressure difference of two-phase are mainly measured; (b) The measured
pressure difference of non-wetting and wetting phases at different depths through pressure transducers (Bottero et al. 2011); (c) The measured water saturation at different depths
through water probe (Bottero et al., 2011). P.T. refers to the pressure transducer.
Fig. 3. The illustration of filter system in experimental set up (Camps-Roach et al., 2010; Li, 2018).
obviously affect PceSw curves through disturbing the fluid distri- plates have several flow channels in both radius and tangent di-
bution (Hassanizadeh et al., 2002; Bottero et al., 2006; Goel et al., rections, which ensure fluid to flow evenly. Thus, the disturbance to
2016). In this regard, Li et al. (2020a) designed a special pressure flow that resulted from filter system can be eliminated. In addition,
measurement system, including semi-permeable metal plates and the maximum test pressure of this special system can reach up to
pressure transducers, on both sides of the sample. When compared 1000 psi. It is therefore able to study the dynamic flow in low
with the traditional semi-permeable plates in Fig. 3, these metal permeability reservoirs.
1643
J.-C. Cai, Y. Chen, J.-C. Qiao et al. Petroleum Science 19 (2022) 1641e1652
Table 1
Experimental studies dealing with dynamic capillary effect.
Oung et al. (2005) 18 Water and PCE Fine sand 0e8 103 5.7 10-5
3 10-5
Camps-Roach et al. (2010) 20 Air and water Sand 1 105e6.7 105 1.47 10-11
5.3 10-11
Goel and O'Carroll (2011) 20 Oil and water Sand 4.85 105e2.74 106 1.47 10-11
O'Carroll et al. (2005) 9.6 Water and PCE Sand 5.64 107 1.58 10-11
Zhuang et al. (2017) 3 Air and water Sand 1 105e1 107 1.7 10-11
Abidoye and Das (2014b) 4 Oil and water Sand 1.72 105e9.08 106 5.66 10-11
8 4.01 105e1.31 106
12 1.08 107e1.25 107
Goel et al. (2016) 8 Oil and water Sand 4.2 105e1.3 106 5.66 10-11
12 6.2 105e1.82 106
Hou et al. (2012) 1.27 Gas and water Fine sand 0e103 2.27 10-12
1.88 10-10
Zhang et al. (2015) e Standard brine and kerosene Rock 3.14 1011e6.10 1013 0.33e1.22 10-16
Tian et al. (2012) 20 Oil and water Rock 7.92 106 2 10-16
Li et al. (2020c) 4 Oil and water Rock 1 1010e5 1011 1.9e7.1 10-16
Topp et al. (1967) 7.6 Gas and water Fine sand 2 107 e
Sakaki et al. (2010) 2.9 Water and PCE Fine sand 5 105e1 107 e
Bottero et al. (2011) 18 Water and PCE Sand 1.5 106e2.5 106 e
Lo et al. (2017) 100 Air and water Sand 0e4 105 e
3.1.1. LBM
LBM simulates the fluid through virtual particles, which can
continuously transmit and collide in discrete lattice mesh (Zhang,
2011). It includes the color-gradient model (Gunstensen et al.,
1991; Ba et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2020), the Shan-Chen model (also
called the pseudo-potential model) (Shan and Chen, 1993; Jiang
and Xu, 2021; Zheng et al., 2021), the free-energy model (Swift
et al., 1996), and the mean-field model (He et al., 1999). Among
them, the Shan-Chen model has advantages of simplicity, flexibility,
and clear description of the basic microscopic physics of phase
segregation, which is a favorable alternative to investigate the dy-
namic capillary effect in two-phase flow.
The basic idea of the Shan-Chen model is to utilize a pseudo-
potential that depends on local density and interaction strength
Fig. 4. The difference between dynamic and static capillary pressure with different
to represent the pair-wise microscopic molecular interactions at
permeabilities K: high-permeability reservoir, medium-high permeability reservoir, mesoscopic scale (Huang et al., 2007). Yan et al. (2018) first estab-
low-permeability reservoir (Zhang et al., 2015). lished a Shan-Chen model to investigate the dynamic effect of two-
1644
J.-C. Cai, Y. Chen, J.-C. Qiao et al. Petroleum Science 19 (2022) 1641e1652
Ni
X
Qijnw þ Qijw ¼ 0 (9)
j¼1
Dsia XNi
Vi ¼ Qija ; a ¼ w; nw (10)
Dt j¼1
Fig. 5. A package of the circular disk in 500 500 lu2 2D lattice domain (Yan et al.,
2018): the various disks represent the soil particles, and the green background de- where Vi refers to the volume; Ni is the set of pore throats con-
notes the pore space. nected to the pore body i, Qijnw and Qijw designate the non-wetting
and wetting phase flux from the pore body i to j, which are
1645
J.-C. Cai, Y. Chen, J.-C. Qiao et al. Petroleum Science 19 (2022) 1641e1652
Table 2
The summary of the literature for PNMs.
Reference Pore body/throat Basic assumption* Domain size (width/length/ K, 10-12 m2 Process t, Pa$s
height), cm
Gienlen et al. (2005) Spherical/cylinder Local capillary pressure is 0.3/0.3/1 e Drainage 5 103
zero e4 104
Joekar-Niasar et al. (2010) Cubic/square Local capillary pressure is 0.5/0.5/0.5 150 Drainage 102e104
considered.
Joekar-Niasar and Truncated octahedrons/ Local capillary pressure is 0.19/0.19/0.19 1.43 Drainage 102e104
Hassanizadeh (2011) parallelepiped considered. imbibition
between t and tB is written as: increase with an increasing temperature, while a1 decreases as
s temperature increases.
dP
tðSw Þ ¼ c tB ðSw Þ (23)
dS w
3.3.7. Li model
From the perspective of pore-scale, it concludes that the dy- Considering the effect of fracture, Li et al. (2020b) confirmed the
namic capillary effect should be ignored for the slow flow processes existence of fracture leads to a decrease of pressure imposing area
whose time scale is in the order of tB. However, it must be (Fig. 7), thus weakening the dynamic capillary effect. Then, dy-
considered for the fast flow processes whose time scale is smaller namic capillary effect of fractured rocks can be expressed as:
than tB (Barenblatt et al., 2002). sffiffiffiffiffi
L2 Lc
3.3.4. Das model
t ¼ uðSw Þb2 c P d (28)
k g
To consider the lumped effects of various fluid properties, Das
et al. (2007) proposed a model to describe the relationship be-
tween t and flow direction, viscosity as well as density ratio: V V pR2 L 4L2 ff
Lc ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼L (29)
Ac A1 þ A2 þ A3 pR2 þ 4RLff pR þ 4Lff
b
P d V 1=6 f rnw mw a k
t ¼ C pffiffiffi ðSw Þc (24) frw meff
g l rw mnw V 2=3 u¼h (30)
lrnw mw
where V is the domain scale, rnw denotes the fluid density of the
non-wetting phase, C represents a dimensionless constant of pro- where u, h, and b2 are the fitting parameters, ff is the fracture
portionality, a ¼ f ðk =V 2=3 Þ, b ¼ f ðSw Þ, and c are the dimensionless porosity, Lc means the effective pressure imposing length, L denotes
coefficients. In Eq. (24), a scaling relationship is found, indicating the rock length, R signifies the rock radius, Ac is the pressure
that t varies with Sw and V. The reliability of Eq. (24) was demon- imposing area. Note that, the orientation, aperture, and other
strated by numerical results, but its applicability on heterogeneous properties of fracture also influence the dynamic capillary effect.
domains needs further studies. Targeting different scenarios, the Thus, further studies are demanded to establish the dynamic
values of C, a, b, c are different. capillary coefficient models, which incorporate the lumped effects
of various properties of fracture.
3.3.5. Abidoye and Das model
Based on the Buckingham’s G-theorem, Abidoye and Das 3.4. Upscaling from pore- to Darcy-scale
(2014b) determined sets of dimensionless parameters from cho-
sen variables. Then, two dimensionless groups of variables were Pc is a pore-scale phenomenon, and refers to the pressure dif-
demanded to describe the combined effect of various variables on ference across the two-phase fluid interface at the static state:
t:
8 Pc ¼ Pnw Pw (31)
pffiffiffi
>
> t g
> P
> 1
<
¼ In a porous medium, it is more difficult to measure Pc at the
k1=4 P d pore-scale owing to the more complicated internal construction
(25)
>
>
3
Vk 2 rnw mnw (Ferrari and Lunati, 2013). Thus, a macro-scale Pc defined in Eq. (1)
>
: P2 ¼
>
flSw rw mw is proposed. In laboratory experiments, the average macro-scale Pc
in Eq. (1) is calculated as the pressure difference between the non-
According to the non-linear form of P1 ¼ a½P3 b , the dynamic wetting phase at the inlet (Pin) and wetting-phase at the outlet
capillary effect model can be written as: (Pout). Therefore, Eq. (1) can be rewritten as:
pffiffiffi " 3
#b
t g Vk 2 rnw mnw
¼a (26)
k1=4 P d flSw rw mw
where Swi, Snwi are the irreducible saturation of wetting and non-
wetting phases, Eonw denotes the empirical coefficient; w repre-
sents a rate coefficient, a1, b1 are the empirical fitting parameters.
Among them, a1, b1, Swi, and Snwi are dependent on temperature. As
shown in Fig. 6, a linear relationship is found between the scaled Fig. 6. The relationship between temperature and parameters in Eq. (27) (am, bm, Swim
parameters and temperature. To be more specific, b1 and Swi are the maximum values of a1, b1, Swi).
1648
J.-C. Cai, Y. Chen, J.-C. Qiao et al. Petroleum Science 19 (2022) 1641e1652
Fig. 7. The variation of pressure imposing area with fracture (Li et al., 2020b).
ANN is a certainly useful modeling tool to extract desired in- (1) Dynamic capillary effect is extremely obvious in low-
formation from data, which can mimic the labor of the human brain permeability reservoirs, especially for ultra-low perme-
and the ability of the nervous system to perform functions. It ability reservoirs. Due to the presence of the dynamic
mainly consists of various “neurons”, which are divided into capillary effect, the oil recovery of these unconventional
interconnected subsets, including input, hidden and output layers, reservoirs will greatly reduce. Hence, more experiments
having respective biases, weights, and transfer functions (Mueller should be done for low-permeability reservoirs. Low-
and Hemond, 2013). Then, comprehensive neurons constitute a permeability reservoirs have the characteristic of small
network, which builds the relationships between the inputs and pore throat, hence the required displacement pressure is
outputs through transfer functions and controls the values of biases relatively higher. In this case, the requirements for the filter
and weights. As for two-phase flow system, the corresponding system are higher. More improved apparatus should be
modeling parameters have complicated relevance, however ANN designed to apply the high displacement pressure without
can guarantee the accuracy of relevant functions (Hanspal et al., destroying the structure of porous media.
2013). Therefore, it is worth considering that the ability of ANN (2) Pc at the pore-scale is the pressure difference between the
for predicting the dynamic capillary effect. interface between two fluid phases. It represents the “true
This ability was first demonstrated by Hanspal et al. (2013). They capillary forces” in the system, which is only related to pore
found that ANN can describe the relationship between the changes shape and interfacial energy of the two phases. In experi-
in porous media and fluid properties, so it can predict the dynamic ment, final measured Pc at the macro-scale always includes
capillary effect in two-phase flow accurately and ensure that t is a the viscous pressure head. Many studies have demonstrated
function of water saturation. Unfortunately, the dependency of that macroscopic Pc only agrees well with “true capillary
dynamic capillary effect on domain scale and heterogeneity was force” at the equilibrium state. However, macro-scale Pc
ignored. To address these issues, Abidoye and Das (2014a) utilized contains the pore-scale Pc at fluid-fluid interface and viscous
ANN to investigate the effect of domain scale on t using the pub- pressure head at dynamic state.
lished experimental data, the results show that the magnitude of t (3) Inspection of aforementioned macro-models, the value of t is
increases as domain size increases. Concerning heterogeneous closely related to the porosity, entry pressure, and perme-
porous media, Das et al. (2015) developed a new ANN approach to ability, thus it significantly relies on the micro-structure of
quantify the magnitude of t in heterogeneous porous media with porous medium. Therefore, an accurate description of
1649
J.-C. Cai, Y. Chen, J.-C. Qiao et al. Petroleum Science 19 (2022) 1641e1652
microstructure is beneficial to investigate the dynamic scales. Water Resour. Res. 47, W10505. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011WR010887.
Brooks, R.H., Corey, A.T., 1964. Hydraulic properties of porous media. Hydrol. Pap. 7,
capillary effect more exactly. It is reported that fractal ge-
26e28.
ometry is a prominent approach to represent the pore throat Cai, J., Jin, T., Kou, J., Zou, S., Xiao, J., Meng, Q., 2021. Lucasewashburn equation-
structure and analyze the fluid flow of porous media. based modeling of capillary-driven flow in porous systems. Langmuir 37,
Therefore, it is feasible to develop a fractal theoretical model 1623e1636. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.langmuir.0c03134.
Cai, J., Perfect, E., Cheng, C.-L., Hu, X., 2014. Generalized modeling of spontaneous
to quantify the dynamic capillary effect. imbibition based on HagenePoiseuille flow in tortuous capillaries with variably
(4) Up to date, none of the researchers have directly compared shaped apertures. Langmuir 30, 5142e5151. https://doi.org/10.1021/la5007204.
the simulation results of pore-scale models with experi- Cai, J., Yu, B., 2011. A discussion of the effect of tortuosity on the capillary imbibition
in porous media. Transp. Porous Media 89, 251e263. https://doi.org/10.1007/
mental results of two-phase flow. Because it is still chal- s11242-011-9767-0.
lenging to monitor pore-scale real measurements in 3D Camps-Roach, G., O'Carroll, D.M., Newson, T.A., Sakaki, T., Illangasekare, T.H., 2010.
domains. Once this problem is solved, the simulation results Experimental investigation of dynamic effects in capillary pressure: grain size
dependency and upscaling. Water Resour. Res. 46, W08544. https://doi.org/
of pore-scale models can be closer to the natural condition. 10.1029/2009WR008881.
As for PNMs, complex quasi-static PNMs with mixed-cross- Cao, Y., Tang, M., Zhang, Q., Tang, J., Lu, S., 2020. Dynamic capillary pressure analysis
sectional pores and unstructured irregular networks have of tight sandstone based on digital rock model. Capillarity 3, 28e35. https://
doi.org/10.46690/capi.2020.02.02.
already been developed, while the network structures of
Chen, Y., Mao, Y., Yang, L., Wei, W., Meng, Q., Cai, J., 2022. A comprehensive review of
dynamic PNMs are still quite simple. This may lead to a de- factors affecting dynamic capillary effect in two-phase flow. Transport Porous
viation in the study of dynamic capillary effect. Therefore, it Media 1e22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-021-01723-x (in press).
Civan, F., 2012. Temperature dependency of dynamic coefficient for nonequilibrium
is required to develop dynamic PNMs with complex pore
capillary pressure-saturation relationship. AIChE J. 58, 2282e2285. https://
topology and geometry. doi.org/10.1002/aic.13817.
Dahle, H.K., Celia, M.A., Hassanizadeh, S.M., 2005. Bundle-of-tubes model for
calculating dynamic effects in the capillary-pressure-saturation relationship.
Transp. Porous Media 58, 5e22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-004-5466-4.
6. Conclusion Das, D.B., Gauldie, R., Mirzaei, M., 2007. Dynamic effects for two-phase flow in
porous media: fluid property effects. AIChE J. 53, 2505e2520. https://doi.org/
10.1002/aic.11292.
The non-equilibrium flow in porous media frequently occurs in Das, D.B., Mirzaei, M., Widdows, N., 2006. Non-uniqueness in capillary pressur-
petroleum, chemical, and environmental engineering, which leads eesaturationerelative permeability relationships for two-phase flow in porous
to a much more complex relationship between capillary pressure media: interplay between intensity and distribution of random micro-hetero-
geneities. Chem. Eng. Sci. 61, 6786e6803. https://doi.org/10.1016/
and saturation. Thus, the dynamic capillary effect has been a sub-
j.ces.2006.07.028.
ject of global interest with huge investment and research. This re- Das, D.B., Thirakulchaya, T., Deka, L., Hanspal, N.S., 2015. Artificial neural network to
view systematically summarizes various methods to investigate determine dynamic effect in capillary pressure relationship for two-phase flow
and quantify the dynamic capillarity effect, including laboratory in porous media with micro-heterogeneities. Environ. Process. 2, 1e18. https://
doi.org/10.1007/s40710-014-0045-3.
experiments, the macro-scale models, the pore-scale models as Dellar, P.J., 2003. Incompressible limits of lattice Boltzmann equations using mul-
well as the artificial neural networks. The evaluation and future tiple relaxation times. J. Comput. Phys. 190, 351e370. https://doi.org/10.1016/
development of each method are discussed. Furthermore, a more S0021-9991(03)00279-1.
Diamantopoulos, E., Durner, W., 2012. Dynamic nonequilibrium of water flow in
accurate and easy operating method is anticipated to depict the porous media: a review. Vadose Zone J. 11, vzj2011.0197. https://doi.org/10.
dynamic capillary effect of two-phase flow. 2136/vzj2011.0197.
Ferrari, A., Lunati, I., 2012. Direct simulation of interface dynamics: linking capillary
pressure, interfacial area and surface energy. XIX International Conference on
Acknowledgments Water Resources.
Ferrari, A., Lunati, I., 2013. Direct numerical simulations of interface dynamics to
link capillary pressure and total surface energy. Adv. Water Resour. 57, 19e31.
This study was financially supported by the National Natural
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2013.03.005.
Science Foundation of China (No. 42102149), and the Fundamental Friedman, S.P., 1999. Dynamic contact angle explanation of flow rate-dependent
Research Funds for the Central Universities (No. 2462021YXZZ005). saturation-pressure relationships during transient liquid flow in unsaturated
porous media. J. Adhes. Sci. Technol. 13, 1495e1518. https://doi.org/10.1163/
156856199X00613.
References Gao, L., Yang, Z., Shi, Y., 2018. Experimental study on spontaneous imbibition
characteristics of tight rocks. Adv. Geo-Energy Res. 2, 292e304. https://doi.org/
Abidoye, L.K., Das, D.B., 2014a. Artificial neural network modeling of scale- 10.26804/ager.2018.03.07.
dependent dynamic capillary pressure effects in two-phase flow in porous Gielen, T., Hassanizadeh, S., Celia, M., Dahle, H., Leijnse, A., 2004. A pore-scale
media. J. Hydroinf. 17, 446e461. https://doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2014.079. network approach to investigate dynamic effects in multiphase flow. Dev.
Abidoye, L.K., Das, D.B., 2014b. Scale dependent dynamic capillary pressure effect Water Sci. 55, 83e94. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-5648(04)80039-X.
for two-phase flow in porous media. Adv. Water Resour. 74, 212e230. https:// Gielen, T., Hassanizadeh, S., Leijnse, A., Nordhaug, H., 2005. Dynamic effects in
doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2014.09.009. multiphase flow: a pore-scale network approach. In: Das, D.B.,
Ansarinasab, J., Jamialahmadi, M., 2016. Investigating the effect of interfacial ten- Hassanizadeh, H.S.M. (Eds.), Upscaling Multiphase Flow in Porous Media.
sion and contact angle on capillary pressure curve, using free energy Lattice Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 217e236.
Boltzmann method. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 35, 1146e1157. https://doi.org/10.1016/ Gielen, T.W.J., 2007. Dynamic Effect in Two-phase Flow in Porous Media: a Pore-
j.jngse.2016.09.055. Scale Network Approach. Doctoral Thesis. Delft University of Technology.
Ba, Y., Liu, H., Li, Q., Kang, Q., Sun, J., 2016. Multiple-relaxation-time color-gradient http://repository.tudelft.nl/assets/uuid:06275687-01ba-4494-b946.
lattice Boltzmann model for simulating two-phase flows with high density Gladkikh, M., Bryant, S., 2005. Prediction of imbibition in unconsolidated granular
ratio. Phys. Rev. E 94, 023310. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.94.023310. materials. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 288, 526e539. https://doi.org/10.1016/
Barenblatt, G.I., 1971. Filtration of two nonmixing fluids in a homogeneous porous j.jcis.2005.03.029.
medium. Fluid Dynam. 6, 857e864. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01013869. Goel, G., Abidoye, L.K., Chahar, B.R., Das, D.B., 2016. Scale dependency of dynamic
Barenblatt, G., Patzek, T., Silin, D., 2002. The mathematical model of non- relative permeabilityesatuartion curves in relation with fluid viscosity and
equilibrium effects in water-oil displacement. In: SPE/DOE Improved Oil Re- dynamic capillary pressure effect. Environ. Fluid Mech. 16, 945e963. https://
covery Symposium. https://doi.org/10.2118/75169-MS. doi.org/10.1007/s10652-016-9459-y.
Bear, J., Verruijt, A., 1987. Theory and applications of transport in porous media. In: Goel, G., O'Carroll, D.M., 2011. Experimental investigation of nonequilibrium
Crolet, J.M. (Ed.), Computational Methods for Flow and Transport in Porous capillarity effects: fluid viscosity effects. Water Resour. Res. 47, W09507. https://
Media. Springer, Dordrecht. doi.org/10.1029/2010WR009861.
Bottero, S., Hassanizadeh, S.M., Kleingeld, P., Bezuijen, A., 2006. Experimental study Golparvar, A., Zhou, Y., Wu, K., Ma, J., Yu, Z., 2018. A comprehensive review of pore
of dynamic capillary pressure effect in two-phase flow in porous media. In: scale modeling methodologies for multiphase flow in porous media. Adv. Geo-
Proceedings of the XVI International Conference on Computational Methods in Energy Res. 2, 418e440. https://doi.org/10.26804/ager.2018.04.07.
Water Resources. Groot, R.D., Warren, P.B., 1997. Dissipative particle dynamics: bridging the gap be-
Bottero, S., Hassanizadeh, S.M., Kleingeld, P.J., Heimovaara, T.J., 2011. Nonequilib- tween atomistic and mesoscopic simulation. J. Chem. Phys. 107, 4423e4435.
rium capillarity effects in two-phase flow through porous media at different https://doi.org/10.1063/1.474784.
1650
J.-C. Cai, Y. Chen, J.-C. Qiao et al. Petroleum Science 19 (2022) 1641e1652
Gunstensen, A.K., Rothman, D.H., Zaleski, S., Zanetti, G., 1991. Lattice Boltzmann response of the water retention curve in unsaturated soils during drainage to
model of immiscible fluids. Phys. Rev. A 43, 4320e4327. https://doi.org/10.1103/ acoustic excitations. Water Resour. Res. 53, 712e725. https://doi.org/10.1002/
PhysRevA.43.4320. 2016WR018833.
Hanspal, N.S., Allison, B.A., Deka, L., Das, D.B., 2013. Artificial neural network (ANN) Manthey, S., Hassanizadeh, S.M., Helmig, R., 2005. Macro-scale dynamic effects in
modeling of dynamic effects on two-phase flow in homogenous porous media. homogeneous and heterogeneous porous media. In: Das, D.B.,
J. Hydroinf. 15, 540e554. https://doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2012.119. Hassanizadeh, M.S. (Eds.), Upscaling Multiphase Flow in Porous Media.
Hassanizadeh, S.M., Celia, M.A., Dahle, H.K., 2002. Dynamic effect in the capillary Springer, pp. 121e145. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3604-3_7.
pressureesaturation relationship and its impacts on unsaturated flow. Vadose Mason, G., Mellor, D.W., 1995. Simulation of drainage and imbibition in a random
Zone J. 1, 38e57. https://doi.org/10.2113/1.1.38. packing of equal spheres. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 176, 214e225. https://doi.org/
Hassanizadeh, S.M., Gray, W.G., 1993. Thermodynamic basis of capillary pressure in 10.1006/jcis.1995.0024.
porous media. Water Resour. Res. 29, 3389e3405. https://doi.org/10.1029/ Mueller, A.V., Hemond, H.F., 2013. Extended artificial neural networks: incorpora-
93WR01495. tion of a priori chemical knowledge enables use of ion selective electrodes for
He, X., Chen, S., Zhang, R., 1999. A lattice Boltzmann scheme for incompressible in-situ measurement of ions at environmentally relevant levels. Talanta 117,
multiphase flow and its application in simulation of RayleigheTaylor instability. 112e118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2013.08.045.
J. Comput. Phys. 152, 642e663. https://doi.org/10.1006/jcph.1999.6257. O'Carroll, D.M., Phelan, T.J., Abriola, L.M., 2005. Exploring dynamic effects in
He, X., Luo, L., 1997. Lattice Boltzmann model for the incompressible NaviereStokes capillary pressure in multistep outflow experiments. Water Resour. Res. 41,
equation. J. Stat. Phys. 88, 927e944. https://doi.org/10.1023/B: W11419. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005WR004010.
JOSS.0000015179.12689.e4. Oung, O., Hassanizadeh, S.M., Bezuijen, A., 2005. Two-phase flow experiments in a
Hou, L., Chen, L., Kibbey, T.C., 2012. Dynamic capillary effects in a small-volume geocentrifuge and the significance of dynamic capillary pressure effect.
unsaturated porous medium: implications of sensor response and gas pressure J. Porous Media 8, 247e257. https://doi.org/10.1615/JPorMedia.v8.i3.10.
gradients for understanding system dependencies. Water Resour. Res. 48, Qin, C., 2015. Water transport in the gas diffusion layer of a polymer electrolyte fuel
W11522. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012WR012434. cell: dynamic pore-network modeling. J. Electrochem. Soc. 162, F1036. https://
Hou, L., Sleep, B.E., Kibbey, T.C., 2014. The influence of unavoidable saturation doi.org/10.1149/2.0861509jes.
averaging on the experimental measurement of dynamic capillary effects: a Rabbani, H.S., Joekar-Niasar, V., Pak, T., Shokri, N., 2017. New insights on the com-
numerical simulation study. Adv. Water Resour. 66, 43e51. https://doi.org/ plex dynamics of two-phase flow in porous media under intermediate-wet
10.1016/j.advwatres.2014.01.008. conditions. Sci. Rep. 7, 4584. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04545-4.
Huang, H., Thorne Jr., D.T., Schaap, M.G., Sukop, M.C., 2007. Proposed approximation Raeini, A.Q., Bijeljic, B., Blunt, M.J., 2014a. Numerical modelling of sub-pore scale
for contact angles in Shan-and-Chen-type multicomponent multiphase lattice events in two-phase flow through porous media. Transp. Porous Media 101,
Boltzmann models. Phys. Rev. E 76, 066701. https://doi.org/10.1103/ 191e213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-013-0239-6.
PhysRevE.76.066701. Raeini, A.Q., Blunt, M.J., Bijeljic, B., 2014b. Direct simulations of two-phase flow on
Jiang, M., Xu, Z.G., 2021. Pore-scale investigation on reactive flow in non-uniform micro-CT images of porous media and upscaling of pore-scale forces. Adv.
dissolved porous media considering immiscible phase by lattice Boltzmann Water Resour. 74, 116e126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2014.08.012.
method. J. Nat. Gas Sci. Eng. 96, 104280. https://doi.org/10.1016/ Sakaki, T., O'Carroll, D.M., Illangasekare, T.H., 2010. Direct quantification of dynamic
j.jngse.2021.104280. effects in capillary pressure for drainageewetting cycles. Vadose Zone J. 9,
Joekar-Niasar, V., Hassanizadeh, S.M., 2011. Effect of fluids properties on non- 424e437. https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2009.0105.
equilibrium capillarity effects: dynamic pore-network modeling. Int. J. Multi- Shan, X., Chen, H., 1993. Lattice Boltzmann model for simulating flows with mul-
phase Flow 37, 198e214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmultiphaseflow.2010.09.007. tiple phases and components. Phys. Rev. E 47, 1815e1819. https://doi.org/
Joekar-Niasar, V., Hassanizadeh, S.M., Dahle, H.K., 2010. Non-equilibrium effects in 10.1103/PhysRevE.47.1815.
capillarity and interfacial area in two-phase flow: dynamic pore-network Stauffer, F., 1978. Time dependence of the relations between capillary pressure,
modelling. J. Fluid Mech. 655, 38e71. https://doi.org/10.1017/ water content and conductivity during drainage of porous media. In: IAHR
S0022112010000704. Symposium on Scale Effects in Porous Media.
Juanes, R., 2008. Nonequilibrium effects in models of three-phase flow in porous Sweijen, T., Hassanizadeh, S.M., Chareyre, B., Zhuang, L., 2018. Dynamic pore-scale
media. Adv. Water Resour. 31, 661e673. https://doi.org/10.1016/ model of drainage in granular porous media: the pore-unit assembly method.
j.advwatres.2007.12.005. Water Resour. Res. 54, 4193e4213. https://doi.org/10.1029/2017WR021769.
Kalaydjian, F.-M., 1992. Dynamic capillary pressure curve for water/oil displacement Swift, M.R., Orlandini, E., Osborn, W.R., Yeomans, J.M., 1996. Lattice Boltzmann
in porous media: theory vs. experiment. In: SPE Annual Technical Conference simulations of liquid-gas and binary fluid systems. Phys. Rev. E 54, 5041e5052.
and Exhibition. https://doi.org/10.2118/24813-MS. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.54.5041.
Kang, S.K., Hassan, Y.A., 2013. The effect of lattice models within the lattice Boltz- Tang, M., Ma, H., Lu, S., Zhan, H., Wenyue, G., 2018. The effect of a microscale
mann method in the simulation of wall-bounded turbulent flows. J. Comput. fracture on dynamic capillary pressure of two-phase flow in porous media. Adv.
Phys. 232, 100e117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcp.2012.07.023. Water Resour. 113, 272e284. 10.1016/j.advwatres.2018.01.015.
Koplik, J., Lasseter, T., 1985. Two-phase flow in random network models of porous Tang, M., Zhan, H., Ma, H., Lu, S., 2019. Upscaling of dynamic capillary pressure of
media. SPE J. 25, 89e100. https://doi.org/10.2118/11014-PA. two-phase flow in sandstone. Water Resour. Res. 55, 426e443. https://doi.org/
Kunz, P., Zarikos, I.M., Karadimitriou, N.K., Huber, M., Nieken, U., Hassanizadeh, S.M., 10.1029/2017WR022377.
2016. Study of multi-phase flow in porous media: comparison of SPH simula- Tartakovsky, A.M., Meakin, P., 2006. Pore scale modeling of immiscible and miscible
tions with micro-model experiments. Transp. Porous Media 114, 581e600. fluid flows using smoothed particle hydrodynamics. Adv. Water Resour. 29,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-015-0599-1. 1464e1478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2005.11.014.
Kuwata, Y., Suga, K., 2015. Anomaly of the lattice Boltzmann methods in three- Thompson, K.E., 2002. Pore-scale modeling of fluid transport in disordered fibrous
dimensional cylindrical flows. J. Comput. Phys. 280, 563e569. https://doi.org/ materials. AIChE J. 48, 1369e1389. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.690480703.
10.1016/j.jcp.2014.10.002. Tian, S., Lei, G., He, S., Yang, L., 2012. Dynamic effect of capillary pressure in low
Li, Y., 2018. Dynamic Capillarity Characteristics and Application during the Water- permeability reservoirs. Petrol. Explor. Dev. 39, 405e411. https://doi.org/
flooding Process in Low Permeability Oil Reservoirs. Doctoral Thesis. Southwest 10.1016/S1876-3804(12)60057-3.
Petroleum University. Topp, G.C., Klute, A., Peters, D.B., 1967. Comparison of water content-pressure head
Li, Y., Cui, X., Li, H., Chen, S., Zhang, Q., 2020a. An in-situ capillary pressure mea- data obtained by equilibrium, steady-state, and unsteady-state methods. Soil
surement method to characterize pore structure of tight formation. J. Petrol. Sci. Sci. Soc. Am. J. 31, 312e314. https://doi.org/10.2136/
Eng. 192, 107270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2020.107270. sssaj1967.03615995003100030009x.
Li, Y., Li, H., Cai, J., Ma, Q., Zhang, J., 2018. The dynamic effect in capillary pressure Vidales, A.M., Riccardo, J.L., Zgrablich, G., 1998. Pore-level modelling of wetting on
during the displacement process in ultra-low permeability sandstone reser- correlated porous media. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 31, 2861e2868. https://doi.org/
voirs. Capillarity 1, 11e18. https://doi.org/10.26804/capi.2018.02.01. 10.1088/0022-3727/31/20/021.
Li, Y., Li, H., Chen, S., Luo, H., Liu, C., 2020b. Investigation of the dynamic capillary Vogel, H.-J., To €lke, J., Schulz, V.P., Krafczyk, M., Roth, K., 2005. Comparison of a
pressure during displacement process in fractured tight rocks. AIChE J. 66, lattice-Boltzmann model, a full-morphology model, and a pore network model
e16783. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.16783. for determining capillary pressureesaturation relationships. Vadose Zone J. 4,
Li, Y., Liu, C., Li, H., Chen, S., Huang, S., 2020c. A comprehensive modelling inves- 380e388. https://doi.org/10.2136/vzj2004.0114.
tigation of dynamic capillary effect during non-equilibrium flow in tight porous Wildenschild, D., Hopmans, J.W., Simunek, J., 2001. Flow rate dependence of soil
media. J. Hydrol. 584, 124709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.124709. hydraulic characteristics. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 65, 35e48. https://doi.org/10.2136/
Liu, H., Valocchi, A.J., Kang, Q., 2012. Three-dimensional lattice Boltzmann model for sssaj2001.65135x.
immiscible two-phase flow simulations. Phys. Rev. E 85, 046309. https:// Wu, R., Kharaghani, A., Tsotsas, E., 2016a. Capillary valve effect during slow drying
doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.85.046309. of porous media. Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 94, 81e86. https://doi.org/10.1016/
Liu, Y., Cai, J., Sahimi, M., Qin, C., 2020. A study of the role of microfractures in j.ijheatmasstransfer.2015.11.004.
counter-current spontaneous imbibition by lattice Boltzmann simulation. Wu, R., Kharaghani, A., Tsotsas, E., 2016b. Two-phase flow with capillary valve effect
Transp. Porous Media 133, 313e332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-020- in porous media. Chem. Eng. Sci. 139, 241e248. https://doi.org/10.1016/
01425-w. j.ces.2015.09.028.
Liu, Y., Iglauer, S., Cai, J., Amooie, M.A., Qin, C., 2019. Local instabilities during Xu, K., Wei, W., Chen, Y., Tian, H., Xu, S., Cai, J., 2022. A pore network approach to
capillary-dominated immiscible displacement in porous media. Capillarity 2, study throat size effect on the permeability of reconstructed porous media.
1e7. https://doi.org/10.26804/capi.2019.01.01. Water 14, 77. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14010077.
Lo, W.-C., Yang, C.-C., Hsu, S.-Y., Chen, C.-H., Yeh, C.-L., Hilpert, M., 2017. The dynamic Xu, Z., Liu, H., Valocchi, A.J., 2017. Lattice Boltzmann simulation of immiscible two-
1651
J.-C. Cai, Y. Chen, J.-C. Qiao et al. Petroleum Science 19 (2022) 1641e1652
phase flow with capillary valve effect in porous media. Water Resour. Res. 53, applications. Microfluid. Nanofluid. 10, 1e28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10404-
3770e3790. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017WR020373. 010-0624-1.
Yan, G., Li, Z., Bore, T., Galindo-Torres, S., Scheuermann, A., Li, L., 2018. Dynamic Zheng, J., Lei, W., Ju, Y., Wang, M., 2021. Investigation of spontaneous imbibition
effect in capillary pressureesaturation relationship using lattice Boltzmann behavior in a 3D pore space under reservoir condition by lattice Boltzmann
simulation. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Asia Urban method. J. Geophys. Res.: Solid Earth 126, e2021JB021987. https://doi.org/
GeoEngineering. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6632-0_2. 10.1029/2021JB021987.
Yuan, C., Chareyre, B., Darve, F., 2016. Pore-scale simulations of drainage in granular Zhou, Y., Hatzignatiou, D.G., Helland, J.O., Zhao, Y., Cai, J., 2021. Pore-scale modelling
materials: finite size effects and the representative elementary volume. Adv. of three-phase capillary pressure curves directly in uniformly wet rock images.
Water Resour. 95, 109e124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2015.11.018. Geofluids 2021, 6622079. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6622079.
Zhang, H., He, S., Jiao, C., Luan, G., Mo, S., Lei, G., 2015. Investigation of dynamic Zhuang, L., Hassanizadeh, S.M., Qin, C.-Z., de Waal, A., 2017. Experimental investi-
effect of capillary pressure in ultra-low permeability sandstones. Indian Geo- gation of hysteretic dynamic capillarity effect in unsaturated flow. Water
tech. J. 45, 79e88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-014-0109-3. Resour. Res. 53, 9078e9088. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017WR020895.
Zhang, J., 2011. Lattice Boltzmann method for microfluidics: models and
1652