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Peacebuilding
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Peacebuilding is an activity that aims to resolve

injustice in nonviolent ways and to transform the
cultural and structural conditions that generate
deadly or destructive conflict. It revolves around
developing constructive personal, group, and
political relationships across ethnic, religious,
class, national, and racial boundaries. The process
includes violence prevention; conflict
management, resolution, or transformation; and
post-conflict reconciliation or trauma healing
before, during, and after any given case of
violence.[1][2][3]

Human Peace Sign - Symbolically

Represents an Holistic Approach to
Peacebuilding.

As such, peacebuilding is a multidisciplinary

cross-sector technique or method that becomes
strategic when it works over the long run and at all
levels of society to establish and sustain
relationships among people locally and globally
and thus engenders sustainable peace.[1]
Strategic peacebuilding activities address the root
or potential causes of violence, create a societal
expectation for peaceful conflict resolution, and
stabilize society politically and socioeconomically.

The methods included in peacebuilding vary

depending on the situation and the agent of
peacebuilding. Successful peacebuilding activities
create an environment supportive of self-
sustaining, durable peace; reconcile opponents;
prevent conflict from restarting; integrate civil
society; create rule of law mechanisms; and
address underlying structural and societal issues.
Researchers and practitioners also increasingly
find that peacebuilding is most effective and
durable when it relies upon local conceptions of
peace and the underlying dynamics that foster or
enable conflict.[4]

Defining peacebuilding …

See also: Peace process § Definitions

Of course, the exact definition of peacebuilding

varies depending on the actor, with some
definitions specifying what activities fall within the
scope of peacebuilding or restricting
peacebuilding to post-conflict interventions. Even
if peacebuilding has remained a largely
amorphous concept without clear guidelines or
goals,[5] common to all definitions is the
agreement that improving human security is the
central task of peacebuilding. In this sense,
peacebuilding includes a wide range of efforts by
diverse actors in government and civil society at
the community, national, and international levels
to address the root causes of violence and ensure
civilians have freedom from fear (negative peace),
freedom from want (positive peace) and freedom
from humiliation before, during, and after violent
conflict.

Although many of peacebuilding's aims overlap

with those of peacemaking, peacekeeping and
conflict resolution, it is a distinct idea.
Peacemaking involves stopping an ongoing
conflict, whereas peacebuilding happens before a
conflict starts or once it ends. Peacekeeping
prevents the resumption of fighting following a
conflict; it does not address the underlying causes
of violence or work to create societal change, as
peacebuilding does. Peacekeeping also differs
from peacebuilding in that it only occurs after
conflict ends, not before it begins. Conflict
resolution does not include some components of
peacebuilding, such as state building and
socioeconomic development.

While some use the term to refer to only post-

conflict or post-war contexts, most use the term
more broadly to refer to any stage of conflict.
Before conflict becomes violent, preventive
peacebuilding efforts, such as diplomatic,
economic development, social, educational,
health, legal and security sector reform programs,
address potential sources of instability and
violence. This is also termed conflict prevention.
Peacebuilding efforts aim to manage, mitigate,
resolve and transform central aspects of the
conflict through official diplomacy; as well as
through civil society peace processes and
informal dialogue, negotiation, and mediation.
Peacebuilding addresses economic, social and
political root causes of violence and fosters
reconciliation to prevent the return of structural
and direct violence. Peacebuilding efforts aim to
change beliefs, attitudes and behaviors to
transform the short and long term dynamics
between individuals and groups toward a more
stable, peaceful coexistence. Peacebuilding is an
approach to an entire set of interrelated efforts
that support peace.

Peace-building is a term of more recent origin

that, as used in the report of the Panel on United
Nations Peace Operations (2000), defines
"activities undertaken on the far side of conflict to
reassemble the foundations of peace and provide
the tools for building on those foundations
something that is more than just the absence of
war. "[6]

In 2007, the UN Secretary-General's Policy

Committee defined peacebuilding as follows:
"Peacebuilding involves a range of measures
targeted to reduce the risk of lapsing or relapsing
into conflict by strengthening national capacities
at all levels for conflict management, and to lay
the foundations for sustainable peace and
sustainable development. Peacebuilding
strategies must be coherent and tailored to
specific needs of the country concerned, based
on national ownership, and should comprise a
carefully prioritized, sequenced, and therefore
relatively narrow set of activities aimed at
achieving the above objectives."[7]

History of peacebuilding …

As World War II ended in the mid-1940s,

international initiatives such as the creation of the
Bretton Woods institutions and The Marshall Plan
consisted of long-term postconflict intervention
programs in Europe with which the United States
and its allies aimed to rebuild the continent
following the destruction of World War II.[8] The
focus of these initiatives revolved around a
narrative of peacekeeping and peacemaking.

Norwegian sociologist Johan Galtung coined the

term "peacebuilding" in 1975, arguing that "peace
has a structure different from, perhaps over and
above, peacekeeping and ad hoc peacemaking...
The mechanisms that peace is based on should be
built into the structure and be present as a
reservoir for the system itself to draw up. ... More
specifically, structures must be found that remove
causes of wars and offer alternatives to war in
situations where wars might occur."[9] Galtung's
work emphasized a bottom-up approach that
decentralized social and economic structures,
amounting to a call for a societal shift from
structures of coercion and violence to a culture of
peace.[7]

Then, as the Cold War and the various phenomena

of its fizzling came to a close (e.g. civil wars
between Third World countries, Reagonomics,
"Bringing the State Back In"), American
sociologist John Paul Lederach further refined the
concept of peacebuilding through several 1990s
publications that focus on engaging grassroots,
local, NGO, international and other actors to
create a sustainable peace process, especially
with respect to cases of intractable deadly
conflict where he was actively mediating between
warring parties.[10][11][12] From a political-
institutional perspective, he does not advocate
the same degree of structural change as Galtung.
[13] However, Lederach's influence in the
conceptual evolution of peacebuilding still reflects
Galtung's original vision for "positive peace" by
detailing, categorizing, & expanding upon the
sociocultural processes through which we
address both direct and structural elements of
violent conflict.[14]

Peacebuilding has since expanded to include

many different dimensions, such as disarmament,
demobilization and reintegration and rebuilding
governmental, economic and civil society
institutions.[7] The concept was popularized in the
international community through UN Secretary-
General Boutros Boutros-Ghali's 1992 report An
Agenda for Peace. The report defined post-
conflict peacebuilding as an "action to identify
and support structures which will tend to
strengthen and solidify peace in order to avoid a
relapse into conflict".[15] At the 2005 World
Summit, the United Nations began creating a
peacebuilding architecture based on Kofi Annan's
proposals.[16] The proposal called for three
organizations: the UN Peacebuilding Commission,
which was founded in 2005; the UN Peacebuilding
Fund, founded in 2006; and the UN Peacebuilding
Support Office, which was created in 2005. These
three organizations enable the Secretary-General
to coordinate the UN's peacebuilding efforts.[17]
National governments' interest in the topic has
also increased due to fears that failed states serve
as breeding grounds for conflict and extremism
and thus threaten international security. Some
states have begun to view peacebuilding as a way
to demonstrate their relevance.[18] However,
peacebuilding activities continue to account for
small percentages of states' budgets.[19]

Categorizing approaches
…
to peacebuilding

In a very broad sense, there are three primary

approaches to peacebuilding, which each
correspond to three primary types of peace: (1)
negative peace vs. (2) positive peace (Galtung)
vs. (3) justpeace (Lederach, sometimes spelled
"just peace"). In turn, these three types of peace
correspond respectively to three primary types of
violence: (1) direct violence vs. (2) structural
violence vs. (3) cultural violence.

Negative peace: direct violence …

Negative peace refers to the absence of direct, or

"hot" violence, which refers to acts that impose
immediate harm on a given subject or group. In
this sense, negative peacebuilding (aimed at
negative peace) intentionally focuses on
addressing the direct factors driving harmful
conflict. When applying the term "peacebuilding"
to this work, there is an explicit attempt by those
designing and planning a peacebuilding effort to
reduce direct violence.[20][21]

Positive peace: structural violence …

Positive peace refers to the absence of both direct

violence as well as structural violence. Structural
violence refers to the ways that systems &
institutions in society cause, reinforce, or
perpetuate direct violence. In this sense, positive
peacebuilding (aimed at positive peace)
intentionally focuses on address the indirect
factors driving or mitigating harmful conflict, with
an emphasis on engaging institutions, policies,
and political-economic conditions as they relate to
exploitation and repression.[20][21]

Justpeace: cultural violence …

Justpeace (or "just peace") refers to the absence

of all three types of violence enumerated above:
direct, structural, & cultural. Cultural violence
refers to aspects of culture that can be used to
justify or legitimize direct or structural violence—
the ways in which direct or structural violence
look or feel "right" according to the moral fabric of
society.[22] In this sense, just peacebuilding
(aimed at justpeace) intentionally combines the
methods of "positive peacebuilding" (as
described above) with a special focus on building
and transforming sustainable relationships among
conflicting sectors & cultures in such a way that
promotes more alignment between each culture's
mores (standards of "right" behavior or
conditions) and the extent to which those mores
are built/equipped to prevent, resolve, and heal
patterns of direct and structural violence.

When Lederach first proposed the term in the late

1990s, he wrote:

Inspired by colleagues from the

Justapaz Centre in Bogota,
Colombia, I propose that by the
year 2050 the word justpeace be
accepted in everyday common
language and appear as an entry
in the Webster's Dictionary. It
will read:

Justpeace \ jest pés \ n, vi,

(justpeace-building) 1: an
adaptive process-structure of
human relationships
characterized by high justice
and low violence 2: an
infrastructure of organization
or governance that responds to
human conflict through
nonviolent means as first and
last resorts 3: a view of systems
as responsive to the
permanency and
interdependence of
relationships and change.[14]

Institutionalising
…
peacebuilding

Following periods of protracted violence,

peacebuilding often takes shape in the form of
constitutional agreements, laying out a path for
co-operation and tolerance between former
warring factions. A common method that has been
applied in a variety of states is consociationalism.
Initially set forth by political scientist Arend
Lijphart, consociationalism calls for a power-
sharing form of democracy. Identified by four
aspects: grand coalition, mutual veto,
proportionality and segmental autonomy; it aims
to generate peace across societies that have been
torn apart by their internal divisions.[23]
Ultimately, consociationalism aims to create a
stable society that is able to outlast and overcome
differences that may remerge. Examples of
consociational agreements can be seen in
Northern Ireland, Bosnia and Herzegovina and
Lebanon.

In an effort to de-emphasise the importance of

ethnicity, critics of consociationalism such as
Brian Barry, Donald L. Horowitz, and to a certain
extent, Roland Paris, have developed their own
brands of constitutional peacebuilding that rely on
the existence of a moderate society.

Centripetalism as advocated by Horowitz,

encourages political parties of divided societies to
adopt a moderate campaign platform. Through the
alternative vote and a distributive requirement,
centripetalism aims to create a society that votes
across ethnic or religious lines, allowing civic
issues to take precedence.[24]

Components of
…
peacebuilding

The activities included in peacebuilding vary

depending on the situation and the agent of
peacebuilding. Successful peacebuilding activities
create an environment supportive of self-
sustaining, durable peace; reconcile opponents;
prevent conflict from restarting; integrate civil
society; create rule of law mechanisms; and
address underlying structural and societal issues.
To accomplish these goals, peacebuilding must
address functional structures, emotional
conditions and social psychology, social stability,
rule of law and ethics, and cultural sensitivities.[25]

Preconflict peacebuilding interventions aim to

prevent the start of violent conflict.[26] These
strategies involve a variety of actors and sectors
in order to transform the conflict.[27] Even though
the definition of peacebuilding includes
preconflict interventions, in practice most
peacebuilding interventions are postconflict.[28]
However, many peacebuilding scholars advocate
an increased focus on preconflict peacebuilding in
the future.[26][27]

There are many different approaches to

categorization of forms of peacebuilding among
the peacebuilding field's many scholars.

Barnett et al. divide postconflict peacebuilding

into three dimensions: stabilizing the post-conflict
zone, restoring state institutions, and dealing with
social and economic issues. Activities within the
first dimension reinforce state stability post-
conflict and discourage former combatants from
returning to war (disarmament, demobilization
and reintegration, or DDR). Second dimension
activities build state capacity to provide basic
public goods and increase state legitimacy.
Programs in the third dimension build a post-
conflict society's ability to manage conflicts
peacefully and promote socioeconomic
development.[29]

1st
2nd Dimension 3rd Dimension
Dimension

Taking Rebuilding
Trauma
away basic facilities,
counseling
weapons transportation
and Transitional
Re-
communication justice and
integrating
networks, restoration
former
utilities
combatants Community
into civilian Developing dialogue
society rule of law
Building
systems and
bridges
public
between
administration
different
Building communities
educational
Increasing
and health
human rights
infrastructure
Gender
Providing empowerment
technical and
Raising
capacity-
environmental
building
awareness
assistance for
institutions Promoting
economic
Creating
development
legitimate
(democratic, Developing a
accountable) civil society
state and private
institutions sector that
can represent
diverse
interests and
challenge the
state
peacefully

A mixture of locally and internationally focused

components is key to building a long-term
sustainable peace.[25][30] Mac Ginty says that
while different "indigenous" communities utilize
different conflict resolution techniques, most of
them share the common characteristics described
in the table below. Since indigenous peacebuilding
practices arise from local communities, they are
tailored to local context and culture in a way that
generalized international peacebuilding
approaches are not.[31]

Local, customary and

International
traditional

Respected local Top-down: engages

figures with national elites, not
locals
Public dimension
Exclusive: deals are
Storytelling and
made behind closed
airing of grievances
doors
Emphasis on
Technocratic/ahistorical
relationships
basis: emphasis on
Reliance on local 'striking a deal',
resources 'moving on'

Modeled on corporate
culture: reaching a
deal, meeting deadlines
prioritzed over relations

Relies on external
personnel, ideas and
material resources

The theorist I. William Zartman introduces the

concept of a "ripe moment" for the
commencement of peace negotiations in a
conflict. Zartman's thesis outlines the necessary
(but not sufficient) conditions that must be
fulfilled before actors in a conflict will be willing to
faithfully engage in peace negotiations.[32]
Institutions or countries looking to build peace
must therefore "seize" upon these moments to
begin the process of peace negotiations.

A mutually hurting stalemate (MHS):

All sides in a conflict must be engaged in a
stalemate, such that none of the actors can
successfully escalate the conflict to achieve
victory.

The stalemate must also be "mutually

hurting", such that the continuation of the
conflict is n according to each sides' cost-
benefit analyses.

A way out:
Peacebuilding and peace negotiating actors
can provide the necessary security that
enables peace negotiation to occur.

Approached in game-theoretical terms, Zartman

argues that the presence of an MHS and a means
of escaping the stalemate transform conflicts
from a prisoner's dilemma to a chicken game.

Without these features, Zartman argues that

belligerents will lack the necessary motivations to
pursue peace. Therefore, the sides in a conflict
will either not engage in peace negotiation, or any
peace will be short-lived.

Peacebuilding and
…
cultural heritage

Karl von Habsburg, on a Blue

Shield International fact-finding
mission in Libya during the war in
2011 to protect cultural assets

In today's world, peacebuilding also means

maintaining and protecting the economic and
cultural foundations of a community and the
population. The protection of culture and cultural
assets is therefore becoming increasingly
important nationally and internationally. United
Nations, UNESCO and Blue Shield International
deal with the protection of cultural heritage and
therefore with peacebuilding. This also applies to
the integration of United Nations peacekeeping.
[33][34][35][36]

In international law, the UN and UNESCO try to

establish and enforce rules. It is not a question of
protecting a person's property, but of preserving
the cultural heritage of humanity, especially in the
event of war and armed conflict. According to Karl
von Habsburg, founding president of Blue Shield
International, the destruction of cultural assets is
also part of psychological warfare. The target is
the opponent's identity, which is why symbolic
cultural assets become a main target. It is also
intended to address the particularly sensitive
cultural memory, the growing cultural diversity
and the economic basis (such as tourism) of a
state, a region or a municipality.[37][38][39]

Major organizations …

Intergovernmental organizations …

The United Nations participates in many aspects

of peacebuilding, both through the peacebuilding
architecture established in 2005–2006 and
through other agencies.

Peacebuilding architecture
 UN Peacebuilding Commission (PBC):
intergovernmental advisory body[17] that
brings together key actors, gathers
resources, advises on strategies for post-
conflict peacebuilding and highlights issues
that might undermine peace.[40]

UN Peacebuilding Fund (PBF): supports

peacebuilding activities that directly
promote post-conflict stabilization and
strengthen state and institutional capacity.
PBF funding is either given for a maximum
of two years immediately following conflict
to jumpstart peacebuilding and recovery
needs or given for up to three years to
create a more structured peacebuilding
process.[41]

UN Peacebuilding Support Office (PBSO):

supports the Peacebuilding Commission
with strategic advice and policy guidance,
administers the Peacebuilding Fund and
helps the Secretary-General coordinate UN
agencies' peacebuilding efforts.[17]

Other agencies
UN Department of Political Affairs:
postconflict peacebuilding

UN Development Programme: conflict

prevention, peacebuilding, postconflict
recovery[42]

The World Bank and International Monetary Fund

focus on the economic and financial aspects of
peacebuilding. The World Bank assists in post-
conflict reconstruction and recovery by helping
rebuild society's socioeconomic framework. The
International Monetary Fund deals with post-
conflict recovery and peacebuilding by acting to
restore assets and production levels.[42]

The EU's European Commission describes its

peacebuilding activities as conflict prevention and
management, and rehabilitation and
reconstruction. Conflict prevention and
management entails stopping the imminent
outbreak of violence and encouraging a broad
peace process. Rehabilitation and reconstruction
deals with rebuilding the local economy and
institutional capacity.[43] The European
Commission Conflict Prevention and Peace
building 2001–2010 was subjected to a major
external evaluation conducted by Aide a la
Decisions Economique (ADE) with the European
Centre for Development Policy Management
which was presented in 2011.[44] The European
External Action Service created in 2010 also has a
specific Division of Conflict Prevention,
Peacebuilding and Mediation.

Governmental organizations …
France
…

AFD logo

French Ministry of Defence: operations include

peacekeeping, political and constitutional
processes, democratization, administrative
state capacity, technical assistance for public
finance and tax policy, and support for
independent media

French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs:

supports peace consolidation, including
monitoring compliance with arms embargoes,
deployment of peacekeeping troops, DDR, and
deployment of police and gendarmerie in
support of the rule of law

French Development Agency: focuses on crisis

prevention through humanitarian action and
development
Germany
…
German Federal Foreign Office: assists with
conflict resolution and postconflict
peacebuilding, including the establishment of
stable state structures (rule of law, democracy,
human rights, and security) and the creation of
the potential for peace within civil society, the
media, cultural affairs and education

German Federal Ministry of Defence: deals with

the destruction of a country's infrastructure
resulting from intrastate conflict, security
forces reform, demobilization of combatants,
rebuilding the justice system and government
structures and preparations for elections

German Federal Ministry for Economic

Cooperation and Development: addresses
economic, social, ecological, and political
conditions to help eliminate the structural
causes of conflict and promote peaceful conflict
management; issues addressed include poverty
reduction, pro-poor sustainable economic
growth, good governance and democracy
Japan
…
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA): supports
peacebuilding.[45] In response to Minister Taro
Aso's statement in his speech in 2007, the
Ministry is conducting the project (平和構築⼈材
育成事業) to train civilian specialists from Japan
and other countries who can work in the field of
peacebuilding.[46]
Switzerland
…
Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (FDFA):
following the bill passed by the Swiss Federal
Parliament in 2004 which outlined various
measures for civil peacebuilding and human
rights strengthening, the Human Security
Division (HSD) of the Federal Department of
Foreign Affairs (FDFA) has been responsible for
implementing measures which serve to promote
human security around the world. It is the
competence centre for peace, human rights and
humanitarian policy, and for Switzerland's
migration foreign policy.[47] To this end, the
FDFA gets a line of credit to be renewed and
approved by Parliament every four years (it was
CHF 310 million for the 2012–2016 period.) Its
main peacebuilding programmes focus on 1. the
African Great Lakes region (Burundi and
Democratic Republic of Congo), 2. Sudan, South
Sudan and the Horn of Africa, 3. West Africa and
Sahel, 4. Middle East, 5. Nepal, 6. South Eastern
Europe and 7. Colombia.
United Kingdom
…
UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office:
performs a range of reconstruction activities
required in the immediate aftermath of conflict

UK Ministry of Defence: deals with long-term

activities addressing the underlying causes of
conflict and the needs of the people

UK Department for International Development:

works on conflict prevention (short-term
activities to prevent the outbreak or recurrence
of violent conflict) and peacebuilding (medium-
and long-term actions to address the factors
underlying violent conflict), including DDR
programs; building the public institutions that
provide security, transitional justice and
reconciliation; and providing basic social
services
United States
…

USAID logo

United States Department of State: aids

postconflict states in establishing the basis for a
lasting peace, good governance and sustainable
development

United States Department of Defense: assists

with reconstruction, including humanitarian
assistance, public health, infrastructure,
economic development, rule of law, civil
administration and media; and stabilization,
including security forces, communication skills,
humanitarian capabilities and area expertise

United States Agency for International

Development: performs immediate interventions
to build momentum in support of the peace
process including supporting peace
negotiations; building citizen security;
promoting reconciliation; and expanding
democratic political processes[48]

United States Institute of Peace:

Nongovernmental organizations …
Catholic Relief Services: Baltimore-based
Catholic humanitarian agency that provides
emergency relief post-disaster or post-conflict
and encourages long-term development
through peacebuilding and other activities

Conscience: Taxes for Peace not War:

Organisation in London that promotes
peacebuilding as an alternative to military
security via a Peace Tax Bill and reform of the £1
billion UK Conflict, Stability and Security Fund.

Conciliation Resources: London-based

independent organisation working with people
in conflict to prevent violence and build peace.

Crisis Management Initiative: Helsinki-based

organization that works to resolve conflict and
build sustainable peace by bringing
international peacebuilding experts and local
leaders together

Generations For Peace: An Amman-based

global non-profit peace-building organization
dedicated to sustainable conflict transformation
at the grassroots with a focus on youth.

IIDA Women's Development Organisation is a

Somali non-profit, politically independent, non-
governmental organisation, created by women
in order to work for peacebuilding and women's
rights defence in Somalia.

Initiatives of Change: global organization

dedicated to "building trust across the world's
divides" (of culture, nationality, belief, and
background), involved in peacebuilding and
peace consolidation since 1946[49] and
currently in the Great Lakes area of Africa,[50]
Sierra Leone and other areas of conflict.

Institute for Conflict Transformation and

Peacebuilding (ICP): Swiss based NGO
specialised in peacebuilding, non-violent
conflict transformation, mediation and training
delivery.

International Alert: London-based charity that

works with people affected by violent conflict to
improve their prospects for peace and helps
shape and strength peacebuilding policies and
practices

International Crisis Group: Brussels-based

nonprofit that gives advice to governments and
intergovernmental organizations on the
prevention and resolution of deadly conflict

Interpeace: Geneva-based nonprofit and

strategic partner of the United Nations that
works to build lasting peace by following five
core principles that put people at the center of
the peacebuilding process

Jewish-Palestinian Living Room Dialogue Group:

Since 1992 models and supports relationships
among adversaries, while creating how-to
documentary films. From 2003 to 2007, with
Camp Tawonga brought hundreds of adults and
youth from 50 towns in Palestine and Israel to
successfully live and communicate together at
the Palestinian-Jewish Family Peacemakers
Camp—Oseh Shalom – Sanea al-Salam[51]

Karuna Center for Peacebuilding: U.S.-based

international nonprofit organization that leads
training and programs in post-conflict
peacebuilding for government, development
institutions, civil society organizations, and local
communities

Nonviolent Peaceforce: Brussels-based

nonprofit that promotes and implements
unarmed civilian peacekeeping as a tool for
reducing violence and protecting civilians in
situations of violent conflict

Peace Direct: London-based charity that

provides financial and administrative assistance
to grassroots peacebuilding efforts and
increases international awareness of both
specific projects and grassroots peacebuilding
in general;

Saferworld: UK-based independent international

organisation working to prevent violent conflict
and build safer lives;

Search for Common Ground: international

organization founded in 1982 and working in 35
countries that uses evidence-based approaches
to transform the way communities deal with
conflict towards cooperative solutions

Seeds of Peace: New York City-based nonprofit

that works to empower youth from areas of
conflict by inviting them to an international
camp in Maine for leadership training and
relationship building

Tuesday's Children: New York-based

organization that brings together teens, ages
15–20, from the New York City area and around
the world who share a "common bond"—the
loss of a family member due to an act of
terrorism. Launched in 2008, Project COMMON
BOND has so far helped 308 teenagers from 15
countries and territories turn their experiences
losing a loved one to terrorism into positive
actions that can help others exposed to similar
tragedy. Participants share the vision of the
program to "Let Our Past Change the
Future."[52]

UNOY Peacebuilders (United Network of Young

Peacebuilders): The Hague-based network of
young leaders and youth organizations that
facilitates affiliated organizations'
peacebuilding efforts through networking,
sharing information, research and fundraising

Research and academic institutes …

United States Institute of Peace

Headquarters in Washington D.C.

Center for Justice and Peacebuilding: academic

program at Eastern Mennonite University;
promotes peacebuilding, creation care,
experiential learning, and cross-cultural
engagement; teachings are based on Mennonite
Christianity

Center for Peacebuilding and Development:

academic center at American University's
School of International Service; promotes cross-
cultural development of research and practices
in peace education, civic engagement,
nonviolent resistance, conflict resolution,
religion and peace, and peacebuilding

Irish Peace Institute: promotes peace and

reconciliation in Ireland and works to apply
lessons from Ireland's conflict resolution to
other conflicts

Joan B. Kroc Institute for International Peace

Studies: degree-granting institute at the
University of Notre Dame; promotes research,
education and outreach on the causes of violent
conflict and the conditions for sustainable
peace

United States Institute of Peace: non-partisan

federal institution that works to prevent or end
violent conflict around the world by sponsoring
research and using it to inform actions

University for Peace: international institution of

higher education located in Costa Rica; aims to
promote peace by engaging in teaching,
research, training and dissemination of
knowledge necessary for building peace

swisspeace: a practice-oriented peace research

institute that is associated with the University of
Basel, Switzerland; analyzes the causes of
violent conflicts and develops strategies for
their peaceful transformation.

CDA Collaborative Learning Projects : an action

research and advisory organization dedicated to
improving the effectiveness and accountability
of peacebuilding, development, and
humanitarian efforts wherever communities
experience conflict.

Role of women …

Women have traditionally played a limited role in

peacebuilding processes even though they often
bear the responsibility for providing for their
families' basic needs in the aftermath of violent
conflict. They are especially likely to be
unrepresented or underrepresented in
negotiations, political decision-making, upper-
level policymaking and senior judicial positions.
Many societies' patriarchal cultures prevent them
from recognizing the role women can play in
peacebuilding.[53] However, many peacebuilding
academics and the United Nations have
recognized that women play a vital role in securing
the three pillars of sustainable peace: economic
recovery and reconciliation, social cohesion and
development and political legitimacy, security and
governance.[54][55]

In October 2000, United Nations Security Council

Resolution 1325 (S/RES/1325) on women, peace,
and security was adopted unanimously by the UN
Security Council, after recalling resolutions 1261
(1999), 1265 (1999), 1296 (2000), and 1314
(2000). The resolution acknowledged the
disproportionate and unique impact of armed
conflict on women and girls. It calls for the
adoption of a gender perspective to consider the
special needs of women and girls during conflict,
repatriation and resettlement, rehabilitation,
reintegration, and post-conflict reconstruction.[56]

In 2010, at the request of the Security Council, the

Secretary-General issued an updated report on
women's participation in peacebuilding. The
report outlines the challenges women continue to
face in participating in recovery and peacebuilding
process and the negative impact this exclusion
has on them and societies more broadly. To
respond to these challenges, it advocates a
comprehensive 7-point action plan covering the
seven commitment areas: mediation; post-conflict
planning; financing; civilian capacity; post-conflict
governance; rule of law; and economic recovery.
The action plan aims to facilitate progress on the
women, peace and security agenda. The
monitoring and implementation of this action plan
is now being led jointly by the Peacebuilding
Support Office and UN Women.[57] In April 2011,
the two organizations convened a workshop to
ensure that women are included in future post-
disaster and post-conflict planning documents. In
the same year, the PBF selected seven gender-
sensitive peacebuilding projects to receive $5
million in funding.[54]

Porter discusses the growing role of female

leadership in countries prone to war and its impact
on peacebuilding. When the book was written,
seven countries prone to violent conflict had
female heads of state. Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf of
Liberia and Michelle Bachelet of Chile were the
first female heads of state from their respective
countries and President Johnson-Sirleaf was the
first female head of state in Africa. Both women
utilized their gender to harness "the power of
maternal symbolism - the hope that a woman
could best close wounds left on their societies by
war and dictatorship."[58]

Examples in early 21st

…
century

UN PBC and PBF projects as of 2012[59]

UN PBF projects as of 2012[60]

The UN Peacebuilding Commission works in

Burundi, Central African Republic, Guinea,
Guinea-Bissau, Liberia and Sierra Leone[59] and
the UN Peacebuilding Fund funds projects in
Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad,
Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, the Democratic Republic
of the Congo, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Guatemala,
Haiti, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Liberia, Nepal,
Niger, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan,
South Sudan, Timor-Leste and Uganda.[60] Other
UN organizations are working in Haiti
(MINUSTAH),[61] Lebanon,[62] Afghanistan, Kosovo
and Iraq.

The World Bank's International Development

Association maintains the Trust Fund for East
Timor in Timor-Leste. The TFET has assisted
reconstruction, community empowerment and
local governance in the country.[63]

After it had carried out the War in Afghanistan and

the War in Iraq, the United States followed its
attacks on the two countries by investing $104
billion in reconstruction and relief efforts. The Iraq
Relief and Reconstruction Fund alone received $21
billion during FY2003 and FY2004.[64] The money
came from the United States Department of State,
the United States Agency for International
Development and the United States Department of
Defense and included funding for security, health,
education, social welfare, governance, economic
growth and humanitarian issues.[65]

Civil society organisations contribute to

peacebuilding, as is the case in Kenya, according
to the magazine D+C Development and
Cooperation . After the election riots in Kenya in
2008, civil society organisations started
programmes to avoid similar disasters in the
future, such as the Truth, Justice and
Reconciliation Commission (TJRC) and peace
meetings organised by the church. They
supported the National Cohesion and Integration
Commission.

Results …

In 2010, the UNPBC conducted a review of its

work with the first four countries on its agenda.[66]
An independent review by the Pulitzer Center on
Crisis Reporting also highlighted some of the
PBC's early successes and challenges.[67]

One comprehensive study finds that UN

peacebuilding missions significantly increase the
likelihood of democratization.[68]

Criticisms …

Jennifer Hazen contends there are two major

debates relating to peacebuilding; the first
centres on the role of the liberal democratic model
in designing peacebuilding activities and
measuring outcomes and the other one questions
the role of third-party actors in peacebuliding.[5]

Regarding the debate about the role of the liberal

democratic model in peacebuilding, one side
contends that liberal democracy is a viable end
goal for peacebuilding activities in itself but that
the activities implemented to achieve it need to be
revised; a rushed transition to democratic
elections and market economy can undermine
stability and elections held or economic legislation
enacted are an inappropriate yardstick for
success. Institutional change is necessary and
transitions need to be incremental.

Another side contends that liberal democracy

might be an insufficient or even inappropriate goal
for peacebuilding efforts and that the focus must
be on a social transformation to develop non-
violent mechanisms of conflict resolution
regardless of their form.[5]

With regards to the role of third-party actors,

David Chandler contends that external support
creates dependency and undermines local and
domestic politics, thus undermining autonomy
and the capacity for self-governance and leaving
governments weak and dependent on foreign
assistance once the third-party actors depart.[69]
Since the logic of peacebuilding relies on building
and strengthening institutions to alter societal
beliefs and behaviour, success relies on the
populations' endorsement of these institutions.
Any third party attempt at institution building
without genuine domestic support will result in
hollow institutions - this can lead to a situation in
which democratic institutions are established
before domestic politics have developed in a
liberal, democratic fashion, and an unstable polity.

Séverine Autesserre offers a different approach,

which focuses on the role of everyday practices in
peacebuilding.[70] She argue that the foreign
peace builders' everyday practices, habits, and
narratives strongly influence peacebuilding
effectiveness. Autesserre stresses that
international peacebuilders do not fully
understand the conflicts they are trying to resolve
because they rarely include local leaders in
decision making, do not speak the local
languages, and do not stay posted long enough to
oversee effective change. This leaves decision
makers out of touch with the key players in the
peacebuilding process.

Jeremy Weinstein challenges the assumption that

weak and failing states cannot rebuild themselves.
He contends that through the process of
autonomous recovery, international peacekeeping
missions can be unnecessary for recovery
because they assume that conflicts cannot be
resolved by the country internally.[71] He describes
autonomous recovery as a "process through
which countries achieve a lasting peace, a
systematic reduction in violence, and postwar
political and economic development in the
absence of international intervention".[71] Through
peace and institutions generated by allowing war
to run its natural course, autonomous recovery
can be viewed as a success. He claims that war
leads to peace by allowing the naturally stronger
belligerent gain power, rather than a brokered
peace deal that leaves two sides still capable of
fighting. Secondly he claims that war provides a
competition among providers of public goods until
one can control a monopoly. He says that war can
create an incentive to create institutions at all
levels in order to consolidate power and extract
resources from the citizens while also giving some
power to the citizens depending upon how much
the institutions rely on them for tax revenues.

Virginia Fortna of Columbia University, however,

holds that peacekeeping interventions actually do
substantively matter following the end of a civil
war.[72] She claims that selection bias, where
opponents point only to failed peacekeeping
interventions and do not compare these missions
to those situations where interventions do not
occur, is partly to blame for criticisms. Fortna says
that peacekeeping missions rarely go into easily
resolvable situations while they are sent into
tougher, more risky post war situations where
missions are more likely to fail, and peace
agreements are unlikely to be committed to. When
all factors of a certain peacekeeping case study
are properly considered, Fortna shows that
peacekeeping missions do in fact help increase
the chances of sustained peace after a civil war.

Implementation …

Michael N. Barnett et al. criticize peacebuilding

organizations for undertaking supply-driven
rather than demand-driven peacebuilding; they
provide the peacebuilding services in which their
organization specializes, not necessarily those
that the recipient most needs.[73] In addition, he
argues that many of their actions are based on
organizations precedent rather than empirical
analysis of which interventions are and are not
effective.[19] More recently, Ben Hillman has
criticized international donor efforts to strengthen
local governments in the wake of conflict. He
argues that international donors typically do not
have the knowledge, skills or resources to bring
meaningful change to the way post-conflict
societies are governed.[74][75]

Perpetuation of cultural hegemony …

Many academics argue that peacebuilding is a

manifestation of liberal internationalism and
therefore imposes Western values and practices
onto other cultures. Mac Ginty states that
although peacebuilding does not project all
aspects of Western culture on to the recipient
states, it does transmit some of them, including
concepts like neoliberalism that the West requires
recipients of aid to follow more closely than most
Western countries do.[76] Barnett also comments
that the promotion of liberalization and
democratization may undermine the
peacebuilding process if security and stable
institutions are not pursued concurrently.[77]
Richmond has shown how 'liberal peacebuilding'
represents a political encounter that may produce
a post-liberal form of peace. Local and
international actors, norms, institutions and
interests engage with each other in various
different contexts, according to their respective
power relations and their different conceptions of
legitimate authority structures.[78] Knowles and
Matisek adapt to the inherent problem of
peacebuilding by arguing for a better vision of
security force assistance (SFA) - donor
states/actors trying to build effective host-nation
security forces in a weak state - where they shift
the focus from military effectiveness (a typical
western hegemonic approach) to one that
empowers local informal security actors to take
ownership of their security and to be a part of the
strategic vision of the state. Such an approach
attempts to bypass the inherent flaws of SFA
imposing a Western security architecture on a
state that does not have the institutions,
resources, or civil-military relations to support
this 'alien' form of security sector reform (SSR).
[79]

See also …

Education for justice

Environmental peacebuilding

Religion and peacebuilding

Peace and conflict studies

Peacebuilding in Jammu and Kashmir

Nation-building

State-building

Structural-Peace with theatre and simulation

Notes …

1. ^ a b "What is Strategic Peacebuilding?" . Kroc

Institute for International Peace Studies, University
of Notre Dame. 2018. Retrieved 2018-12-25.

2. ^ Rapoport, A. (1989). The origins of violence:

Approaches to the study of conflict. New York, NY:
Paragon House.

3. ^ Rapoport, A. (1992). Peace: An idea whose time

has come. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan
Press.

4. ^ Coning, C (2013). "Understanding

Peacebuilding as Essentially Local" . Stability:
International Journal of Security and Development.
2 (1): 6. doi:10.5334/sta.as .

5. ^ a b c Hazen, Jennifer M. (2007). "Can

Peacekeepers Be Peacebuilders?". International
Peacekeeping. 14 (3): 323–338.
doi:10.1080/13533310701422901 .
S2CID 144697583 .

6. ^ Lakhdar, Brahimi. (2000). Report of the Panel on

United Nations Peace Operations. United Nations.
https://www.un.org/en/events/pastevents/brahimi
_report.shtml

7. ^ a b c Peacebuilding & The United Nations ,

United Nations Peacebuilding Support Office,
United Nations. Retrieved 18 March 2012.

8. ^ Sandole 92, 101

9. ^ "Peace Building Initiative - History" .

www.peacebuildinginitiative.org. Retrieved
2018-12-25.

10. ^ Lederach, John Paul (1996). Enredos, pleitos y

problemas: una guía práctica para ayudar a resolver
conflictos. Santafé de Bogotá, Colombia:
Ediciones CLARA-SEMILLA. ISBN 978-
8489389069. OCLC 35626561 .

11. ^ Lederach, John Paul (1995). Preparing for peace:

conflict transformation across cultures. Syracuse,
N.Y.: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-
0815626565. OCLC 31815462 .

12. ^ Lederach, John Paul (1997). Building peace:

sustainable reconciliation in divided societies.
Washington, D.C. ISBN 978-1878379733.
OCLC 37606240 .

13. ^ Keating XXXIV

14. ^ a b Lederach, John Paul. "Justpeace" .

homepage.univie.ac.at. Archived from the
original on 2017-02-15. Retrieved 2018-12-25.

15. ^ "An Agenda for Peace" . UN Secretary-General.

31 Jan 1992. Retrieved 15 April 2012.

16. ^ Barnett 36

17. ^ a b c "About PSBO" . United Nations. Retrieved

18 March 2012.

18. ^ Barnett 43

19. ^ a b Barnett 53

20. ^ a b "Negative versus Positive Peace - Irénées" .

www.irenees.net. Retrieved 2018-12-25.

21. ^ a b Galtung, Johan (2011), "Peace, Positive and

Negative", The Encyclopedia of Peace Psychology,
American Cancer Society,
doi:10.1002/9780470672532.wbepp189 ,
ISBN 9780470672532

22. ^ Galtung, Johan (August 1990). "Cultural

Violence". Journal of Peace Research. 27 (3): 291–
305. doi:10.1177/0022343390027003005 .
ISSN 0022-3433 . S2CID 220989188 .

23. ^ Lijphart, Arend (2004). "Constitutional design

for divided societies" (PDF). Journal of
Democracy. 15 (2): 96–109 [97].
doi:10.1353/jod.2004.0029 . S2CID 19665603 .
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-10-28.
Retrieved 2020-01-22.

24. ^ McCulloch, Allison (June 2013). "Does

Moderation Pay? Centripetalism in Deeply Divided
Societies" . Ethnopolitics. 12 (2): 111–132.
doi:10.1080/17449057.2012.658002 .
ISSN 1744-9057 . S2CID 144570242 .

25. ^ a b Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced

International Studies (SAIS). "Approaches-
Peacebuilding" . Conflict Management Toolkit.
Retrieved 18 March 2012.

26. ^ a b Keating XXXVII

27. ^ a b Sandole 13–14

28. ^ Sandole 12

29. ^ Barnett et al. 49–50

30. ^ Mac Ginty 212

31. ^ Mac Ginty, R (2012). "Against Stabilization" .

Stability: International Journal of Security and
Development. 1 (1): 20–30. doi:10.5334/sta.ab .

32. ^ Zartman, I. William (2001). "The Timing of Peace

Initiatives: Hurting Stalemates and Ripe
Moments" (PDF).

33. ^ A historic resolution to protect cultural heritage,

The UNESCO Courier

34. ^ Action plan to preserve heritage sites during

conflict - United Nations Peacekeeping, 12 April
2019.

35. ^ "Austrian Armed Forces Mission in Lebanon"

(in German).

36. ^ UNESCO Director-General calls for stronger

cooperation for heritage protection at the Blue
Shield International General Assembly. UNESCO, 13
September 2017.

37. ^ "Karl von Habsburg auf Mission im Libanon"

(in German).

38. ^ Corine Wegener, Marjan Otter: Cultural Property

at War: Protecting Heritage during Armed Conflict.
In: The Getty Conservation Institute, Newsletter
23.1, Spring 2008.

39. ^ Eden Stiffman: Cultural Preservation in

Disasters, War Zones. Presents Big Challenges. In:
The Chronicle Of Philanthropy, 11 May 2015.

40. ^ "Mandate of the Peacebuilding Commission" .

United Nations. Retrieved 18 March 2012.

41. ^ "How we fund" . United Nations. Retrieved

18 March 2012.

42. ^ a b Barnett et al. 38

43. ^ Barnett et al. 43

44. ^ ADE, Thematic Evaluation of European

Commission Support to Conflict Prevention and
Peace-building, Evaluation for the Evaluation Unit
of DEVCO, October 2011,
http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/how/evaluation/eval
uation_reports/2011/1291_docs_en.htm <>

45. ^ "Peacebuilding Assistance: Japan's Action" .

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Retrieved
2022-07-31.

46. ^ "平和構築・開発におけるグローバル⼈材育成事業
平和構築・開発の担い⼿をつくります" . Ministry
of Foreign Affairs of Japan (in Japanese). Retrieved
2022-07-31.

47. ^ See the 2012 report of the Swiss Federal

Department of Foreign Affairs (FDFA) [1]

48. ^ Barnett et al. 38–40

49. ^ Edward Luttwak "Franco-German Reconciliation:

The overlooked role of the Moral Re-Armament
movement", in Douglas Johnston and Cynthia
Sampson (eds.), Religion, the Missing Dimension of
Statecraft, Oxford University Press, 1994, pp37–
63.

50. ^ See the 2012 report of the Swiss Federal

Department of Foreign Affairs (FDFA), page 20
[2]

51. ^ Peacemaker Camp 2007, website

52. ^ Gibson, Caitlin (1 August 2011). "Teens affected

by terrorism unite to promote peace" . The
Washington Post.

53. ^ Porter 190

54. ^ a b "Policy Issues" . United Nations. Retrieved

15 April 2012.

55. ^ Porter 184

56. ^ "Security Council, unanimously adopting

resolution 1325 (2000), calls for broad
participation of women in peace-building post-
conflict reconstruction" . United Nations. 31
October 2000. Archived from the original on
2006-09-29. Retrieved 2019-11-20.

57. ^ "Women's Participation in Peacebuilding"

(PDF). United Nations Security Council. Retrieved
2 April 2012.

58. ^ Porter 185

59. ^ a b "United Nations Peacebuilding

Commission" . United Nations. Retrieved 10 April
2012.

60. ^ a b "Where we fund-United Nations

Peacebuilding Fund" . United Nations. Retrieved
10 April 2012.

61. ^ Keating 120

62. ^ Mac Ginty 180

63. ^ Keating XLII-XLIII

64. ^ Tarnoff 14

65. ^ Tarnoff 2

66. ^ "2010 Review" . United Nations. Retrieved

10 April 2012.

67. ^ Moore, Jina. "United Nations Peacebuilding

Commission in Africa" . 9 Dec 2011. Pulitzer
Center on Crisis Reporting. Retrieved 2 April 2012.

68. ^ Steinert, Janina Isabel; Grimm, Sonja (2015-11-

01). "Too good to be true? United Nations
peacebuilding and the democratization of war-
torn states" . Conflict Management and Peace
Science. 32 (5): 513–535.
doi:10.1177/0738894214559671 . ISSN 0738-
8942 . S2CID 16428285 .

69. ^ David Chandler, Empire in Denial: The Politics of

State-building, London: Pluto Press, 2006.

70. ^ Autesserre, Severine (2014). Peaceland: Conflict

Resolution and the Everyday Politics of International
Intervention. Cambridge University Press.

71. ^ a b Weinstein, Jeremy. "Autonomous Recovery

and International Intervention in Comparative
Perspective - Working Paper 57" . Center For
Global Development. Retrieved 2017-05-19.

72. ^ Fortna, Virginia. "Does Peacekeeping Keep

Peace? International Intervention and the Duration
of Peace After Civil War" (PDF). International
Studies Quarterly. Retrieved 2017-05-19.

73. ^ Barnett 48

74. ^ Hillman, Ben (2011). "The Policymaking

Dimension of Post-Conflict Governance: the
Experience of Aceh, Indonesia" (PDF). Conflict
Security and Development. 11 (5): 133–153.
doi:10.1080/14678802.2011.641769 .
S2CID 154508600 .

75. ^ Hillman, Ben (2012). "Public Administration

Reform in Post-Conflict Societies: Lessons from
Aceh, Indonesia" (PDF). Public Administration
and Development. 33: 1–14.
doi:10.1002/pad.1643 .

76. ^ Mac Ginty 38

77. ^ Barnett 51

78. ^ Oliver P Richmond, A Post-Liberal Peace,

Routledge, 2011

79. ^ Knowles, Emily; Matisek, Jahara (2019).

"Western Security Force Assistance in Weak
States: Time for a Peacebuilding Approach". The
RUSI Journal. 164 (3): 10–21.
doi:10.1080/03071847.2019.1643258 .
S2CID 200064053 .

References …

Andersson, Ruben; Weigand, Florian (2015).

"Intervention at Risk: The Vicious Cycle of
Distance and Danger in Mali and Afghanistan" .
Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding. 9 (4):
519–541.
doi:10.1080/17502977.2015.1054655 .
S2CID 142711187 .

Autesserre, Severine (2014). Peaceland:

Conflict Resolution and the Everyday Politics of
International Intervention. UK: Cambridge
University Press.

Barnett, Michael; Kim, Hunjoon; O'Donnell,

Madalene; Sitea, Laura (2007). "Peacebuilding:
What Is in a Name?". Global Governance. 13:
35–58. doi:10.1163/19426720-01301004 .
S2CID 143099117 .

Duffield, Mark R. (2010). "Risk-Management

and the Fortified Aid Compound: Everyday Life
in Post-Interventionary Society". Journal of
Intervention and Statebuilding. 4 (4): 453–474.
doi:10.1080/17502971003700993 .
S2CID 143968012 .

Keating, Tom; Knight, W., eds. (2004). Building

Sustainable Peace . Canada: United Nations
University Press and The University of Alberta
Press. ISBN 978-92-808-1101-8.

Kopelman, Shirli (February 2020). "Tit for tat

and beyond: the legendary work of Anatol
Rapoport" . Negotiation and Conflict
Management Research. 13 (1): 60–84.
doi:10.1111/ncmr.12172 .

Mac Ginty, Roger (2011). International

Peacebuilding and Local Resistance. United
Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-
27376-4.

Ndura-Ouédraogo and, Elavie; Amster, Randall,

eds. (2009). Building Cultures of Peace:
Transdisciplinary Voices of Hope and Action.
Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
ISBN 9781443813297. OCLC 435734902 .

"Peace, Peacebuilding, Peacemaking" (PDF).

Berghof Glossary on Conflict Transformation.
Berlin, Germany: Berghof Foundation. 2012.
pp. 59–64. ISBN 978-3-941514-09-6. Retrieved
6 March 2015.

Porter, Elisabeth (2007). Peacebuilding: Women

in International Perspective. Oxon, UK:
Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-39791-9.

Richmond, Oliver (2011). A Post-Liberal Peace.

UK: Routledge.

Sandole, Dennis (2010). Peacebuilding.

Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-
4165-2.

Schirch, Lisa (2006). Little Book of Strategic

Peacebuilding. Little Books of Justice &
Peacebuilding. Intercourse, PA: Good Books.
ISBN 9781561484270. OCLC 56111659 .

Schirch, Lisa (2013). Conflict Assessment and

Peacebuilding Planning: Toward a Participatory
Approach to Human Security. Boulder, Colo.:
Kumarian Press. ISBN 9781565495784.
OCLC 805831468 .

Bojicic-Dzelilovic, Vesna (2017). "Owning the

Peace in International Interventions: a Delusion
or a Possibility?". hdl:10411/20875 .

Tarnoff, Curt; Marian L. Lawson (2011). Foreign

Aid: An Introduction to U.S. Programs and Policy
(Technical report). Congressional Research
Service. R40213.

Walters, Diana; Laven, Daniel; Davis, Peter

(2017). Heritage & Peacebuilding . Suffolk, UK:
Boydell Press. ISBN 9781783272167.

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