Manapallil 4ed Basic Dental Materials
Manapallil 4ed Basic Dental Materials
Manapallil 4ed Basic Dental Materials
CHAPTER
Gypsum Products
Chapter Outline
Applications Theories of Setting Hardness and Abrasion
– Supplied As The Microstructure of Set Resistance
Classification Gypsum Flow
Type 1 or Impression Plaster Manipulation Reproduction of Detail
Type 2 or Dental Plaster, Model Setting Time Specialized Gypsum Products
Type 3 or Dental Stone, Model – Penetrometers – Dental Casting Investments
Type 4 or Dental Stone, Die, Properties – Divestment
High Strength, Low Expansion Setting Expansion – Synthetic Gypsum
Type 5 or Dental Stone, – Normal Setting Expansion – Orthodontic Stone
Die, High Strength, High (0.05 to 0.5%) – Resin Modified Stones
Expansion – Hygroscopic Setting – Mounting Plaster
Manufacture of Gypsum Expansion – Fast Setting Stone
Products Strength Care of Gypsum
Setting Reaction – Tensile Strength Infection Control
Products of gypsum are used extensively in dentistry. Gypsum was found in mines around the
city of Paris, so it is also called plaster of Paris. This is a misnomer as gypsum is found in most
countries. The mineral gypsum CaSO4. 2H2O is usually white to yellowish white in color and
is found as a compact mass. Gypsum is also an industrial byproduct. For centuries gypsum
has been used for construction purposes and making statues. Alabaster, a form of gypsum
which is white in color, was used for building in ancient times. Besides dentistry, gypsum is
also used in orthopedics for splinting fractured bones.
APPLICATIONS
1. Impression plaster was used extensively in the past for impressions of the mouth and face.
2. Various types of plasters are used to make moulds, casts and dies over which dental
prostheses and restorations are made (Figs. 18.1A to E).
3. To attach casts to an articulator (Fig. 18.1D).
4. For bite registration (e.g., to record centric jaw relation).
5. Dental investments Plaster mixed with silica is known as dental investment. They are
used to form refractory moulds into which molten metal is cast.
SuPPLIed AS
Powders of various colors in small preweighed sachets, in medium-sized bags or containers
or in large bags, sacks or bins (bulk) (Figs. 18.2A to C).
Gypsum Products CHAPTER 18 311
CLASSIfICATION
ISO 6873:2013
Type 1—Dental plaster for impressions
Type 2—Dental plaster
Class 1 - for mounting
Class 2 - for models
Type 3—Dental stone for models
Type 4—Dental stone (high strength, low expansion) for dies
Type 5—Dental stone (high strength, high expansion) for dies
B C D e
Figures 18.1A tO e Gypsum products are widely used in dentistry. (A) Orthodontic models. (B) A cast with removable
die made from die stone. (C) A plaster mould used in denture construction. (D) Mounting plaster for mounting casts on an
articulator. (e) Dental restoration constructed on a stone working cast.
A B C
Figures 18.2A tO C Gypsum products are supplied in a variety of forms. as preweighed sachets, in medium sized containers
or in large bags or sacks (bulk packing). (A) Mounting plaster. (B) High strength stone (die stone) in 1 to 3 kg container. (C)
Dental stone (can range from 5 to 25 kg bulk pack).
312 PART 5 Dental Laboratory—Materials and Processes
starch to make it soluble. After the cast has hardened, the impression and cast are put in hot
water. The starch swells and the impression disintegrates, making it easy to separate the cast.
This type is often called ‘soluble plaster’.
uSeS
1. For making impressions in complete denture and maxillofacial prosthetics (not used
currently for this purpose).
2. Bite registration material.
IdeAL RequIReMeNTS
1. The setting time should be under accurate control. The dentist must have sufficient time
to mix, load the impression tray, carry the loaded tray to the patient’s mouth and place it
in position. However, once in position the plaster should harden promptly, so that there
is minimum discomfort to the patient. The setting time desirable is 3 to 5 minutes.
2. For better accuracy the setting expansion should be low. Both setting time and expansion
are controlled by modifiers (accelerators and retarders) added by the manufacturers.
3. The plaster should have enough strength to fracture cleanly without crumbling to facilitate
removal from undercuts.
COMPOSITION
Dental plaster + K2SO4 + Borax + Coloring and flavoring agents.
uSeS
1. For making study casts and models.
2. To make molds for curing dentures.
3. For mounting casts on articulator.
COMPOSITION
Contains beta hemihydrate and modifiers.
COMPOSITION
Ingredient Action
Alphahemihydrate
Coloring matter 2 to 3%
Potassium Sulphate (K2SO) Accelerator
Borax Retarder
Some commercial dental stones contain a small amount of beta hemihydrate to provide a
mix of smoother consistency.
A stone with a setting time established by the addition of proper quantities of both accelerator
and retarder is called ‘balanced stone’. Typical accelerators are potassium sulfate and potassium
sodium tartrate (Rochelle Salts). Typical retarders are sodium citrate and sodium tetraborate
decahydrate (Borax).
The compressive strength varies from 3000 to 5000 psi.
The setting expansion of dental stone is 0.06% to 0.12%.
Hardness: 82 RHN.
uSeS
Die stone (Fig. 18.3D) is the strongest and hardest variety of gypsum product. It is used when
high strength and surface hardness is required. Uses include model bases, CAD/CAM dies and
dies for fabricating inlay, crown and bridge wax patterns.
A thick mix is prepared as per manufacturer’s instruction and vibrated into a rubber base
impression. The base for such a model is poured in dental stone or dental plaster. Die stone
should be left for twenty four hours to gain maximum hardness and the cast should be
separated one hour after pouring. The abrasion resistance of die stone is not high as other
die materials like epoxy resin.
Recent revision of the ISO (2013) have included additional requirements for Type 4 stone to
reflecting the introduction of new technologies like CAD/CAM (Table 18.1).
uSeS
To prepare dies with increased expansion.
314 PART 5 Dental Laboratory—Materials and Processes
A B C D
BOX 18.1
Chemically both α and β types are the same. They differ mainly in crystal size and form. The β type is spongy and irregular.
Whereas, α crystals are more dense and prismatic. Some authors suggest that the use of α and β prefixes should be
discontinued.
Microscopically Fibrous aggregate of fine crystals with capillary pores. They are then ground
to breakup the needlelike crystals. This improves packing.
Heat
CaSO4.2H2O CaSO4.1/2H2O
110-130 °C (β hemihydrate)
Microscopically Cleavage fragments and crystals in the form of rods and prisms.
SeTTING ReACTION
When plaster is mixed with water it takes up one and a half molecules of water, i.e., it regains
its water of crystallization and becomes calcium sulphate dihydrate.
(CaSO4)2 .H2O + 3H2O 2 CaSO4.2H2O + unreacted (CaSO4)2 . ½H2O + Heat
Hemihydrate + Water Dihydrate + Unreacted hemihydrate + Heat
The reaction is exothermic and is the same for all gypsum products. The amount of water
required to produce a workable mix varies between the products. As evident from the above
reaction not all of the hemihydrate converts to dihydrate. The amount of conversion is
dependent on the type of stone. The highest conversion rate is seen in plaster (90%). In Type
4 and 5 stone the dihydrate content is about 50%.
TheORIeS Of SeTTING
Three theories have been proposed.
1. Colloidal theory
2. Hydration theory
3. Dissolution - precipitation theory
316 PART 5 Dental Laboratory—Materials and Processes
COLLOIdAL TheORY
The theory proposes that when mixed with water, plaster enters into a colloidal state through
a sol-gel mechanism. In the sol state, hemihydrate combines with water (hydrates) to form
dihydrate. As the water is consumed, the mass turns to a ‘solid gel’.
hYdRATION TheORY
The hydration theory suggests that rehydrated plaster particles join together through
hydrogen bonding to the sulfate groups to form the set material.
A B
Figures 18.4A AnD B (A) SEM of set gypsum showing needle-like clusters (x1550). (B) A single
crystal is called a spherulite.
Gypsum Products CHAPTER 18 317
The actual amount of water necessary to mix the calcium sulphate hemihydrate is greater than the amount required for
the chemical reaction (18.61 gm of water per 100 gm of hemihydrate). This is called excess water.
The excess water itself does not react with the hemihydrate crystals. It is eventually lost by evaporation once the gypsum
is set. The excess water serves only to aid in mixing the powder particles and is replaced by voids.
Microporosity resulting from growth of gypsum crystals. These voids are associated with
setting expansion and are smaller than the first type. They appear as angular spaces
between individual crystals in the aggregate.
MANIPuLATION
PROPORTIONING
To secure maximum strength a low water/powder ratio should be used. The water should be
measured and the powder weighed.
water/powder ratio
The W/P ratio is a very important factor in deciding the physical and chemical properties of
the final product.
Example The higher the water-powder ratio, the longer is the setting time and weaker will
be the gypsum product. Therefore, water/powder ratio should be kept as low as possible but
at the same time sufficient to produce a workable mix.
INSTRuMeNTS
Flexible rubber/plastic bowl, stiff bladed spatula.
MeChANICAL MIxING
Mechanical mixing under vacuum gives stronger and denser casts. However, the equipment
is expensive.
SeTTING TIMe
The time elapsing from the beginning of mixing until the material hardens is called setting time.
Mixing time It is the time from the addition the powder to the water until mixing is complete.
A mixing time of 1 minute is usually sufficient.
Working time It is the time available to work with the mix for the intended purpose, i.e., one
that maintains an even consistency. At the end of the working period the material thickens
Types of penetrometers
Vicat needle
Gillmore needles
Vicat needle (Fig. 18.8) It weighs 300 gm and the needle diameter is 1 mm. The time
elapsing from the start of mixing till the needle does not penetrate to the bottom of the
plaster is the setting time. The setting time obtained with the Vicat needle is similar to the
initial Gillmore.
Gillmore needles Two types—small and large (Fig. 18.9). The small Gillmore needle has a
1/4 lb weight and a diameter of 1/12” (2.12 mm) while the large Gillmore has a 1 lb wt and
diameter of 1/24” (1.06 mm).
Initial Gillmore The time elapsing from the start of mixing until the time when the point
of the 1/4 lb Gillmore needle no longer penetrates the surface is the initial setting time
Figure 18.8 Vicat needle. Figure 18.9 Gillmore apparatus. Besides dentistry,
it is also used in general industry to determine initial
and final set times of Portland cement, masonry
cement, hydrated lime, mortars, etc.
320 PART 5 Dental Laboratory—Materials and Processes
Final Gillmore Similarly the time elapsing from the start of mixing until the point of the 1
lb Gillmore needle leaves only a barely visible mark on the surface of the set plaster is known
as the final setting time.
Accelerators and retarders not only modify setting time, they also affect other properties like setting expansion and strength.
Accelerators
Finely powdered gypsum (up to 1%) is added by manufacturers to accelerate setting time.
Acts by providing additional nuclei of crystallization. One source of gypsum is slurry water.
In low concentrations, salts like sodium or potassium sulphate (2 to 3%) and sodium
chloride (up to 2%) are accelerators. They act by making the hemihydrate more soluble.
Retarders
Retarders generally act by forming a layer on the hemihydrate to reduce its solubility. It also
inhibits the growth of gypsum crystals.
Borax (1–2%) is the most effective retarder. During setting, it forms a coating of calcium
borate around the hemihydrate. Thus, the water cannot come in contact with the
hemihydrate.
Gypsum Products CHAPTER 18 321
In higher concentrations, sodium chloride (3.4% to 20%) and sodium sulphate act
as retarders. In higher concentrations, the salt precipitates and poisons the nuclei of
crystallization.
Acetates, borates, citrates, tartrates and salts like ferric sulphate, chromic sulphate,
aluminium sulphate, etc., are retarders, which act by nuclei poisoning by reducing the rate
of solution of hemihydrate or by inhibiting growth of dihydrate crystals. Some additives
react with hemihydrate, e.g., soluble tartrates and citrates precipitate calcium tartrate
and citrate, respectively.
Colloids such as gelatin, glue, agar, coagulated blood, etc. are effective retarders,
presumably acting by nuclei poisoning. Contact with the gypsum during setting results
in a soft, easily abraded surface.
To avoid The impression should be thoroughly rinsed in cold water to remove blood
and saliva before pouring.
PROPeRTIeS
The important properties of gypsum products are
Setting expansion
Strength
Hardness and abrasion resistance
Reproduction of detail
SeTTING exPANSION
Setting expansion is measured using an extensometer. Setting expansion is of two types
1. Normal setting expansion
2. Hygroscopic setting expansion
STReNGTh
The strength increases rapidly as the material hardens after the initial setting. Minimum
strength requirements (ISO) for various gypsum products are presented in Table 18.1.
TeNSILe STReNGTh
Gypsum is a brittle material, thus weaker in tension than in compression.
The one hour tensile strength of model plaster is approximately 2.3 MPa. When dry, the tensile
strength doubles. The tensile strength of dental stone is twice than that of plaster.
Significance Teeth on a cast may fracture while separating from the impression. Since in
practice fracture of gypsum typically occurs in tension, tensile strength is a better guide to
fracture resistance.
Time at which cast can be used The cast cannot be used as soon as it reaches its final setting
(as defined by the Vicat and Gillmore tests). This is because the cast has not reached its full
strength. Technically the cast can be used when it has attained at least 80% of its one hour
strength. Current products are ready for use in 30 minutes.
fLOw
The flow of freshly mixed gypsum depends on the amount of water used (W/P ratio). The
greater the amount of water used, the greater would be the flow. However, a correctly
proportioned mix has sufficient flow. Vibrating the mix greatly improves the flow. The flow
reduces as it approaches its initial set.
RePROduCTION Of deTAIL
Gypsum products reproduce detail accurately (Table 18.1).
Significance
Impression plaster has to accurately record oral tissues.
Cast material has to duplicate all the detail recorded by the impression.
324 PART 5 Dental Laboratory—Materials and Processes
Factors which affect detail reproduction include compatibility with the impression material,
trapped air bubbles in the mix and surface contaminants like saliva. Use of a mechanical
vibrator and proper technique considerably improve detail reproduction.
uses
To prepare refractory molds for casting dental
alloys.
Adding a refractory material like silica or
quartz or cristobalite to dental plaster
or stone permits it to withstand high
temperatures. These are called dental casting
investments (Fig. 18.11) (detailed in Chapter
on investments). Figure 18.11 Gypsum bonded investment
(Courtesy: MCODS, Manipal).
dIVeSTMeNT
uses
To make refractory dies.
It is a combination of die stone and gypsum-bonded investment mixed with colloidal silica. A
die is made and the wax pattern constructed on it. Then the entire assembly (die and pattern)
is invested in the divestment (normally the wax pattern is removed from the die and invested
separately).
The setting expansion of the material is 0.9% and thermal expansion is 0.6% when heated
to 677 °C. The advantage of divestment is that the wax pattern does not have to be removed
from the die, thus distortion of the pattern can be avoided.
SYNTheTIC GYPSuM
It is possible to make alpha and beta hemihydrate from the byproducts during the manufacture
of phosphoric acid.
The synthetic product is usually more expensive than that made from natural gypsum, but
when the product is properly made, its properties are equal to or exceed the latter. However,
manufacture is difficult and a few have succeeded (e.g., Japan and Germany).
ORThOdONTIC STONe
For orthodontic study models, many orthodontists prefer to used white stone or plaster
(Fig. 18.12). These products have a longer working time for pouring of multiple models.
To produce a glossy surface, finished models may be treated with ‘model glow’ model soap.
MOuNTING PLASTeR
Plaster used for attaching the cast to the articulator (Fig. 18.1D) is known as mounting
plaster (Fig. 18.13). Regular plaster (type II, class 1) has higher setting expansion and should
be avoided for mounting. However, plasters with lower setting expansion (described by ISO
6873:2013 as Type II, Class 1) specialized for this purpose are available commercially. Important
properties for these products include a low setting expansion (0 to 0.05 %) which is important
for the accuracy of the mounting, low strength (12 MPa) which allows easy separation from
the cast and fast setting time (3 minutes).
CARe Of GYPSuM
CARe Of The CAST
If the gypsum cast has to be soaked in water it must be placed in a water bath in which plaster
debris is allowed to remain constantly on the bottom of the container to provide a saturated
solution of calcium sulfate at all times. This is known as ‘slurry water’. If the cast is washed
in ordinary water, surface layer may dissolve, hence slurry water is used to preserve surface
details. Such a procedure also causes a negligible expansion. All gypsum casts must be handled
carefully as any departure from the expected accuracy may result in a poorly fitting appliance.
Figure 18.12 Orthodontic stone (Kalabhai) and model. Figure 18.13 Mounting plaster.
326 PART 5 Dental Laboratory—Materials and Processes
contaminated stone or plaster sets slower. The humidity factor is a major consideration
in parts of India with high atmospheric humidity.
2. It should be kept clean with no dirt or other foreign bodies.
INfeCTION CONTROL
There has been an increased interest over possible cross-contamination to dental office
personnel through dental impressions. If an impression has not been disinfected, it is wise
to disinfect the stone cast.