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Ntshingila Sithabisiwe Pikirai Tinashe Shenjere Trymore

 A Practical Approach
to

Geography

Form 4

Ntshingila Sithabisiwe Pikirai Tinashe Shenjere Trymore

 CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Weather and Climate........................................................................................ 1

Unit 1.1 Temperate depressions............................................................................................................ 1
Unit 1.2 Frontal systems............................................................................................................................ 3
Unit 1.3 Tropical cyclones........................................................................................................................ 5
Unit 1.4 Human causes............................................................................................................................. 8
Unit 1.5 Climate change........................................................................................................................... 15

Chapter 2: Landform and Landscape Processes............................................................... 20

Unit 2.1 Landforms resulting from water action and river processes...................................... 20
Unit 2.2 Landforms resulting from wind action............................................................................... 34
Unit 2.3 Hazards associated with landform development........................................................... 41
Unit 2.4 Disaster risk management of volcanoes, earthquakes, flooding, mass wasting. 43

Chapter 3: Ecosystems....................................................................................................... 51
Unit 3.1 Soil components......................................................................................................................... 51
Unit 3.2 Soil forming processes in the tropics and soil types...................................................... 57

Examination I Paper 1.......................................................................................................................... 68

Examination I Paper 2.......................................................................................................................... 72

Chapter 4: Geographic Information System..................................................................... 75

Unit 4.1 Venn diagram (Boolean Logic).............................................................................................. 75
Unit 4.2 Overlay analysis........................................................................................................................... 78
Chapter 5: Minerals and Mining......................................................................................... 83
Unit 5.1 Sustanaible use of mineral resources.................................................................................. 83
Unit 5.2 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in mining....................................................... 85
Unit 5.3 Cost-Benefit Analysis................................................................................................................. 90
Chapter 6: Environmental Management........................................................................... 96
Unit 6.1 Environmental management at global level.................................................................... 96
Unit 6.2 Land use planning as a strategy for sustainable environmental management.. 103
Examination II Paper 1.......................................................................................................................... 110
Examination II Paper 2.......................................................................................................................... 113

Chapter 7: Agriculture and Land Reform.......................................................................... 115

Unit 7.1 Climate change and agriculture............................................................................................ 115
Unit 7.2 Agricultural diseases, pests and solutions......................................................................... 119
Unit 7.3 Urban agriculture....................................................................................................................... 131
Unit 7.4 Agri-business................................................................................................................................ 134
Chapter 8: lndustry............................................................................................................. 147
Unit 8.1 Service industries ...................................................................................................................... 139
Unit 8.2 Tourism and its importance in Zimbabwe........................................................................ 141
Unit 8.3 Quarternary industries............................................................................................................. 148
Unit 8.4 Challenges associated with service and quartnery industries in Zimbabwe....... 149

Chapter 9: Settlement and Population.............................................................................. 153

Unit 9.1 Population growth patterns................................................................................................... 153
Unit 9.2 Causes and effects of migration............................................................................................ 158
Unit 9.3 Population policy....................................................................................................................... 162
Unit 9.4 Population and diseases.......................................................................................................... 165
Unit 9.5 The Demographic Transition Model (DTM)....................................................................... 172

Examination III Paper 1.......................................................................................................................... 183

Examination III Paper 2.......................................................................................................................... 186

Index ............................................................................................................................ 190

 Chapter
WEATHER AND CLIMATE

1
Chapter objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
• describe factors influencing the development and distribution of temperate depressions.
• describe weather associated with different types of fronts.
• discuss the distribution and development of tropical cyclones.
• explain weather hazards associated with tropical cyclones.
• identify human activities influencing climate.
• describe the nature, causes and effects of climate change in Zimbabwe and the world at large.
• identify ways of adaptation and mitigation against climate change.

Introduction
The term weather describes the daily condition or state of the atmosphere at a particular place at a given
time. Weather determines how warm or cold, wet or dry, and how cloudy or windy it is. Weather affects
our daily lives and activities right from where we reside, how we dress, eat or even how we travel. It is of
utmost interest to people of all walks of life from scientists, meteorologists to climatologists. In fact the
most commonly asked question is that, how will the weather be tomorrow since it is unpredictable. These
changes can result in floods, droughts, or intense rain as well as more frequent heat waves and cold waves.
The causes of these changes will be discussed below as well as the mitigation measures.

UNIT 1.1 TEMPERATE DEPRESSIONS

A temperate depression is an area of low pressure
in the temperate areas where polar air masses
and tropical air masses meet and its shape on a
map is often oval or circular. Depressions tend to
produce cloudy, rainy and windy weather. They are
located between 30° and 60° latitudes N and S of
the equator. Under a depression air begins to rise,
forming an area of low pressure at the surface. This
rising air then cools and condenses and helps in the
Fig. 1.1 A depression
formation of clouds, so the weather is often cloudy
and wet. In the Northern Hemisphere winds blow in an anticlockwise direction around a depression.
Then in the Southern Hemisphere winds move in a general clockwise direction.

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Depressions develop when warm air blowing from the sub-tropics meets cold air from the Polar Regions.
There is a favourite meeting place in the mid-Atlantic for cold polar air and warm sub-tropical air.
Formation of a depression
Depressions can be analysed as living organisms Warm front marks
with a full life cycle from embryonic stage to death Colder advance of warm air
polar air
just like human beings. A Norwegian scientist called undercuts
Vilhelm Bjerknes devised a simple model which he the warm air
used to describe how depressions developed from Lighter
the meeting of warm and cold air. The model had four tropical
Cold front marks air is
stages which are detailed below. Each life stage is advance of cold air forced
quite, distinct with its special characteristics. upwards

(a) Embryo
This stage involves the origin and infancy of a Fig. 1.2 The embryo stage
depression. Initially a warm air mass such as one from
the tropics, meets a cooler air mass, such as one from the Polar Regions. The convergence of these two
air masses will result in the warmer lighter air being forced to rise above the colder more dense air in a spiral
movement. This upward movement results in low pressure system above the earths surface.
(b) Maturity
The second stage is called the maturity stage. A mature
depression is seen by the increase in amplitude of the
initial wave. Pressure continue to fall as more warm
air is forced to rise. As the warm air continues to rise
it eventually cools to dew point. Some of its vapour
will condense to release large amounts of latent heat
and clouds will develop. Continued uplift and cooling
will cause precipitation as the clouds become both
thicker and lower. A warm sector develops between
the warm and cold fronts.
Fig. 1.3 The maturity stage
As temperatures rise and the uplift of air decreases
within the warm sector there are less chances of rain falling in the warm sector. Clouds may disappear
and the sun will appear. The cold front moves faster and has a steeper gradient than the warm front. The
final phase will have the cold air undercutting the warm sector resulting in another phase of rainfall. This
episode has rainfall with greater intensity but a shorter duration as compared to the warm front. This cold
front becomes unstable and this results in the formation of cumulonimbus clouds and heavy rainfall of
short duration.
(c) Occlusion
The third stage is the decay stage. The depression
begins to decay when the cold front catches up with
the warm front to form an occlusion or an occluded
front. The cold front travels at around 40 to 50 miles
per hour, compared to the warm front which travels at
only 20 to 30 miles per hour. Therefore the cold front
eventually catches up with the warm front. When this
Fig. 1.4 The occlusion stage
occurs an occlusion is formed.

2
At this point the warm tropical air would have been forced upwards leaving no warm air on the surface. As
the uplift is reduced condensation is also reduced as well as the production of latent heat and precipitation.
Cloud cover begins to decrease, pressure rises and wind speed decreases as the colder air replaces the
uplifted air and infills the depression.
(d) Death
Eventually the frontal system dies as all the warm air has been pushed up from the surface and all that
remains is cold air. The occlusion dies out as temperatures are similar on both sides.

Activity 1.1 Group discussion

In pairs, discuss the formation of the following;
(a) Cold front.
(b)Warm front.
(c) Stationary front.
(d) Occluded front.
(e) Depression.

Exercise 1.1
1. Define the term temperate depression.
2. Describe the weather associated with a depression in different stages.
3. Describe the life cycle of a depression.
4. What is a cold front and warm front?

UNIT 1.2 FRONTAL SYSTEMS

Frontal systems occur all over the world throughout the year. They are the chief cause of rapid, large scale
changes in weather. Fronts are boundaries between air masses of different temperatures. They are zones
of transition, which are sometimes called frontal zone. The type of front depends on both the direction in
which the air mass is moving and the characteristics of the air mass. Frontal systems originating over the
southern part of the Atlantic Ocean approach the south-western part of South Africa from the west, with
possible secondary development in the polar air behind. The most favourable area for frontal development
is centred around 40° to the 50°S. It occurs mainly during the winter months in the Southern Hemisphere
(May to July) although development can occur throughout the year.
The systems typically influence the weather over the southern and south-western part of South Africa,
often bringing very cold, wet, and windy conditions. Although South Africa receives the most direct
impact from such systems the indirect effects of cold fronts can extend as far north as Botswana into the
Mozambique Channel. If associated with a favourably located upper-air trough, they can produce heavy
rainfall in some places and sometimes snowfall in the high mountains.
Types of fronts
There are four types of fronts and these are cold front, warm front, stationary front and occluded front.
1. Cold fronts
Occur when a heavy cold air displaces lighter warm air, pushing it upwards. Cold air is dense so it is able to
quickly blow a warm air mass ahead of it. The cold air mass is cold and dry while the warm air mass is warm
and humid. Cumulus clouds are the most common cloud types that are produced by cold fronts. They grow

3
into cumulonimbus clouds with thunderstorms.
These can also produce strato-cumulus and stratus
clouds. The name of any front is dependent on
which air mass or front is approaching another.A
cold front is represented by a solid line with blue
triangles along the front pointing towards the
warmer air and in the direction of movement.
Weather associated with a cold front;
• When a cold front is passing, winds Fig. 1.5 Cold front
become gusty and there is sudden drop in
temperature.
• Cold fronts produce cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds accompanied by heavy rains, hail,
thunder and lightning.
After the cold front passes the temperatures become cooler and the rain stops. Cumulus clouds are
replaced by stratus and stratocumulus clouds and
or even clear skies.
2. Warm front
It occurs when warm moist air which is lighter
pushes against a cold air mass and is forced to rise.
As it rises it loses heat, cooling until it reaches dew
point. This usually creates both high and middle
level clouds, mainly cirrus, cirrostratus, altocumulus
and altostratus clouds.
Fig. 1. 6 Warm front
The symbol for a warm front as shown on a weather
map is a solid line often red in colour with semi-
circles pointing in the direction of its movement
and towards the cooler air mass. This is a unique
front in that it can be produced from either a cold
air mass or a warm air mass.
3. Occluded front
Occurs when a cold front pushes into a region of
warm front. Because the cold front is unstable and Fig. 1.7 Occluded front
moves quicker it overtakes the warm front and
slowly creeps along the ground surface.Cold air
mass from the cold front meets warm air which was
ahead of the warm front, causing the cool air to rise.
4. Stationary front
Stationary front forms when either a cold front or
a warm front stops moving. This happens when
two air masses are pushing against each other
but neither is powerful enough to move the other.
This means the winds on both sides are moving on
opposite direction as opposed to one front pushing Fig. 1.8 Stationary front

4
the other out of an area. Winds blow parallel to the front instead of perpendicular. This makes the front
stay in place. A stationary front is represented by alternating blue and red lines with blue triangles pointing
towards the warmer air and red semi-circles pointing towards the colder air. Weather associated with a
stationary front;
• Cloudy or damp weather.
• It could be snow or rain and last several days.
• They lack power to cause or maintain harsh conditions.
• Known for causing dreary type of day that includes rain.

Activity 1.2 Discussion

In pairs, study the weather pattern outside and determine the type of air mass affecting your local area.

Exercise 1.2
1. What is a warm front formation called?
2. Cold fronts always result in______________.
3. Why is warm air unstable?
4. Which type of clouds are associated with warm fronts?
5. What is another name for a stationary front?

UNIT 1.3 TROPICAL CYCLONES

Tropical cyclones is an area of intense low pressure in the tropics either tropics of cancer or capricorn
where different air masses with different characteristics meet resulting in heavy rainfall. On average
80 tropical cyclones form every year. They are called differently depending on where they are formed:
typhoons in the western North Pacific and South China Sea; hurricanes in the Atlantic, Caribbean and
Gulf of Mexico, and in the eastern North and central Pacific Ocean; and tropical cyclones in the Indian
Ocean and South Pacific region. Tropical cyclones are also given individual names. Some famous ones
include Hurricane Katrina, Cyclone Tracy and Typhoon Tip. Tropical cyclones are given names rather than
numbers to make them easier to remember and warn communities if required.
Distribution of cyclones
They originate over the oceans between 5-20
degrees N/S of the equator especially in the
eastern coasts for example south east coast of
Africa, northern India and mid-Atlantic. Other areas
include the Gulf of Mexico, Bay of Bengal, Australia,
Indonesia and coastal areas of Mozambique.
How tropical cyclones develop
Formed at the tropical seas when surface heating
of the seas reaches more than 27 degrees Celsius.
Convective uplift occurs and condensation releases
latent heat and energy. The Coriolis force causes the
cyclone to rotate. In the centre is the eye - an area of
Fig. 1.9 Satellite picture of the eye of a cyclone
calm due to descending winds.

5
A storm tide is the water level rise during a storm due to a storm surge. The destructive power of a storm
surge and buttering waves can result in the loss of life, destruction of buildings, beach and dune erosion
and road and bridge damage along the coast.
2. Heavy rainfall and flooding
Tropical cyclones produce widespread, torrential
rains in excess of 6 inches, which may result in deadly
and destructive floods. Flooding is the major threat
from tropical cyclones for both people and animals.
Flash flooding results in the rapid rise in water levels
at a fast rate due to intense storms. These floods can
last for several days later. If not properly managed
these stagnant waters create positive conditions
for growth of bacteria which can promote diseases Fig. 1.12 Heavy rainfall and flooding in Zimbabwe
such as typhoid, cholera and bilharzia.
3. High winds
Tropical winds are strong enough to cause harm
to those caught in them. These winds can move
at a speed of 75km/hr or more. These can destroy
buildings and can carry property such as cars
over long distances. Debris such as signs, roofing
material, and small items left outside becomes
Fig. 1.13 High winds
flying missiles during cyclones.

Activity 1.2 Research

1. Research on the effects of global warming in the Southern Africa and list them down.
2. Discuss the negative impacts of global warming to Southern Africa.

Exercise 1.3
1. State the two other names of cyclones.
2. Suggest measures you would put in place to reduce the effects of cyclones.

3. What is the above picture showing?

4. Suggest the conditions that led to the formation of the weather hazard shown in the picture.

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 UNIT 1.4 HUMAN CAUSES
Humans are progressively influencing the climate of the earth by burning fossil fuels, cutting down forests
farming livestock and dam construction.
1. Deforestation
Plants play an important role in regulating climate
because they absorb carbon dioxide from the air
and release oxygen back into it. Forests and bush
land act as carbon sinks and are a valuable means
of keeping global warming to 1.5°C. But humans
clear vast areas of vegetation around the world for
agriculture, urban and infrastructure development
or to sell tree products such as timber and palm oil.
When vegetation is removed or burnt, the stored
carbon is released back into the atmosphere
contributing to global warming. Up to one-fifth
of global greenhouse gas pollution comes from
deforestation and forest degradation.Preventing
deforestation as well as planting trees, through
reforestation and afforestation, are important Fig 1.12 Deforestation
actions in the fight against global warming. This
adds massive amounts of greenhouse gases to those
naturally occurring in the atmosphere, increasing
the greenhouse effect and global warming.
2. Farming
Animals like sheep and cattle, growing of rice
also produce methane, a greenhouse gas. When
livestock grazed at a large scale, as in Botswana the
amount of methane produced is a big contributor
to global warming. Some of the livestock feed
that farmers use also release nitrous oxide, which
is another greenhouse gas Using different and
different stock feeds can help to reduce farming’s Fig. 1.14 Farming
contribution to climate change.
3. Mining
The environmental impact of the coal industry
includes issues such as waste management, water
and air pollution, caused by coal mining and the use
of its products. In addition to atmospheric pollution,
coal burning produces hundreds of millions of tons
of solid waste products that contain greenhouse
gases. Mining often involves large diesel trucks and
loaders running around emitting CO2, which is the
main contributor to anthropogenic climate change.
Also, cutting trees down to make way for mining Fig. 1.15 Coal mining in Hwange

8
Carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas that is most commonly produced by human activities and it is
responsible for 64% of man-made global warming. Its concentration in the atmosphere is currently 40%
higher than it was when industrialisation began. Other greenhouse gases are emitted in smaller quantities,
but they trap heat far more effectively than CO2, and in some cases are thousands times stronger.
Methane is responsible for 17% of man-made global warming, nitrous oxide for 6%.
Causes for rise in emissions
• Burning coal, oil and gas produces carbon
dioxide and nitrous oxide.
• Cutting down forests (deforestation).Trees
help to regulate the climate by absorbing
CO2 from the atmosphere. So when they are
cut down, that beneficial effect is lost and
the carbon stored in the trees is released into
the atmosphere, adding to the greenhouse
effect.
• Increasing livestock farming. Cows and
sheep produce large amounts of methane
when they digest their food.
• Fertilisers containing nitrogen produce
nitrous oxide emissions. Fig. 1.18 Burning of coal

Effects of climate change

The effects of anthropogenic climate change range from more frequent and severe droughts to
snowstorms and extreme winter weather in some regions as a result of warming Arctic weather fronts.
It is not only humans that are affected. It also affects forests in some regions as they are no longer
recovering from wildfires. Wildlife habitats around the world are becoming less hospitable to animals
resulting in the migration of animals and ultimately death. Climate change is having economic and socio-
political effects, too. Food provisions are already being affected in a number of countries in Southern
Africa. Climate change is changing our economy, health and communities in diverse ways, and if we do
not substantially curb climate change now, the results will likely be disastrous. If the Earth gets hotter,
some of these changes will happen:
• water expands when it is heated and oceans absorb more heat than land, so sea levels will rise.
• sea levels will also rise due to the melting of the glaciers and sea ice.
• cities on coasts would flood.
• places that usually get lots of rain and snowfall might get hotter and drier.
• lakes and rivers could dry up.
• there would be more droughts making it hard to grow crops.
• less water would be available for drinking, agriculture and food production.
• many plants and animals species might become extinct.
• hurricanes, tornadoes and other storms caused by changes of heat and water evaporation may get
more common.
The effects of anthropogenic climate change range from more frequent and severe droughts to
snowstorms and extreme winter weather in several regions as a result of warming Arctic weather fronts.
Warming ocean temperatures are increasing the frequency of coral reef lightening. Some animals are
no longer recovering from wildfires and this has made wildlife habitats to be less hospitable to animals.
Climate change is having economic and socio-political effects, too. Food security is already being
impacted in a number of African countries.

10
authorities to feed its growing population in light of
climate change are:
• modernising existing irrigation schemes to
suit modern methods of farming
• supporting farmer’s efforts to find their
own water supplies, by tapping into
groundwater in a sustainable way.
• looking beyond conventional ‘Participatory
Irrigation Management’ schemes, by
engaging the private sector.
• expanding capacity and knowledge.
• investing outside the irrigation sector. Fig. 1.21 Irrigation scheme in Zimbabwe
• rainwater storage.
Providing farmers with access to a range of water stores could help them overcome dry spells that would
otherwise cause their crops to fail. Field studies have shown the effectiveness of small-scale water storage.
Using small planting basins to ‘harvest’ water in Zimbabwe has been shown to boost maize yields, whether
rainfall is abundant or scarce.
(d) Assisting disadvantaged nations
Poorer countries tend to be more seriously affected by climate change, yet have reduced assets and
capacities with which to adapt. This has led to more activities to integrate adaptation within development
and poverty reduction programmes. The rise of adaptation as a development issue has been influenced
by concerns around minimising threats to progress on poverty reduction, notably the MDGs, and by the
injustice of impacts that are felt hardest by those who have done least to contribute to the problem,
framing adaptation as an equity and right issue.
(e) Migration
Recent literature has also put forward the concept of migration as a climate change coping mechanism.
Climate change push factors are weighed against economic or social pull factors: the role of climate change
in migration is thus not a linear one of cause and effect. Migration frequently requires would-be migrants
to have access to social and financial capital, such as support networks in the chosen destination, and the
funds to be able to move. It is frequently the last adaptive response households will take when confronted
with environmental factors that threaten their livelihoods, and mostly resorted to when other mechanisms
to cope have proven unsuccessful.
Climate change mitigation
The most important issue in relation to climate change mitigation is the balance of greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
has the ultimate objective of preventing “dangerous” anthropogenic gases of the climate system. As stated
in Article 2 of the Convention, this requires that greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations are stabilised in the
atmosphere at a level where ecosystems can adapt naturally to climate change, food production is not
threatened and economic development can proceed in a sustainable fashion.
The reason for this is that, human activities are adding CO2 to the atmosphere at a rate which is faster than
the rate which natural processes can remove it. Stabilising the atmospheric concentration of the other
greenhouse gases humans emit also depends on how fast their emissions are added to the atmosphere,
and how fast the (GHGs) are removed.

12
6. Describe the features of a tropical cyclone.
7. Suggest the measures that can be taken to reduce the effects of a cyclone.

UNIT 1.5 CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change is a long-term shift in weather conditions identified by changes in temperature,
precipitation, winds, and other indicators. Climate change can involve both changes in average
conditions and changes in variability, including, for example, extreme events. The earth’s climate
is naturally variable on all time scales. However, its long-term state and average temperature are
regulated by the balance between incoming and outgoing energy, which determines the Earth’s
energy balance. Any factor that causes a sustained change to the amount of incoming energy or the
amount of outgoing energy can lead to climate change. Different factors operate on different time
scales, and not all of those factors that have been responsible for changes in earth’s climate in the
distant past are relevant to contemporary climate change. Factors that cause climate change can be
divided into two categories - those related to natural processes and those related to human activity.
Climate change in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe is prone to droughts, periodic floods and shifting rainfall patterns. These are likely to increase in
intensity and frequency as the global climate changes. The effects of climate change are already clear across
Zimbabwe’s economic sectors. Severe droughts, floods and extreme weather events in recent years have
contributed to existing food shortages, damaged infrastructure and degraded the natural resources on
which people’s livelihoods is based. The often unpredictable and potentially violent effects of a changing
climate affect, how food is produced, land is used, and forests and water resources are managed.
The political and economic challenges Zimbabwe now faces are exacerbated by the threats posed by
climate change, particularly on agricultural systems.
Evidence of climate change
A lot can be discussed on the evidence of climate change.
• Rises in sea levels.
• Changes in precipitation.
• Increases in intensity of extreme weather events such as heat waves, tornadoes, hurricanes and
heavy rainfall.
• Longer and more severe droughts.
• Species endangerment and extinction and loss of biodiversity.
• Melting of permafrost.
• Drops in agricultural yields.
• Spread of vector-borne diseases because of increased range of insects.
Causes of climate change in Zimbabwe and world
The causes of climate change can be divided into two categories this includes those that are due to natural
causes and those that are created by man. These will be discussed below.
1. Natural causes
There are a number of natural factors responsible for climate change. The common prominent factors are
continental drift, volcanoes, ocean currents and the earth’s tilt.

15
(a) Continental drift
The continents that we are familiar with today were
formed when the landmass began to drifting apart,
millions of years back. This drift also had an impact
on the climate because it changed the physical
features of the landmass, their position and the
position of water bodies. The separation of the
landmasses changed the flow of ocean currents and
winds, which affected the climate.
(b) Volcanoes
When a volcano erupts it throws out large volumes Fig. 1.23 Continental drift
of sulphur dioxide (SO2), water vapour, dust, and
ash into the atmosphere. Although the volcanic
activity may last only a few days, the large volumes
of gases and ash can influence climatic patterns for
years. Millions of tonnes of sulphur dioxide gas can
reach the upper levels of the atmosphere called the
stratosphere from a major eruption. The gases and
dust particles partially block the incoming rays of
the sun, leading to cooling. Volcanic eruptions can
cool the earth’s temperatures by about 0.2 - 0.3oC.
(c) The earth’s tilt Fig. 1.24 Volcano erupting
The earth makes one full orbit around the sun each year. It is tilted at an angle of 23.5° to the perpendicular
plane of its orbital path. For one half of the year when it is summer, the northern hemisphere tilts towards
the sun. In the other half when it is winter, the earth is tilted away from the sun. If there was no tilt we
would not have experienced seasons. Changes in the tilt of the earth can affect the severity of the seasons
- more tilt means warmer summers and colder winters; less tilt means cooler summers and milder winters.

Interesting facts
Canada is puffing out more clouds of smoke than all the countries. Want the numbers? In 2015, Canada
sent 557 million tonnes of CO2 spewing into the air, from a population of 35.9 million. For comparison, the
11th biggest polluter, Indonesia, sent 537 mtCO2 into the atmosphere from a population of over a quarter
of a billion.
Summary of the chapter
• There are four types of fronts which are cold front, warm front, stationary front and occluded front.
• Strategies that could help the local authorities to feed its growing population in light of climate
change include modernising existing irrigation schemes to suit modern methods of farming.
• It is also called tree ring dating.
• Climate change will modify rainfall, evaporation, runoff, and soil moisture storage.
• Flooding occurs when a river›s discharge exceeds its channels volume causing the river to overflow
onto the area surrounding the channel known as the floodplain.
• Severe floods not only ruin homes / businesses and destroy personal property.
• Tropical cyclones are areas of very low atmospheric pressure over tropical and sub-tropical.

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 • Environmental impacts include losses or destruction of fish and wildlife habitat and lack of food
and drinking water for wild animals.
• The main aim of the Kyoto Protocol is to contain emissions of the main anthropogenic greenhouse
gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and
capacity to make the reductions.
• The Law of the Sea Treaty, formally known as the Third United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea, was adopted in 1982. Its purpose is to establish a comprehensive set of rules governing
the oceans and to replace previous U.N.
Glossary of terms
Temperate depression
– is an area of low pressure in the temperate areas where polar air masses and
tropical air masses meet and its shape on a map is often oval or circular.
Climate change – is any change in global temperatures and precipitation over time due to
natural variability or due to human activity.
Fronts – are boundaries between air masses of different temperatures.
Climate change – is the periodic modification of earth’s climate brought about as a result of
changes in the atmosphere as well as interactions between the atmosphere
and various other geologic, chemical, biological and geographic factors
within the Earth system.
Drought – is a period of abnormally dry weather sufficiently long enough to cause a
serious hydrological imbalance.
A flood – is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry.
A greenhouse gas – is a gas that absorbs and emits radiant energy within the thermal infrared
range.
Fuel – switching replaces inefficient fuels with cleaner and economical alternatives,
such as substituting coal or kerosene for natural gas.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. All of the following are examples of greenhouse gases except ______.
A. Carbon dioxide B. Methane
C. Carbon dioxide D. Air
2. Which of the following is not affected by climate change?
A. Flora B. Rocks
C. Water resources D. Agriculture
3. Which of the following is used to determine dendrochronology?
A. Barks of a tree B. Rings of a tree
C. Roots of a tree D. Leaves of a tree
4. Which of the following is a natural cause of climate change?
A. Volcanic activity B. Pollen analysis
C. Fossil landscapes D. CFCs
5. Which of the following is not a manmade cause of climate change?
A. Cloud seeding B. Exhaust fumes
C. The earths tilt D. Veld fires
6. Which weather hazard destroys buildings and property?
A. Drought B. Floods
C. Frost D. Hail

17
7. Which of the following is a way of reducing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere?
A. Switching to cleaner energy sources. B. Cloud shooting to reduce rainfall.
C. Hazard mapping. D. Education and awareness campaigns.
8. Which of the following is not a measure to mitigate against cyclone?
A. Insurance against loses such as crops and buildings.
B. Settling on higher grounds.
C. The physical prevention of risk through building of protective barriers, such as sea walls and levees.
D. Settling along floodplains.
9. Which of the following is the most effect strategy that could help the local authorities to feed its
growing population in light of climate change?
A. Supporting farmer’s efforts to find their own water supplies, by tapping into groundwater in a
sustainable way and rainwater storage.
B. Looking beyond conventional ‘Participatory Irrigation Management’ schemes, by engaging the
private sector.
C. Expanding capacity and knowledge.
D. Investing outside the irrigation sector.
10. Which rule would you follow if your area is affected by a flood?
A. Evacuation B. Construct levees
C. Diverting water courses D. Dredging
11. The treaty that is often been said to be the most successful international environmental is the _____.
A. Montreal protocol
B. Kyoto protocol
C. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
D. Polluter pays principle
12. The Kyoto Protocol did not enter into force until __________.
A. 2009 B. 2005
C. 2012 D. 1990
13. UNFCCC stand for __________.
A. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
B. United Nations Framework Congress on Climate Change
C. United Nations First Convention on Climate Change
D. United Nations First Congress on Climate Change
14. Which of the following is not a type of front?
A. Cold front B. Mixed
C. Warm front D. Occluded front
15. Which of the following is not a mitigation measure against drought?
A. Food storage programs B. loss of lives
C. Irrigation farming D. Water harvesting

Structured Questions
1. (a) i. Define the terms front and depression. [2]
ii. Using well labelled diagrams, describe and explain the main types of fronts. [8]
(b) i. Describe the distribution of tropical cyclones stating the weather patterns it brings. [7]
ii. Describe the negative effects if tropical cyclones to humans and the environment. [4]
iii. Suggest solutions to the problems you have stated above. [4]
2. (a) i. Define the term climate change. [2]

18
 ii. Suggest the causes of climate change in Zimbabwe. [5]
(b) As a member of a committee responsible for the welfare of the community identify the methods of
adapting to climate change in your local area. [8]
(c) i. Suggest the problems you might face in trying to implement the adaptation measures you have
mentioned above. [5]
ii. Suggest measures to solve the problems you have mentioned above. [5]
3. (a) i. Define the term greenhouse gas. [2]
ii. Using a diagram, describe how greenhouse gases affect the atmosphere. [7]
(b) i. As an environmentalist, suggest why the greenhouse effect should be of concern to people. [7]
ii. Suggest measures to reduce potential damage to the atmosphere by greenhouse gases [5]
(c) As a member of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, suggest the benefits and
problems of climate change. [4]

Picture A Picture B
(b) Study picture A and B above.
i. What does the two pictures portray? [4]
ii. What are the importance of picture A? [5]
iii. What are the causes of what happened in picture B? [5]
iv. How might the atmosphere respond as a result of the human activity that resulted in B? [5]
v. Give an example of a place like in picture B and give measures that can be taken to avoid that. [6]

19
 Chapter
LANDFORM AND
LANDSCAPE PROCESSES
2
Chapter objectives
By the end of the chapters, you should be able to:
• describe the nature of seasonal water flow in rivers.
• explain river processes in shaping the landscape.
• describe landforms resulting from river processes.
• describe the characteristics of arid and semi-arid regions.
• explain the distribution of arid and semi-arid regions.
• explain the processes of wind action.
• describe the landforms resulting from wind action.
• describe the hazards associated with landform development.
• identify methods of disaster risk management of volcanoes, earthquake, flooding and mass
wasting.

Introduction
Rivers are perhaps the most important agent of denudation resulting landform development. They carve
channels, form valleys, transport and deposit regolith over great distances and other material to form
other types of landforms. Although most energy in a stream is dissipated by turbulence a small part is used
in the task of eroding and transporting sediment. Denudation is used to describe the washing away of the
earth’s surface materials.

UNIT 2.1 LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM WATER ACTION AND RIVER

PROCESSES
Rivers always flow downstream because of the pull of gravity. A river’s erosion, transport and deposition
depends on the flow of water in its channel. This flow is determined by;
• the energy which is provided by gravity and is affected directly by the gradient of the river’s bed the
steeper the slope the more energy a river has.
• volume of the water which is the amount of water in a river’s channel. It increases during the
wet seasons when most of the precipitation occurs or if a river’s course passes through a region
experiencing wet climatic conditions.

20
Seasonal nature of rivers in Zimbabwe

Fig. 2.1 Map of Zimbabwe showing rivers

A river is a long natural stream of fresh water which eventually flows into an ocean or lake. Zimbabwe
is filled with fresh water from rivers and streams. These streams either flow seasonally or annually. Rivers
that flow throughout the year are called perennial rivers for example Zambezi river and there are some
rivers which flow only during the rainy season, these are called annual rivers. In Zimbabwe the drier areas
have seasonal rivers while the areas with high rainfall have perennial rivers. Rivers in tropical regions get
their water from rain.
The source of water for rivers in Zimbabwe is rainfall although other sources of water in rivers include
springs and melting snow. Rivers which tap their water from melting snow are found in countries such as
Tanzania because of the presence of Mount Kilimanjaro. The amount of water in a river increases as the
river meets with other tributaries. Its volume increases up to the point where the river gets to its mouth.
The source of the river refers to where it begins and the mouth of the river refers to where it ends. The
river’s mouth is either the ocean or sea, lake or dam.
Zimbabwe has five major rivers namely the Zambezi River, Pungwe River, Buzi River, Save River and
the Limpopo River. There are also 27 big rivers and 16 tributaries. Today, there are over 8 000 dams
throughout Zimbabwe ranging from Mutirikwi to Kariba which is one of the largest artificial lakes in the
worldThe Save River has its source some 80 km south of Harare, then flows south and then east, to its
confluence with the Odzi River, before turning south, drops over the Chivirira Falls (“Place of Boiling”)
and flowing down the middle Save Valley. At the Mozambique border, it is joined by the Runde River
(formerly the Lundi River) then crossing Mozambique to flow into the Indian Ocean.

River processes in shaping the landscape

As the river flows there are three processes that can occur, these are erosion, transportation and deposition.
These are further discussed below. The major river processes are erosion, transportation and deposition.

21
All the three processes depend on the amount of
energy in the river.
1. Erosion
The energy in a river causes erosion. The bed and
banks of a river can be eroded making it wider,
deeper and longer. Head ward erosion will make a
river longer. This type of erosion happens mainly at
the source. Surface run-off and through flow cause
erosion at the point where the water enters the Fig. 2.2 River erosion
valley head. Vertical erosion makes a river channel
deeper while Lateral erosion makes a river wider.
There are four main processes of erosion that occur
in rivers. These are:
• hydraulic action,
• abrasion/corrasion,
• attrition, and
• solution/corrasion.
(a) Hydraulic action Fig. 2.3 Hydraulic action
Refers to the force of moving water which is able to
remove loose materials like gravel, sand and silt. The
pressure of water breaks away rock particles from
the river bed and banks. The force of the water hits
river banks and then pushes water into cracks.
Air becomes compressed, pressure increases and
the river bank may, in time collapse. Where velocity
is high for example the outer bend of meander,
hydraulic action can remove material from the
banks which may lead to undercutting and river
bank collapse. Near waterfalls and rapids, the force
Fig. 2.4 Abrasion
may be strong enough to work on lines of weakness
in joints and bedding planes until they are eroded.
(b) Abrasion/Corrasion
Refers to the wearing away of the sides and bed of a
river channel by the load. The sediment carried by a
river scours the bed and banks. Where depressions
exist in the channel floor the river can cause pebbles
to spin around and turn hollows into potholes.
(c) Attrition
Attrition is the process by which the eroded rocks
collide and break into smaller fragments. The edges
Fig. 2.5 Results of river attrition
of these rocks become smoother and more rounded.
Attrition makes the particles of rock smaller. It does not erode the bed and bank but it makes the pieces of
river sediment smaller and more rounded as they move downstream.

22
reduces, evaporation increases. There is friction close to river banks as well as the shallow areas which will
lead to the speed of the river reducing and therefore the energy is reduced. When a river has to slow down
it reduces its speed (and ability to transport material) and therefore deposition takes place.
The first load to be dropped is the heavier material which consists of large boulders and pebbles followed
by smaller stones and finally fine silt. Materials continue to move downstream even after it has been
deposited. As long as there will be an increase in velocity the same deposited material can be lifted and
deposited further downstream.

Landforms resulting from river processes

The long profile of a river has several features being formed right from the upper section of the river to the
lower section. These features are a result of either erosion, transportation or deposition. These features are
discussed at length below.

1. V -Shaped valleys

Fig. 2.9 (a) V-shaped valley Fig. 2.9 (b) Cross section of a v-shaped valley

V-shaped valleys are found in the upper course of the river and are a result of both erosion by the river
and weathering. V-shaped valleys are deep river valleys with steep sides that look like a letter V when a
cross section of them is taken, hence the name. They are found in the upper course because this is where
the river has the greatest gravitational potential energy and so the greatest potential to erode vertically. It
does so during periods of high discharge. When the river’s discharge is high, it is able to transport its large
bed load by traction eroding the river’s bed and valley by corrasion, deepening it. Not much lateral erosion
takes place so the channel and valley remains relatively narrow.
As the channel and valley deepens the sides of the valley are exposed and become susceptible to
weathering. The valley’s sides also undergo mass movements resulting in large volumes of material
falling into the river’s channel, adding to its erosive power and causing the valley sides to take up a V
shape. The steepness of the valley sides and whether the valley actually looks like a V is dependent on the
climate, vegetation and rock structure among other things. In cold, wet climates, freeze thaw weathering
is abundant and rainwater can act as a lubricant, aiding mass movements. Vegetation can impede mass
movements because it will help bind the soil. If the valley is composed of hard rock the valley sides will be
very steep because they won’t be easily weathered.
2. Waterfall
Waterfalls develop when a change of lithology (rock type) takes place along the river’s course resulting
in differential erosion. When the rock type of the river’s channel changes from a resistant rock to a less
resistant one for example, granite to limestone, the river erodes the less resistant rock faster producing a

24
sudden drop in the gradient of the river with the resistant rock being higher up than the less resistant rock.
As the river flows over the resistant rock, it falls onto the less resistant rock, eroding it and creating a greater
height difference between the two rock types, producing the waterfall.
(4) Waterfall retreats upstream

(2) Overhang collapses

(5) Steep, gorge-like valleys

(1) Undercutting (3) Plungepool develops

Fig. 2.10 (a) A waterfall - Victoria falls Fig 2.10 (b) Cross section of a waterfall

When water flows over the waterfall it creates a plunge pool at its base and the splash back from the
falling water undercuts the resistant rock. The unsupported rock is known as the cap rock and it eventually
collapses into the plunge pool causing the waterfall to retreat upstream. Over thousands of years, the
repeated collapse of the cap rock and retreat of the waterfall produces a gorge of recession.
3. Potholes
Potholes are cylindrical holes drilled into the bed
of a river that vary in depth and diameter from a
few centimetres to several metres. They are found
in the upper section of a river where it has enough
potential energy to erode vertically and its flow is
turbulent. In the upper course of a river, its load is
large and mainly transported by traction along the
river bed. When flowing water encounters bed load,
it is forced over it and down cuts behind the bed
load in swirling eddie currents. These currents erode
the river’s bed and create small depressions in it.As
these depressions deepen, pebbles can become
trapped in them. As a result of the eddie currents,
the pebbles drill into the depressions making them
more circular, wider and deeper. Pebbles will only
be able to erode a river’s bed though if the rock the Fig. 2.11 (a) Potholes
pebble’s made of is stronger than the rock the river
bed is made of.
4. Meanders
Meanders are bends in a river that form as a river’s sinuosity increases. Meanders develop when alternating
riffles and pools form along a river channel. A riffle is a shallow section of a channel while a pool is a deep
section.In a pool, the channel is more efficient while at a riffle, the channel is less efficient. This causes the
flow of the river to become irregular and the maximum flow is concentrated on one side of the river. This
increases erosion on one side of the river and increases deposition on the other causing the river’s channel
to appear to bend. Erosion is greatest on the outside bend and deposition is greatest on the inside bend.

25
 Fig. 2.12 (a) A meander bend Fig. 2.12 (b) Cross section of a meander bend

The alternating riffles and pools have another effect, they increase the turbulence of the river and produce
a special type of flow known as helicoidal flow. This is a corkscrew like movement which spirals from one
side of the channel to another between pools. The helicoidal flow erodes the pools along the channel and
increases deposition on the next inside bend after a pool.
Characteristics of river cliff and slip off slope
A cross section of a meander would show that on
the outside bend, the channel is very deep and
concave. This is because the outside bend is where
the river flows fastest and is most energetic, so lots
of erosion by hydraulic action and corrosion takes
place. River cliffs form on the outside bend as the
river erodes laterally. The inside bend is shallower
with a gentle slip-off slope made of sand or shingle
that is brought across from the outside bend by the
helicoidal flow of the river. The river flows much Fig. 2.13 A slip-off slope on a river’s meander
slower on the inside bend so some deposition takes
place, contribution to the slip-off slope.
5. Oxbow lakes

Fig. 2.14 (a) Oxbow lake Fig. 2.14 (b) Cross section of an oxbow lake

Oxbow lakes are an evolution of meanders that undergo extensive deposition and erosion. Strong erosion
takes place on the outside bend of a meander while deposition takes place on the inside bend. As a result,

26
the neck of a meander narrows. During extremely high discharge, it’s more efficient for a river to flow
across the neck of a meander rather than around it. When discharge returns to normal levels, the river
continues follow this new course. The meander is left connected to the channel as a cut off. Deposition
eventually separates the cut off from the main channel leaving behind an oxbow lake. With its main source
of water disconnected, the lake eventually dries up leaving behind a meander scar.
6. Braided channels

Fig. 2.15 (a) A heavily braided river Fig. 2.15 (b) Cross section of a braided channel

A braided channel is a type of channel that is divided into smaller sub-channels by small, temporary islands
called eyots. Braided channels develop in rivers with a lot of sedimentary load, a steep gradient and where
the discharge of the river changes regularly. When the volume of load exceeds the river’s capacity or the
discharge of the river drops, the river is forced to deposit its load in the channel and islands of sediment
(eyots) form.
7. Floodplains

Fig. 2.16 (a) Cross section of a floodplain Fig. 2.16 (b) Zambezi floodplain on the ground

Floodplains are gently slopping plain of alluvium covering the valley floor down which the river flows
in a meandering channel. The floodplain is the area that a river floods onto when it’s experiencing high
discharge. When a river floods, its efficiency decreases rapidly because of an increase in friction, reducing
the river’s velocity and forcing it to deposit its load. The load is deposited across the floodplain as alluvium.
The alluvium is very fertile so floodplains are often used as farmland. The width of a floodplain is determined
by the sinuosity of the river and how much meander migration takes place. If there’s a lot of meander
migration, the area that the river floods on will change and the floodplain will become wider.

27
when a river meets a sea with alternating current
directions that shape the delta so that it looks like a
triangle. It is crossed by many distributaries. These
are useful to man they provide arable and fertile
lands as well as pastures for animals, however most
of the waterlogged areas tend to favour the growth
of pests and diseases.
(b) Cuspate deltas
Cuspate deltas are vaguely shaped like a V with
curved sides. Cuspate deltas form when a river flows
into a sea with waves that hit it head on, spreading Fig. 2.19 Cuspate delta
the deposited sediment out. These develop where
there is limited distributary development in coasts
that have moderate current. Examples include the
Ebro delta in Spain.
(c) Bird’s foot
Bird’s foot deltas are shaped like a bird’s foot. They
extend reasonably far into a body of water and
form when the river’s current is stronger than the
sea’s waves. Is formed where there are weak tidal
currents which allow the distributaries to extend
further seawards resulting in a form that looks much
like the shape of a bird’s foot. It consists of very fine
material like silt and several distributaries bordered
by levees jutting out from the shore. Bird’s foot Fig. 2.20 A bird’s foot
deltas are uncommon because there are very few
areas where a sea’s waves are weaker than a river’s
current. An example is the Mississippi River delta.
(d) Estuarine delta

Is made up of a single channel with braids formed

from deposits made onto the river’s channel as it
reaches the ocean. The delta is formed from material
deposited in the submerged mouth of a river. It
forms the shape of an Estuary. An example is the
Zambezi River delta in Mozambique.
10. Deserts Fig. 2.21 An estuarine delta
A desert is an area that receives little precipitation and is characterised by aridity or semi-aridity, high day
time temperature of about 40-50 degrees Celsius and low night temperatures of about 0 degrees Celsius.
Most hot deserts rarely ever receive more than 250 mm of rainfall per annum. Such deserts are referred
to as arid deserts for example some parts of the Sahara are referred to as being hyper-arid because they
receive less than 50 mm of rainfall per annum. Some hot deserts are referred to as being semi-arid which
means they receive at least 500 mm of rainfall per annum. The Kalahari desert is an example of a semi-arid
hot desert. However, this rainfall may fall in one big storm followed by extended dry periods.

29
Location of hot deserts
• The largest arid and semi-arid deserts occur between latitudes 15° and 30° North and South of the
equator. Most of these deserts are located on the western sides of the continental masses on which
they lie.
• They occur within the Trade wind belt where the winds are off-shore. Off-shore winds are those
winds that blow from the shore towards the ocean. These winds (Trade winds) tend to be dry after
losing their moisture as they journey across the eastern side of contents. Although west coasts
have on-shore winds (winds from the ocean towards the land) blowing towards them, they rarely
bring rain. This is because the onshore winds meet with cold currents that blow parallel to coast
lines (the Cold Benguela current in the case of the Kalahari and the Cold Angola current in the case
of the Namib desert) this causes the moisture within the on-shore winds to condense and form
mist, fog and light rain before the winds reach the coast.
• Most of the winds that blow across the deserts are land winds which are dry/contain little moisture
and therefore do not result in any form of precipitation. Some deserts as the Arizona desert are
far from oceans, moisture from oceans is exhausted in the form of rainfall in other areas before it
reaches these deserts since they are further in the interior. Some deserts such as the Gobi desert,
are located in rain shadow areas because they are in depressions or basins. Since they are on the
leeward side of mountains where warm dry air is sinking they tend to receive little or no rainfall.
• In addition to this the relative humidity of the air mass falls resulting in high evapotranspiration
rates thus exacerbating the aridity of deserts while increasing their temperature. The Kalahari and
Sahara deserts are also located on the rain shadow side of major mountains. In Zimbabwe areas
like Save valley and major parts of Matabeleland are hot and receive very little rainfall, droughts are
frequent and may eventually become deserts. Some deserts are located in the sub-tropical high
pressure zone 30° North and South of the equator which means winds tend to blow from these
areas and dry warm air is sinking creating permanent High pressure belts.
• In some areas as the Patagonian desert cool off-shore currents prevent local on-shore winds from
bringing in rain. Most hot deserts are increasing in area in a process called desertification. Human
action sometimes contribute to desertification so in some ways deserts are a man-made feature.
Climate change has also resulted in changes in local rainfall patterns with increased incidence of
droughts in places like Somalia where rainfall might not fall for years on end.

Types of deserts
Deserts are described according to the characteristics of their landscape. There are three common types of
hot deserts which are stony or reg deserts, rocky or hamada deserts and sandy or erg deserts.
(a) Reg/stony deserts
The landscape of reg deserts consists of mostly
pebbles, stones and gravel which cannot be blown
away by the wind. These landscapes are also known
as desert pavements. They are formed by wind
erosion, which will blow away the small and fine
surface materials.
The faces of such desert landscapes are covered
with closely packed, interlocking angular or
rounded rock fragments of pebble and cobble size.
Some Western parts of the Sahara desert in Egypt
have such landscapes. Fig. 2.23 Stony desert

31
(b) Hamada deserts/rocky

This is a type of desert landscape consisting of high,

largely barren, hard, rocky plateaus, with very little
sand because this has been removed by deflation.
The difference between Hamada and reg is that reg
occurs as stony plains or depressions covered with
gravels or boulders, rather than as highland plateaus
(Hamada). Hamada is therefore a desert which has a
high plain or plateau where deflation has removed
the fine grained surface materials and left behind a
surface of sand-scoured bedrock with or without a
veneer of pebbles or boulders. The word hamada is
Arabic for “rock plain.” Fig. 2.24 Rocky desert

(c) Erg or sandy deserts

An erg is a broad, flat area of desert covered with
wind-swept sand with little or no vegetative cover.
The word erg is Arabic for “dune fields” meaning a
landscape covered by sand dunes. They are a result
of wind deposited sand piling up into sand dunes.
The landscape is hardly fixed nor is it stationary as
the sand dunes and ridges are constantly moving
as a result of wind action. The Sahara desert is the
largest erg desert in the world. Erg deserts are
sometimes known as Sand seas. This owing to their
undulating plains of sand the surface of which is
Fig. 2.25 Sandy desert
blown into ripples and sand dunes.

Wind action processes

Wind action is dominant in deserts due to the absence of vegetation with roots binding the soil together.
The soil is loose and unconsolidated hence wind transport is high. As a result, the soil is continuously
transported and deposited in the desert. Wind erosion consistently occurs in deserts. It occurs in two main
process which are discussed below.
1. Wind transport in deserts
Wind is a process where the wind detaches soil particles from the land surface and transports them by
its force. It occurs when forces exerted by wind overcome the gravitational and cohesive forces of soil
particles on the surface of the ground. Wind action in deserts are also known as Aeolian processes. These
processes include erosion, transportation and deposition. There are three erosion processes which are
deflation, abrasion and attrition.
Wind transports small particles, such as silt and clay, over great distances, even halfway across a continent
or an entire ocean basin. Particles may be suspended for days. Wind, more easily picks up particles on
ground that has been disturbed, such as a construction site or a sand dune. Just like flowing water, wind
transports particles as both bed load and suspended load. For wind, bed load is made of sand-sized
particles, many of which move by saltation. The suspended load has very small particles of silt and clay.
Wind is a stronger erosional force in arid regions than it is in humid regions because winds are stronger. In
humid areas, water and vegetation bind the soil so it is harder to pick up. In arid regions, small particles are
selectively picked up and transported.

32
2. Wind erosion in deserts
(a) Deflation
It refers to the blowing of sand by wind due to the
uneven nature of the surface. As small particles are
removed, the ground surface gets lower and rockier,
causing deflation hollow as shown in fig 2.26.
What is left is desert pavement a surface covered by
gravel-sized particles that are not easily moved by Fig. 2.26 Deflation hollow
wind. The hollow may contain water and become a
source of water for people in the desert.
(b) Abrasion
This is the sand blasting effect of wind carrying
sand particles. Particles moved by wind do the
work of abrasion. As a grain strikes another grain or
surface it erodes that surface as shown in fig 2.27.
Abrasion by wind may polish natural or human-
made surfaces, such as buildings. Stones that have
become polished and faceted due to abrasion by
sand particles are called ventifacts.
(c) Attrition Fig. 2.27 Wind abrasion

Attrition is the process by which large rock particles

roll and rub against each other and wear away. This
happens during the wind transportation processes.
This process produces sand particles that are
rounded into particles about the size of millet seeds
as indicated in fig 2.28.
3. Wind transport
Fig. 2.28 Wind attrition
Wind moves material by three processes:
Attrition
• Suspension, Wind direction
Saltating particles
• Saltation and Airbone particles
• Surface creep as shown in fig 2.29. Land surface

Larger particles creeping on

(a) Suspension land surface

Suspension happens on materials which are very

fine less than 0.15 mm in diameter picked up by the
wind. They are then raised to considerable height
and carried, in the air, for great distances. Fig. 2.29 Suspension and saltation wind erosion

Sand particles have been on occasion carried from the Sahara desert and deposited in Britain a great
distance away. Suspension creates dust storms that often reduce visibility in deserts to less than a kilometre.
(b) Saltation
It occurs when wind speeds exceed the thresh hold velocity (that is the speed required to move grain
particles), fine and coarse-grained sand particles are then lifted and raised almost vertically for several
centimetres before falling again to the ground.

33
When they return to the ground they follow a flat
trajectory that sees them fall a short distance from
where they were picked up but not in the same
place. The particles are moved by the wind in a leap-
frogging and bouncing manner. Even in the most
severe storms the particles are rarely lifted to more
than 2 meters in height thus differentiating this
method of wind transportation from suspension.
(c) Surface creep

As particles are transported by saltation and

suspension they may dislodge and push forward
Fig. 2.30 Creeping
larger particles (that is those that are more than
0.25 mm in diameter). These are too heavy to be lifted from the ground by the wind’s energy. However,
due to continued bombardment by the smaller particles being transport by the other modes of transport
they roll and gradually move over the surface of the desert.

Activity 2.1 Drawing

1. Draw the map of Africa showing the location of the different deserts.

Exercise 2.1
1. Describe and explain the global distribution of semi-arid and arid deserts environment.
2. Explain in your own words the factors affecting the location of deserts.
3. Imagine there is a desert in your area. As a community member responsible for income generating
projects, state how you would make use of a desert to assist the people in your local area.
4. List different types of deserts found in Africa.

UNIT 2.2 LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM WIND ACTION

Deserts are windy places. The main reason for this is the great variances in temperature. When winds kick
up the air is filled with fine dust and grit that collects in the nose, eyes and throat if there is no protection.
Wind is a powerful force that has the ability to shape a landscape. In deserts, wind action changes the
landscape through wind erosion in the form of abrasion and deflation.The action of wind erosion is more
prominent in deserts because there is little vegetation cover and the soil cover is loose. As such, sediments
get easily carried and deposited by winds. Besides, absence of other agents of erosion like water and ice
makes wind the most prominent weathering agent in the deserts.
Characteristics of arid and semi-arid regions
The term arid means dry while a semi-arid desert is a climate or place that is partially arid, or semi-dry and
has less than 20 inches of rain each year. An example of semi-arid climates is the hot, semi-arid climate
of the Outback in Australia. A desert is a barren area where little rainfall occurs and consequently living
conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface
of the ground to the processes of denudation. About one third of the land surface of the world is dry/
arid or semi-arid. This includes much of the Polar Regions where little precipitation occurs and which are
sometimes called polar deserts. Deserts can be classified by the amount of precipitation that falls, by the
temperature that prevails, by the causes of desertification or by their geographical location.

34
Landforms resulting from wind action
Features formed by wind deposition
Wind deposition occurs frequently in deserts due to the presence of frequent dust storms and heaps of
sand. When these storms lose their speed they deposit their load. These features are discussed below.
(a) Sand dunes
The main features deposited by wind are sand
dunes. Loess are wind deposits of finer sediments.
Deserts and seashores sometimes have sand dunes.
Beach dunes are usually made of quartz because
quartz is what’s left in humid areas as other minerals
weather into clays as shown in fig 2.31. Sand dunes
may be composed of calcium carbonate in tropical
areas. But in deserts, sand dunes are composed of a
variety of minerals because there is little weathering.
Dune sands are usually very uniform in size and
shape. Larger particles are too heavy for the wind
to transport by suspension and smaller particles
cannot be picked up. Particles are rounded, since
Fig. 2.31 Sand dune
rounded grains roll more easily than angular grains.
For sand dunes to form there must be an abundant supply of sand and steady winds. A strong wind slows
down, often over some type of obstacle, such as a rock or some vegetation, and drops its sand. As the
wind moves up and over the obstacle, it increases in speed. It carries the sand grains up the gently sloping,
upwind side of the dune by saltation. As the wind passes over the dune, its speed decreases. Sand cascades
down the crest, forming the slip face of the dune. The slip face is steep because it is at the angle of repose
for dry sand, about 34o. Wind deposits dune sands layer by layer. If the wind changes directions, cross beds
form. Cross beds are named for the way each layer is formed at an angle to the ground.The type of sand
dune that forms depends on the amount of sand available, the character and direction of the wind, and
the type of ground the sand is moving over. Dunes may be crescent-shaped, star-shaped, parabolic, linear,
or barchan.
Although they take many shapes, there are two common types of dunes:
• Barchans.
• Seif dunes.
As soon as wind velocity drops wind deposition occurs. The heaviest material is deposited first while the
finer material and dust is carried further before being dropped. As a result loess (which consists of fine
particles) is sometimes deposited thousands of kilometres from deserts.
• Large mounds of sand result from sand depositions within the desert.
• These result in the formation of erg landscapes such as those found in the Sahara.
• Three major types of features result from wind deposition and form part of the erg landscape.
• Sand ripples, barchan dunes and seif dunes.
(b) Barchan dunes
Its leading edges are slowly carried forward in a downwind direction. The windward slope of the dune
is gentle. The downwind side is steep and slightly curved. This is caused by eddies that are set up by the
prevailing wind. A barchan dune moves as grains of sand are moved up the windward slope to fall onto the
leeward side. A Barchan dune is shown in fig 2.32.

36
(c) Seif dunes
Are also known as transverse dunes. They are ridge-
shaped with steep sides and lie parallel to the
prevailing wind. They are also formed and appear
parallel to each other. A seif dune has a sharp crest
which may be a 100 meters in height and they can
stretch for up to 150 kilometres in length as shown
in fig 2.33.
They are separated by flat corridors which are
between 25 and 400 meters wide. These corridors Fig. 2.32 Barchan dunes
are swept clear of sand by the prevailing wind.
Eddies blow up against the sides of dunes and drop
deposit sand that is added to the dunes.
They usually develop from small sand ridges.
They slowly move forward in the direction of the
prevailing wind as they move forward. The feature
is found in the parts of the Namib desert and the
Sahara desert as well as other deserts.

Features formed by wind erosion in

deserts Fig. 2.33 Seif dune
Wind erosion refers to the damage of land as a result
of wind removing soil from an area. Most often, wind
erosion occurs on flat land in dry or sandy areas.
1. Sand ripples
These are small wave-like features which develop
on sand which move easily as shown in fig. 2.34.
They range from a few centimetres to about a meter
in height. They are often temporary and suffer
destruction when the wind changes direction. The
Sahara and Namib desert have seas of sand with Fig. 2.34 Sand ripples
ripples.
2. Loess
Windblown silt and clay deposited layer on layer
over a large area form loess. Loess deposits form
downwind of glacial outwash or desert, where fine
particles are available as indicated in fig. 2.35. Loess
deposits make very fertile soils in many regions of
the world.
• Due to the occurrence of obstacles and
impediments such as vegetation, rocks, Fig. 2.35 Loess
dead animal carcases and settlements
• Materials transported by wind are eventually deposited.
• Deposition can also occur due to a reduction in wind energy.
• Wind deposition forms landforms such as barchan and seif dunes.

37
(b) Yardangs

Fig. 2.38 (a) A yardang Fig. 2.38 (b) Dunhuang Yardang in China

These are ridges made of resistant rock which are developed and lie parallel to the direction of the
prevailing wind. They develop when bands of resistant and weak rocks lie parallel to the prevailing wind.
Wind abrasion produces another form of “ridge and furrow” landscape since the weak bands are readily
eroded to leave the more resistant bands of hard rocks to stand as yardangs as shown in fig 2.38 (a) and (b)
above. These yardangs ridges vary in height from 5 to 15 meters and can be as long as a kilometre. These
landforms are usually undercut on their windward sides.
(c) Rock pedestal

Fig. 2.39 (a) Rock pedestal Fig. 2.39 (b) Rock pedestal

These are mushroom/tower-like shaped features formed as a result of wind abrasion. Since the sand
blasting of wind in deserts is mostly confined to a meter and below from the ground, rocks are undercut.
These rocks are usually made up layers with differing hardness resulting in the softer parts being worn
away at a more rapid rate resulting in the formation of pedestals as shown above in fig. 2.39 (a) and (b).
Continued erosion leads to the eventual collapse of the pedestal. An example is Mukarob (“The finger of
God”) which was located in the Namib desert before its eventual collapse in 1988.

Features caused by water transportation in deserts

Semi deserts receive very little ranging from 250ml to 300ml per year. Some deserts like the Kalahari often
experience flash floods. These seasonal rains results in the formation of several different landforms which
are discussed below.

39
1. Wadi
A wadi is an Arabic term that refers to a valley. It is
a very deep, steep and wide valley with a flat floor
resulting from vertical and lateral erosion of a stream
channel. In some cases it can also refer to a dry
river bed that only experiences water when there
is a heavy rainfall. Unlike other valleys a wadi has
been cut and eroded by water however because it
is in desert, it rarely experiences any constant water
except the rainy season. Deposition is very common
Fig. 2.40 Wadi
in a feature such as this because of the fact that the
water dries up and is no longer able to carry a load
of sediment that it has.
2. Playas
It is a temporary salt lake which rest upon the peri
pediment. It is an area of very dry land that is found
below the sea level. Lakes like these often consist of
fine grained sediments such as salts. During the dry
season the surface of the lake is usually hard and Fig. 2.41 Playa
rough, where as in the rainy season it gets wet and
soft. The water usually creates a small hole meaning
there is a very shallow lake in the desert as shown
in fig 2.41.
3. Alluvial fans
Often found in the desert where periodic flash
floods occur. They often have a large funnel shaped
basin at the top which then creates a very narrow Fig. 2.42 Alluvial fan
stream which then opens into an alluvial fan at the
end of its course. These alluvial fans are often home
to much more life and plants then the rest of the
desert due to the fact that any nutritional sediment
and water will end up here as shown in fig 2.42.
(a) Bajada
When many alluvial fans all come together in one
place, or deposit in the same area it creates a bajada.
Because of the gathering of all the fans it means
that there is much more water and sediment than
usual, and it is quite evenly spread out throughout
Fig. 2.43 Bajada
the whole bajada as shown in fig 2.43.
(b) Deflation hollow or basin
It is created by wind action. Fine grained particles from rocks that are easily weathered are carried away
creating a hollow. As the hollow deepens they collect water during the rainy season. This water helps
speed up the weathering of the rock creating more particles to be blown away by the wind. Due to this the
hollow is able to deepen faster than the rest of the land surrounding it, creating a large hole in the ground.

40
 Activity 2.2 Research
1. Research on the different desert features found in Zimbabwe and Africa.
2. If you were a member of a committee responsible for promoting tourism in a country, what are the benefits
and problems you would state on behalf of the people living in deserts?

Exercise 2.2
1. Describe two processes of wind erosion in deserts.
2. Draw fully labelled diagrams to illustrate two features produced by wind erosion in hot deserts.
3. Identify the measure to reduce the hazards associated with deserts.
4. With reference to examples, evaluate the measures which have been introduced to reduce hazards
associated with deserts.

UNIT 2.3 HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT

Natural disasters are extreme, sudden events caused by environmental factors that injure people and
damage property. Earthquakes, windstorms, floods, and diseases all strike anywhere on earth, often
without warning. Landforms are important to designers because they often place substantial limitations
on the location, intensity, and character of urban development. For example, in some areas it is difficult or
expensive to build because of steep slopes, extensive rock formations, or the presence of water; in other
locations, it is dangerous to build because of natural hazards such as flooding, landslides and earthquakes
hazards. On the other hand, landforms often identify opportunities because they may show locations that
are most suitable for urban development, areas suitable for the exploitation of natural resources (through
farming, mining, and forestry), or areas where the natural features are of such ecological importance or
social value that they should be preserved. Some of the hazards which promote landform development
are discussed below.
Mass wasting
There are 5 types of mass wasting namely soil creep,
debris flow, solifluction, rock slides and rock fall.
These processes are also responsible for landform
development.
(a) Soil creep
This is a very slow unnoticeable but continuous
movement of soil particles down a slope due to
the total effect of individual displacement of its Fig. 2.44 Soil creep
particles - it is caused by freeze-thaw, wetting and
drying, root action and burrowing animals. It results
in the formation of convex slopes as shown in fig
2.44.
(b) Debris flow
It is a form of mass movement in which coarse
materials move downslope as slurry at rapid rates.
The material contains boulders and a fifth of its
volume is water content as shown in fig 2.45.
Fig. 2.45 Debris flow

41
(c) Solifluction
Is a stream of semi-liquid mud which flows down
valleys in mountainous areas after heavy rainfall -its
high water content makes it have a higher velocity
than earthflows as shown in fig 2.46.
(d) Rock slides
Occur in areas of unstable slopes and high relief.
There is very little disruption in the mobile mass.
Slides are common in rocks that are jointed and have
bedding planes that are parallel to the angle of the
slope and also where there is parallel slope retreat. Fig. 2.46 Solifluction
Rock slides lead to the formation of structural slopes.
(e) Rock falls
These are very rapid movements that occur on very
steep slopes where there is very little friction-the
detached fragments fall and bounce rather than
slide. Rock falls are triggered off by freeze-thaw,
thermal shattering, pressure release, earthquake
and volcanic action. Rock falls result in the formation
of free faces, slope retreat and debris/scree at the
foot of the slope as shown in fig 2.47.
Tsunami Fig. 2.47 Rock fall
The term Tsunami has been derived from a Japanese term Tsu meaning ‘harbor’ and nami meaning ‘waves’.
These big sea waves which often affect distant shores, originate by rapid displacement of water from the
lake or the sea either by seismic activity, landslides, volcanic eruptions or large meteoroid impacts. The sea
water is displaced with a violent motion and swells up, ultimately surging over land with great destructive
power as shown in fig 2.48.
Causes of tsunamis
The geological movements that cause tsunamis are
produced in three major ways.
The most common of these are fault movements
on the sea floor, accompanied by an earthquake.
They release huge amount of energy and have the
capacity to cross oceans. The degree of movement
depends on how fast the earthquake occurs and
how much water is displaced.
The second most common cause of the tsunami is a
landslide either occurring under water or originating Fig. 2.48 Tsunami in UK
above the sea and then plunging into the water.
The largest tsunami ever produced by a landslide was in Lituya Bay, Alaska 1958. The massive rock slide
produced a wave that reached a high water mark of 50 - 150 meters above the shoreline. The third major
cause of tsunami is volcanic activity. The flank of a volcano located near the shore or under water may be

42
uplifted or depressed similar to the action of a fault,
or, the volcano may actually explode. In 1883, the
violent explosion of the famous volcano, Krakotoa in
Indonesia, produced tsunami measuring 40 meters
which crushed upon Java and Sumatra. Over 36,000
people lost their lives in this tyrant waves.
Floods
Water causes controversial and different problems
in various parts of the world. Too much water causes
flood and too little water causes drought, poor
distribution causes famine, poor quality causes
health hazard and poor management creates Fig. 2.49 Flooding in Zimbabwe
competition and conflicts. Out of the weather
related disasters, drought is certainly the most complex one and both the causes and multifaceted effects
are not well understood.

Earthquakes
An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault.
The tectonic plates are always slowly moving, but
they get stuck at their edges due to friction. When
the stress on the edge overcomes the friction, there
is an earthquake that releases energy in waves
that travel through the earth’s crust and cause the
shaking that we feel.
There are three types of plate boundaries: spreading
zones, transform faults, and subduction zones. At
spreading zones, molten rock rises, pushing two
plates apart and adding new material at their edges.
Most spreading zones are found in oceans; for Fig. 2.50 Road cracking as a result of an earthquake
example, the North American and Eurasian plates
are spreading apart along the mid-Atlantic ridge. Spreading zones usually have earthquakes at shallow
depths.
Earthquakes can also occur within plates, although plate-boundary earthquakes are much more common.
Less than 10 percent of all earthquakes occur within plate interiors. As plates continue to move and plate
boundaries change over geologic time, weakened boundary regions become part of the interiors of the
plates. These zones of weakness within the continents can cause earthquakes in response to stresses that
originate at the edges of the plate or in the deeper crust.

UNIT 2.4 DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT OF VOLCANOES, EARTHQUAKES,

FLOODING AND MASS WASTING
The policy objective of anticipating and reducing risk is called disaster risk reduction (DRR). Although
often used interchangeably with DRR, disaster risk management (DRM) can be thought of as the
implementation of DRR, since it describes the actions that aim to achieve the objective of reducing risk.

43
 • Know the safe spots in each room (under a sturdy table or desks, against the interior wall or a
column, or under door frame.)
• Identify the safest and nearest place from your house.
• Know the danger spots – near windows, mirrors, hanging objects, tall unsecured furniture, and
shelves holding heavy objects.
• Locate safe places outdoors – In an open, away from buildings, trees, telephone and electric post
and lines and overpasses.
• Locate gas, water and electricity installations, and periodically check that they are in good condition.
Use accessories with flexible connections, and make sure you know how to disconnect them.
• Identify exits and alternative exits – always know all the possible ways to leave your house and work
place in emergency situations. Practice getting out of your home or building, check and see if the
planned exits are clear of obstacles.
• Ensure that a stock of appropriate supply is kept, food and drinking water, first aid kit and essential
medicine, flash light with extra batteries, portable radio with extra batteries. Radio will be the best
source of information following the earthquake especially when the electricity power is out.

Methods of disaster risk management of tsunami

The following are guidelines for what you should do if a tsunami is likely to be in your area:
• Turn on your radio to learn if there is a tsunami warning if an earthquake occurs and you are in a
coastal area.
• Move inland to higher ground immediately and stay there.
• Stay away from the beach. Never go down to the beach to watch a tsunami come in. If you can see
the wave you are too close to escape it.
• Stay away from flooded and damaged areas until officials say it is safe to return.
• Stay away from debris in the water; it may pose a safety hazard to boats and people.
• Save yourself – not your possessions.

Methods of disaster risk management of floods

To prepare for a flood, you should:
• know your local flood history.
• find out from local government agencies or experts at what river height you are unsafe.
• avoid building in a floodplain unless you elevate and reinforce your home.
• find out the evacuation route.
• elevate the furnace, water heater, and electric panel if susceptible to flooding.
• construct barriers (levees, beams, floodwalls) to stop floodwater from entering the building.
• seal walls in basements with waterproofing compounds to avoid seepage.
During a flood, you should:
• listen to the radio or television for information.
• be aware that flash flooding can occur. If there is any possibility of a flash flood, move immediately
to higher ground. Do not wait for instructions to move.
• be aware of streams, drainage channels, canyons, and other areas known to flood suddenly. Flash
floods can occur in these areas with or without such typical warnings as rain clouds or heavy rain.
If you must prepare to evacuate, you should do the following:
• secure your home. If you have time, bring in outdoor furniture. Move essential items to an upper
floor.

46
 • Do not drive into flooded areas. If floodwaters rise around your car, abandon the car and move to
higher ground if you can do so safely. You and the vehicle can be quickly swept away.
Methods of disaster risk management of volcanoes
When you are in the house, avoid areas downwind of the volcano.
• You want to get to high ground away from the eruption.
• Listen to a local station on a portable, battery-operated radio or television for updated emergency
information and instructions. Local officials will give the most appropriate advice for your particular
situation.
• Follow any evacuation orders issued by authorities, and put your plan into action.
• Although it may seem safe to stay at home and wait out an eruption, if you are in a hazard zone,
doing so could be very dangerous.
Activity 2.4 Individual work
In your own view, who is responsible for disaster risk management? State why.

Interesting facts
1. The Nile River is credited as the longest river in the world. Its main source is Lake Victoria in east central
Africa. From its farthest stream in Burundi, it extends 6,695 km (4,160 miles) in length.
2. The first known instrument for earthquake detection was invented nearly nineteen hundred years ago
by a Chinese mathematician and astronomer.

Summary of the chapter

• A channel is an area that contains flowing water confined by banks.
• Arid climates such as the Sahara desert can be hot all year round with no noticeable seasons.
• Most of the world’s arid climates lie just north and south of the tropical rain forests of the equator.
• DRM programmes should not be standalone but instead be integrated within development planning
and practice, since disasters are an indicator of failed or skewed development of unsustainable
economic and social processes and of ill-adapted societies.
• Yardangs may form very unusual shapes some resemble various objects or even people.
• River cliffs form on the outside bend as the river erodes laterally.
• The inside bend is shallower with a gentle slip-off slope made of sand or shingle that is brought
across from the outside bend by the helicoidally flow of the river.
• Levees increase the height of the river’s channel though, so the bank full discharge is increased and
it becomes more difficult for the river to flood.
• Wind transports small particles, such as silt and clay, over great distances, even halfway across a
continent.
• Sand dunes are usually very uniform in size and shape.
• Suspension, saltation and soil creep are processes of wind transport.
Glossary of terms
Meanders - are bends in a river that form as a river’s sinuosity increases.
Desertification - refers to the spread of desert conditions for example resulting in aridity or
semi-arid conditions and scant vegetation cover in the encroached area.
Channel - a depression created by constant erosion that carries the stream’s flow.
Confluence - the point at which the two streams merge. If the two tributaries are of
approximately equal size, the confluence may be called a fork.

47
Floodplain - l ands adjacent to the stream that are subject to flooding when a stream
overflows its banks.
Mouth - t he point at which the stream discharges, or ends usually in a lake or sea or
estuary or delta.
Rapids - a turbulent, fast-flowing stretch of a stream or river.
River - a body of water flowing in a well defined channel.
Source - is where the stream originates, or where it begins.
Stream bed - the bottom of a stream.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The main source of water in rivers is __________.
A. oceans B. rainfall
C. underground water D. springs
2. Which of the following is not a process of river transport?
A. Suspension B. Solution
C. Saltation D. Deflation
3. Which conditions are needed for a river delta to form?
A. Abundant coral at the mouth of the river. B. Steep descent to the river mouth.
C. Very salty water near the river mouth. D. Weak sea currents near the river mouth.
4. Which processes are responsible for the formation of potholes on a river bed?
A. Attrition B. Corrosion
C. Deposition D. Solution
5. The point where a river enters a large water body is called the ___________.
A. source B. mouth
C. confluence D. tributary
6. Study the diagram below.

What are the landscape features shown in the picture?

A. Butte and mesas B. Buttes and yardangs
C. Zeugens and mesa D. Zeugens and yardangs
7. Another name for a sandy desert is a ____________.
A. reg B. erg
C. badlands D. hamada

48
8. The picture below shows a ______________.

A. river cliff B. slip off slope

C. river D. water body
9. Hot deserts are located on the western sides of continents because ________.
A. the coasts are washed by warm currents B. the ITCZ is commonly experienced there
C. anticyclonic conditions prevail D. the trade winds blow on shore
10. Name the feature which is a result of wind abrasion.
A. Zeugen B. Wadi
C. Playa D. Barchan
11. All of the following are measures to reduce desertification except ________.
A. practicing crop rotation B. creating sand embankments
C. fencing to protect forests D. expansion of human settlements
12. DRM strategies are not designed to __________.
A. avoid the construction of new risks
B. address pre-existing risks
C. share and spread risk to prevent disaster losses being absorbed by other development outcomes
and creating additional poverty
D. increase the risk on people’s lives
13. All of the following people are responsible for DRR except _________.
A. society B. government
C. non-governmental organizations D. refugees
14. Which of the following is a benefit of rivers to men?
A. A source of food B. Low night temperature
C. Habitat for dangerous animals D. Communication
15. What is a meander?
A. A bend in a river that form as a river’s sinuosity increases.
B. A depression created by constant erosion that carries the stream’s flow.
C. A turbulent, fast-flowing stretch of a stream or river.
D. A large natural stream, which may be a waterway.
Structured Questions
1. (a) Name the two main processes operating along a river channel. [2]
(b) Using well labelled diagrams, describe the following features resulting from river processes;
i. Waterfall. [2]
ii. Meanders. [2]

49
 iii. Rapids [2]
iv. River cliffs and slip off slopes [2]
(c) i. Describe the characteristics of arid and semi-arid regions. [5]
ii. State the agents of erosion which shape the desert landscape. [3]
iii. For the agents you have mentioned above, state the features they produce. [7]
2. (a) i. Name and describe any two river transportation processes. [6]
ii. Define the term hydraulic action with reference to the processes that occur in a river channel. [2]
iii. Describe the processes that lead to the formation of a river cliff and a slip off slope. [6]
(b) Name three deltas you have studied. [3]
(c) Using well labelled diagrams, describe and explain the formation of river deltas. [8]
3. (a) Describe two processes of wind erosion in hot deserts. [4]
(b) Draw fully labelled diagrams to illustrate features produced by wind erosion in hot desert. [9]
(c) i. What arguments can be put for and against establishing a settlement near a desert area? [5]
ii. What arguments can be put forward for and against establishing a settlement near a desert area?
[7]
4. (a) i. Name the feature shown below. [2]

ii. Draw a labelled diagram to show the elements of the feature above. [8]
iii. Describe and explain the formation of the feature above. [6]
(b) W
 ith reference to any two features of your choice, explain why water action is important in deserts.
[4]
(c) Using diagrams, describe and explain two landforms that result from the following;
i. Wind erosion. [3]
ii. Wind deposition. [2]

50
 Chapter
ECOSYSTEMS

3
Chapter objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• dentify components of soil.
• measure soil components.
• analyse soil components.
• describe the processes of gleyzation and cheluviation.
• name type of soils formed through soil forming processes in the tropics.
• explain soil profiles.
• identify soil properties.
• describe horizons in the soil profile.

Introduction
Soil is a loose layer of material from the earth’s crust which provides support to both plants and animals. It
can be defined as the organic and inorganic materials on the surface of the earth that provide the medium
for plant growth. Soil develops slowly over time and is composed of many different materials. Inorganic
materials, or those materials that are not living, include weathered rocks and minerals. Soil is made up
of broken (weathered) rock particles as well as decayed plants and animals. Soil is also composed of air,
water, living organisms and organic matter. Soil is a living, breathing, natural entity composed of solids,
liquids, and gases. Soil has five major functions that is provision of a habitat for organisms, recycles waste
products, filters water, serves as an engineering material, and provides a medium for plant growth. There
is more life below the soil surface than there is above.

UNIT 3.1 SOIL COMPONENTS

Soil is a porous medium consisting of minerals, water, gases, organic matter, and microorganisms. It
has three main components which are solids, liquids and gasses. These three strongly interact with
each other and can be further divided into four categories as shown in figure 3.1. The solid is divided
into minerals and organic matter, while the liquid is composed of water and minerals. The gas is
composed of all air pores. Different soils have different quantities of these components. An average
soil have these components in the quantities as shown in figure 3.1.

51
Soil components
Soil is a mixture of rock particles and remains of
plants and animals. Soil contains water and air in
the spaces between the particles. Soil contains
living organisms such as worms, termites, ants,
and other insects and bacteria. Bacteria is crucial
in the decomposition or decay of plant and animal
remains.
(a) Minerals
The largest component of soil is the mineral
portion, this makes up almost half of the soil that
is approximately between 45% and 49% of the
volume to be precise. Soil minerals are derived from
the parent rock and organic matter decomposition.
The mineral materials are typically weathered rock
of varying sizes called sand, silt and clay. Fig. 3.1 Components of the soil
The organic matter consists of decaying plant and microbial residues. The relative amounts of pores pace
and mineral and organic matter vary greatly among different soil types. Some of the minerals found in the
soil include nitrogen, iron, aluminium, manganese, phosphate and zinc.
(b) Water
Water is the second basic component of soil together with air. Water can make up approximately 2% to
50% of the soil volume. Water is important for transporting nutrients to growing plants and soil organisms
and for facilitating both. The capacity of a soil to hold water is largely dependent on soil texture. The more
small particles in soils, the more water the soil can retain. Thus, clay soils have the greatest water-holding
capacity while sands soils have the least. Additionally, organic matter also influences the water-holding
capacity of soils because of organic matter’s high affinity for water. The higher the percentage of organic
material in soil, the higher the soil’s water-holding capacity. Although clay can hold the most water of all
soil textures, it has very fine micro-pores on which hold water so tightly that plants have great difficulty
extracting all of it. Thus, loams and silt loams are considered some of the most productive soil textures
because they hold large quantities of water that is available for plants to use.
(c) Air
Gases or air is also the basic component of the soil. Because air can occupy the same spaces as water, it can
make up approximately 2% to 50% of the soil volume. Oxygen is essential for root and microbe respiration,
which helps support plant growth. Carbon dioxide and nitrogen also are important for below ground plant
functions such as for nitrogen-fixing bacteria. If soils remain waterlogged (where gas is displaced by excess
water), it can prevent root gas exchange leading to plant death, which is a common concern after floods.
(d) Organic matter
Organic matter is the next basic component that is found in soils at levels of approximately 1% to 5%. It is
composed of dead plants and animals. Through decomposition, organic materials are broken down and
turned into nutrients that plants can use. A soil with high organic matter has a high capacity to hold onto
and/or provide the essential elements and water for plant growth. Soils that are high in organic matter
are generally the most productive for plant growth. Organic matter also has a very high water-holding
capacity, which can increases the growth potential of soils with poor water-holding capacity such as

52
sand. Thus, the percentage of decomposed organic matter in or on soils is often used as an indicator of a
productive and fertile soil. Plants and animals, when they die, become part of the ground once more and
so the cycle continues. Soil gives life; life gives itself back to the soil.
Measurement of soil components
The various components of soil you have learnt in unit 3.1 can be measured to ascertain their availability
and amounts in any given soil. Measuring the soil components is an easy task as you will note from the
proceedings of the unit. The components to be discussed in this unit are, the soil water content, soil organic
matter, soil texture, soil pH as well as the soil bulky density. To measure the component you do not require
sophisticated equipment at all. Generally some soils have high amounts of certain components and less
amounts of the other. For instance, some soils have high organic matter and very little air spaces.
Soil moisture/soil water
Soil water is the amount of moisture which is found in any soil. You will note that in the environment, this
moisture is always present in the soil no matter how dry the soil is. Soil water is important in many ways. It
provides plants with moisture and acts as a medium for nutrient cycling. The soil moisture measurement
helps to define the role of the soil storage in the dynamics of the ecosystem. For example, soil moisture
measurements tells us about the ability of the soil to hold or transmit water affecting groundwater
recharge, surface runoff, and transpiration and evaporation of water into the atmosphere.
It also describes the ability of the soil to provide nutrients and water to plants, affecting their growth and
survival. To measure the water content in the soil, one has to;

Measuring water content in the soil

Equipment: Soil, oven and scale.
Method:
1. Weigh the soil sample to be used.
2. The soil is then heated in a warm oven.
3. The soil is then re-weighed and the weight is recorded. This process is repeated over and over until the soil
weight is no longer changing. The last weight is then subtracted from the weight before heating and that
becomes the water content in the soil. The loss of mass is due to the loss of water during heating.

The table below shows the moisture content of different soils samples collected by a student in Harare.

Table 3.1 Soil moisture content

Weight of Weight before

Sample Weight after heating Percentage moisture
container heating

A 5g 25g 20g 20%

B 7g 57g 47g 20%

C 3g 13g 18g 50%

D 10g 50g 70g 40%

E 4g 44g 74g 75%

53
However, small organism which cannot be seen by a naked eye may be difficult to see in a soil. To see
these organisms, one needs to take a sample of soil and wrap it with a piece of cloth. The soil is roasted
by heating it strongly to kill the organism. The soil is wrapped in a piece of cloth and put in enclosed glass
container with carbon dioxide indicators to check for the presence of organism.

Measuring of gasses in soil

Equipment: soil, water and scale.
Method:
1. Take the weight of the soil.
2. Then add water, to fill up all the air pockets in the
soil until the water is level with the top of the soil.
3. Take the weight of the soil which has the water. The
extra mass between the soil without water and the
soil which has been watered is of the air spaces.
General soil air is determined by the amount of air
pore spaces in the soil. Sandy soils generally have
more as compared to clay soil.

Analysis of soil components

There are three basic soil types. These soils are sandy soil, loam soil and clay soils. However, silt also another
type of soil usually forming through deposition from both water and air erosion. Each soil has its distinct
characteristics and has its distinct components. These soils can be analysed by looking at how each of the
soils components are found as well as how the content affect the soil.
(a) Sandy soils
Sandy soil a coarsely textured soils. It is characterised
by low in organic matter content and is therefore,
generally not very fertile. The soil is rapidly
permeable and do not hold soil moisture for a long
time. In this soil nutrient leaching is a concern as the
soil allows a lot of water to drain into the soil rapidly.
For this soil to support plant life, proper fertilization
is a must. Sandy soils are very well-suited for road
foundations and building sites. Particles do not stick
together and cannot be made into a ball. Sandy
soils warm quickly in spring, but cool quickly in
autumn. This soil does not result in any swelling or
shrinkage. The soil can be used to make glass. Its
particles do not stick together and cannot be made
into a ball. The soils warm quickly in spring, but cool
quickly in autumn forms soils which cannot hold Fig. 3.2 Sandy soil sample
onto nutrients. Sandy soils feel gritty.
(b) Loam soil
This a medium textured soils which is normally darkish in colour. It contains more organic matter hence
its darkish colour. Loam soil is fairly permeable. It permit slower movement of water and it is better

55
The correlation between EI–Nino events and droughts in Zimbabwe is very high. Drought result in crop
failures and the loss of pasture grazing land for livestock for example 1992, 1983 and 2008 droughts in
Zimbabwe. Global warming cause an increase in rainfall in some areas this would lead to an increase
of an atmospheric humidity and the duration of the wet seasons. These would favour the dip of fungal
diseases. Sea levels are expected to get up to 1 metre higher by 2100. A rise in sea level would result in an
agricultural land loss for example in South East Asia.
Erosion and Salinity of the water table due to the increased sea levels, could affect agriculture through in
unration of low lands. Low lying areas such as India and Vietnam and Bangladesh will experience major
loss of rice crop if the sea level rises. The increase in precipitations would result in greater risks of erosion.
Global warming could lead to an increase in pest insect population harming yields of staple crops like
wheat, soya beans and com for example beetles. The biggest consequences of climate change on the
dispersal of pathogens is that the geographical distribution of hosts and pathogens could shift which
could result in more crop losses.
(c) Increase food prices
Climate change is likely to contribute substantially to food insecurity in the future, by increasing food
prices, and reducing food production. Food may become more expensive as climate change mitigation
efforts increase energy price. Water required for food production may become scarcer due to increased
crop water use and drought. Competition for land may cause sudden reductions in agricultural
productivity, leading to rapid price increases. Heat waves in the summer of 2010 led to yield losses in
key production areas including: Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan, and contributed to a dramatic increase
in the price of staple foods. These rising prices forced growing numbers of local people into poverty,
providing a sobering demonstration of how the influence of climate change can result in food insecurity.
Positive effects of climate change on agriculture
Climate change can increase food security projections suggested that there could be large decreases in
hunger globally by 2080. In polar and artic regions there is going to be increased agricultural and forestry
opportunities. Rising temperature in Iceland has made the widespread sowing of barley possible. Climate
change may increase the amount of reductions of the amount of frozen land for example, in Russia
(Northern part).
Mitigation measures to the effects of climate change on agriculture
Mitigation of climate change refers to minimising the future impacts and risks of climate change on crop
production. Therefore, reducing the impact of climate change on crop production involve the following;
• Use of irrigation to irrigate crops in dry regions.
• Social safety nets such as the chief’s granary (zunde ramambo) whereby the general community
contributes to grain store to help needy families during times of hunger.
• Wild fruit harvesting for example nyii.
• Dry planting before the rains have started.
• Conservation agriculture.
• Traditional food storage and processing techniques.
• Growing drought tolerant crops for example millet, sorghum and rapoko.
• Construction of large dams for example Tokwe-Mukosi for irrigation purposes.
• Cloud seeding to increase the amount of rainfall.
• Seeking aid from Non-Governmental Organisations such as CARE, PLAN, CHRISTIAN CARE, HELP
GERMANY and WORLD VISION.

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 • The promotion of renewable energy, energy efficiency improvements of forest and range lands
ability to store greenhouse gases and adopting low carbon transportation modes.
• Education about climate change, could help alleviate the impacts of climate change on food
security and agriculture.
• Technological advances such as improved varieties, genetically modified organisms and irrigation
systems.
• Use of biological control agents to control pests.
• Rearing drought resistant animals for example goats and cattle like hard MaShona.
Adaptation measures for Zimbabwe and Southern Africa
Adaptation refers to a process through which societies increase their ability to cope with an uncertain
future which involves taking appropriate action and making adjustments to reduce the negative impacts
of climate change. Adaptation can occur at different levels. Individuals, households, communities, civil
society, the private sector, local and national can all contribute. Each community has different levels of
vulnerability and resilience and each situation is different. This adaption measures include:
• strengthening the resilience of human communities to cope with climate change which depends
on increasing their capacity to function as supporting units. In the past, Zimbabwean communities
were tight-knit social networks with strong spirit of cooperation. Traditional leadership and
indigenous knowledge were valued ad respected, and rules governing human behaviour and
protecting environmental resources were strictly upheld.
• use of traditional forecasting in Munyawiri ward in Domboshava for example appearance of certain
birds, mating of certain animals, and flowering of certain plants and the abundance of certain wild
fruits indicates the quantity of rain.
• raising awareness, informing and educating people about the causes and impacts of climate
change are crucial step, with teachers, learners, headmen, chiefs and business leaders playing an
important role.
• strengthening community based decision-making and collective action while destroying
dependency syndrome and victim mentality.
• identifying areas of vulnerability that can be exacerbated by climate change and that need to be
addressed for example poverty, disease, poor sanitation, malnutrition and improved social safety
nets.Developing adaptation plans and disaster risk management strategies in participation with
stakeholders, especially vulnerable groups that are often left out of decision-making notably
women, the disabled and children.
• improving infrastructure, such as roads, bridges and buildings, that may be susceptible to climate
change hazards.
• diversifying livelihoods into climate resilient areas for example off farm activities, horticulture and
animal rearing.
• improving post-harvest storage of crops, such as grain stores, to prevent the destruction by insects
and increase food security.
• community based adaptation with NGOS and government agencies to analyse their weaknesses
and assess their risks for example OXFAM strengthened weather and climate information
dissemination in Gutu, Zvishavane and Chirumhanzu.
• encouraging farmers to grow drought tolerant crops to increase food security.
• conservation farming is viewed as an essential climate change adaptation method as it involves
three principles which are minimum soil disturbance, crop rotation and permanent soil cover. This

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 reduce soil erosion, improve soil fertility, conserve water and improve yields. Conservation farming
produce higher yields than conventional methods during droughts.
• agro-forestry which involves growing beneficial trees as part of cropping systems.
• government can facilitate the implementation of adaptation strategies through enforcing laws
that protect natural resources and vulnerable groups, raising awareness of climate change issues
through local media, disseminating climate information from national and local meteorological
stations to farmers through extension staff and sharing of information about successes learning
between different communities.

Activity 7.1 Group Discussion

Divide yourself into groups and discuss the causes and effects of climate change in Zimbabwe and Southern
Africa.

Activity 7.2 Group Discussion

In groups, discuss the mitigation measures to climate change and adaptation measures to climate change for
Zimbabwe and Southern Africa.

Exercise 1
1. What is climate change and agriculture?
2. Which types of agriculture are there in Zimbabwe?
3. Identify the effects of climate change on agriculture.
4. Suggest mitigation measures used to reduce the impacts of climate change you mentioned above.
5. Suggest 5 adaptation measures for Zimbabwe.

UNIT 7.2 AGRICULTURAL DISEASES, PESTS AND SOLUTIONS

A pest is an annoying, harmful, often destructive organism, that destroys or harms plants and crops.
The effects of pests include destroying habitats of other organisms, reducing market value for crops,
transmission of viral diseases and extreme crop losses. A disease is a condition of the plant body or animal
body that impairs normal functioning. A disease also refers to an abnormal condition of the body or mind
that causes discomfort or dysfunction. The causes of diseases are viruses, protozoa, bacteria and fungi.
Diseases affect crops and animals.
Animal diseases
(a) Newcastle
It is a rapidly spreading respiratory disease of all poultry and other birds such as turkeys, chickens and
pigeons. Newcastle is also called Avian Distemper or Velogenic Viscerotropic Newcastle disease. Newcastle
is a disease which affects domestic poultry for example layers and broilers. It is caused by a virus such as
Paramyxovirus and is very infectious. It can stay active for 6 months after an outbreak of the disease.
Transmission - Newcastle is transmitted in airborne (aerosols), ingestion of contaminated food and water
and the movement of contaminated people, equipment and wild birds.
Symptoms and effects of Newcastle
• Difficult breathing, high death losses, quick breathing and twisting of the neck.
• Coughing and sneezing.
• Newcastle causes substantial morbidity in poultry.

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 • Layers stop laying eggs resulting in low egg production.
• Babbling sound from the throat, yellowish diarrhoea and sudden reduction in egg production.
Prevention and control
• The chicks are vaccinated at an age of one week. The booster vaccine is given at 4 to 5 weeks of age
and the last vaccination at 16 to 18 weeks to prevent secondary bacterial infections.
• All the affected flock must be killed, practice good hygiene and buy chickens from reputable
breeders.
• The disease can be prevented through vaccination and adaptation of biosecurity and quarantine
control measures. During the outbreak of disease proper disposal of dead birds and zoning of the
area can help to control the disease in surrounding flocks.
(b) Coccidiosis
Coccidiosis is a parasitic disease of the intestinal tract of animals caused by coccidian protozoa. It affects
poultry, humans, dogs, goats, sheep and calves. The disease spreads through feed and water from one
animal to another by contact with infected faeces or ingestion of infected tissue.
Symptoms
• Poultry eat less because of poor appetite.
• Head is held down, feathers ruffled.
• Weak chick as shown by drooping of wings.
• Watery droppings with blood in severe cases which is the primary symptom.
• Most animals infected with coccidian are asymptomatic.
• Symptoms in young dogs include diarrhoea with mucus and blood, poor appetite, vomiting and
dehydration.
• It can leave the bird with compromised digestion.
• It affects the growth and sometimes survival of the calves and consequently affects production and
the profitability of livestock production.
Prevention and treatment
• Treat with sulphamethine or amprol in drinking water.
• Use of foot bath.
• Provide coccidiostats, ESB3 which hinder multiplication of coccidian.
• Maintain high level of hygiene by keeping feeding and watering areas clean and clean out litter and
droppings from coops regularly.
• Kill coccidian using coccidiocidal compounds like Suflas and amprolium.
• Chickens need four square feet of space each in their coops.
• Naval dipping.
• Isolation of sick animals and buy young stock from reliable breeders.
(c) Chronic respiratory disease
It appears similar to a cold, but it is more serious and can kill many birds if it is not treated.
Effects of chronic respiratory disease
• The birds are restless, look uncomfortable and squat with their tail feathers down.
• The birds have running noses and sneeze.
• Blood in droppings of young birds.
• Swelling around face and loss of appetite.
• Mouth is always open.

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Prevention and control of Mastitis
• Ensure that milking units are properly used.
• Simple penicillin and antibiotic treatment.
• Good management and hygiene in the dairy is chief way of reducing mastitis.
• Use of disinfectants and teat dips.
• Inspect dry stock.
• Control flies.
(j) Swine fever
It is caused by one of the many influenza A viruses. It is both acute and chronic and is spread by utensils,
lorries, feeding stuffs and infected animals.
Signs and symptoms of swine fever
• Loss of appetite.
• High fever.
• Coughs, chills and aches.
• Sore throat.
• Causes high temperature.
Effects
• Death of animals in 2 to 4 days.
• The skin may be reddened, blotchy or have blackened lesions especially on the eyes, tail and lower
legs.
Control of swine fever
• Swine fever is controlled by a slaughter policy.
• No import of live animals, meat and meat products from regions where African swine fever occurs.
Plant diseases
There are a tremendous number of diseases and
similar troubles of all plants, weeds as well as
crops. Plant diseases may reduce yields or spoil the
quality of produce or they may cause crop failure.
Plant diseases are caused by fungus, bacteria and
virus.
1. Fungal diseases
(a) Potato blight
It is a disease of potatoes and tomatoes caused by
phytophthora infestans an omycete or water mold,
a micro-organism. It is also called late blight. The Fig. 7.3 Late blight infection on tomato plant
late blight of potatoes and diseases was responsible
for Irish potato famine. It is worse in wet areas and worse under hot damp summer conditions.
Effects of potato blight
• It cause poor yields.

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 Country Per capita Life Under 5 mortality Adult literacy
income (us$ per expectancy rate per 1000
year) (years)
Botswana 3630 39 99 23
South Africa 2900 48 79 15
Zimbabwe 480 40 116 11
Compare the quality of life of the people in the three countries shown in the table. [4]
(c) State three problems created in rural areas as a result of rural to urban migration. [3]
(i) Describe and explain the structure of the population shown [4]
(ii) As a health worker in a rural area where many people are suffering from cholera, what measures
would you put in place to reduce the spread of the disease? [4]
(iii) What problems are you likely to face in implementing the measures you have stated above?[3]
2. (a) (i) Name three pests and the diseases they cause to the people in Zimbabwe. [6]
(ii) Outline the socio-economic impact of disease in a country. [4]

(b) Table 1.1 shows information on the living conditions of people in the developed and developing
countries.

Living conditions Developed Developing

Access to safe sanitation 95 49
Access to clean drinking water 96 45
Access to health facilities 99 58
Access to education 100 89
(i) Draw a bar graph to show the information presented in the above. [6]
(ii) Explain the differences in access to clean drinking water in developing countries. [5]
3. (a) (i) Using an example, explain the term permanent migration. [2]
(ii) State the positive and negative effects of large scale international migration on the sending
areas. [5]
(b) (i) Describe and explain the differences in birth rates and death rates in any developing country you
have studied. [9]
(ii) What could be the reasons behind an increase in population growth in developing countries?
[5]
(iii) Identify the problems associated with population increase. [4]
4. (a) Which diseases are from developed and developing countries? [8]
(b) Why is HIV/AIDS regarded as a challenge or problem in both developed and developing
countries? [6]
(c) Explain the following terms:
(i) death rate [2]
(ii) birth rate [2]
(iii) life expectancy [2]
(iv) migration [2]
(d) Why is it important to plan families? [3]

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EXAMINATION III
Paper 1: Multiple Choice Questions
Answer all the questions. Choose the most appropriate optional answer.
1. What causes the greenhouse effect that warms the earth?
A. Acid rain B. Atmospheric pollutants
C. Cloud seeding D. Prolonged droughts
2. Which human activity may lead to the formation of acid rain?
A. Cloud seeding B. Deforestation
C. Manufacturing industry D. Hydro–electric power
3. The process where urban areas have a higher average temperature than the surrounding country side
is called __________.
A. global warming B. urban heat island effect
C. greenhouse effect D. ozone layer depletion
4. Which Act provides for the establishment of towns and municipalities?
A. Urban Councils Act B. Rural Councils Act
C. Regional And Town Planning Act D. Environmental Management Act
5. The 1998 Koko Case led to the creation of which convention?
A. Basel convention B. Bamako convention
C. Montreal protocol D. Kyoto protocol
6. The protocol which was designed to protect the ozone layer is ________.
A. Basel convention B. Bamako convention.
C. Montreal protocol D. Kyoto protocol
7. Which of the following is not an aspect of the environment?
A. Land B. Water
C. Air D. Poison
8. An environment which is undisturbed is called ________.
A. man-made environment B. pristine environment
C. degraded environment D. new environment
9. The division of land by the appropriate authorities into areas that may be used for specific activities is
called __________.
A. land fragmentation B. land consolidation
C. land tenure D. land zoning
10. Which one of the following is widely viewed as being an essential aspect of sustainable development?
A. Increased level of saving B. Inter-generational equity
C. Increasing consumption expenditure D. Intra-generational inequity
11. The convention which bans the importation into Africa and the control of trans boundary movement
and management of hazardous waste in Africa is called ________.
A. Basel Convention B. Bamako Convention
C. The Ramsar Convention D. The CITES Convention
12. All of the following gases are greenhouse gases except ________.
A. hydrogen B. methane
C. carbon dioxide D. nitrous oxide
13. Why is transport one of the most intractable factors in considering the global environmental problem?
A. Our transport capabilities worldwide have not expanded fast enough for us to cope with the
consequences of global warming.

183
 B. Transport demand grows faster than possible technological improvements can reduce the output of
greenhouse gases and depletion of non-renewable fossil fuel reserves.
C. Reducing the growth of the transport sector will hold back economic growth, and hence reduced
the resource we have available to deal with the global environmental problem.
D. World oil refinery capacity has failed to expand in line with the demand for internal combustion
fuels.
14. Anthrax is caused by a rod shaped bacteria called _________.
A. bacillus anthracis B. ralstonia solanacerium
C. salmonella anthratis D. vibrio cholera
15. The feeding behaviour of pests responsible for the spread of most plant disease is _______.
A. biting B. chewing
C. sucking D. boring
16. Which disease is prevented through immunisation?
A. Coccidiosis B. Anthrax
C. Newcastle D. Foot and mouth
17. Which disease is transmitted by vectors?
A. Foot and mouth B. Anthrax
C. Nagana D. New castle
18. What is used to control internal parasites?
A. Spraying all the animals B. Dipping the animals twice a week
C. Dosing the animals D. Slaughtering the animals
19. Which disease is caused by Babesia?
A. Red water B. Nagana
C. Heart water D. Anthrax
20. Fatal notifiable diseases which should reported to the veterinary officers soon after their outbreak are
____________.
A. red water and heart water B. nagana and sleeping sickness.
C. anthrax and foot and mouth D. new castle and coccidiosis.
21. Which of the following are bacterial diseases of livestock?
A. Anthrax and fowl typhoid B. Fowl pox and foot mouth
C. Mastitis and rabies D. Swine fever and newcastle
22. All of the following are sectors of agri-business except _______.
A. agri-service sector B. agri-business output
C. agri-business input D. agri-business
23. What is the industrial classification of changing raw materials into finished goods called _____.
A. tertiary B. primary
C. secondary D. quaternary
24. Near which one of following towns is there a historical tourist attraction in Zimbabwe?
A. Kariba B. Hwange
C. Masvingo D. Mutare
25. Which industry type is not tertiary?
A. Banking B. Quarrying
C. Tourism D. Education
26. Which group contains services industries only?
A. Insurance, Banking and Transport B. Communication, Forestry and Insurance
C. Tourism, Agriculture and Retailing D. Health, Teaching and Fishing

184
27. Which industry type is not a high technology industry?
A. Power making B. Steel making
C. Computer making D. Cellular phones companies
28. Kenya’s tourism fell greatly in 2008 because of _________.
A. murder of several tourists B. terrorist attacks
C. disputed presidential election. D. competition
29. Which award was won by Kenya at the World Travel Fair in Shanghai, China in 2008?
A. Nobel Prize Award B. Leisure Destination Award
C. Nama Award D. World Cup Award
30. The pie charts below show the percentages contributed by primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
industries to the gross national product for four countries.
Which country has the most developed economy?

primary secondary tertiary quatinary

A. B. C. D.
31. Which country is the least developed?
32. Gambling falls under which industrial sector?
A. Quaternary B. Extractive
C. Manufacturing D. Third order sector
33. What attracts the majority of tourists from Asia, North America and Western Europe to Zimbabwe?
A. Business opportunities B. Mountains and limestone caves
C. Stone ruins and hotels D. Sunshine and wildlife
34. Which of the following is a natural tourist attraction in Zimbabwe?
A. Chinhoyi caves B. Khami ruins
C. Kariba dam D. Great Zimbabwe monuments
35. All of the following industries are examples of quaternary industries except ________.
A. consultancy B. research and development
C. computing and ICT D. insurance
36. The sector which serves all the other industries is called _________.
A. primary B. secondary
C. quaternary D. tertiary
37. The total value of goods produced and services provided in a country in a year is called ________.
A. gross domestic product B. gross national product
C. revenue D. income tax
38. The industry sector concerned with the provision of services such as transport, storage, electricity and
wholesaling is known as __________.
A. quaternary sector B. tertiary sector C. primary sector D. secondary sector
39. Service industries are also called __________.
A. quinary B. quaternary C. tertiary D. primary
40. Intangible items refers to ___________.
A. services B. goods C. gold D. minerals

185
4. (a) Define the terms:
(i) Climate change [2]
(ii) Global warming [2]
(b) (i) State the effects of Greenhouse effect on agriculture. [3]
(ii) Outline the causes of climate change. [5]
(iii) State and explain the causes of global warming. [6]
(c) 
Suggest solutions to the effects of climate change. [7]

Section B
Answer at least one question from this section.
5. (a) Explain what is meant by the terms:
(i) Agri-business [2]
(ii) Agri-services [2]
(b) Fig 5.1 below shows the picture of agri-business in Zimbabwe.

(i) Describe the scene in the photograph above. [5]

(ii) State the forms of funding for the type of agri-business shown on the fig above.
[4]
(iii) State the importance of agri-business to the economy and individuals. [5]
(c) Suggest the challenges faced by the agri-business in Zimbabwe and come up with solutions. [7]
6. (a) Define the following terms:
(i) Notifiable diseases [2]
(ii) Mastitis [2]
(iii) State four examples of notifiable diseases [4]
(b) Fig 6.1 below shows a cattle affected by disease.

187
 (i) Name the disease affecting the cattle and its cause. ` [3]
(ii) Outline the symptoms of the diseases. [7]
(c) As a veterinary officer suggest the measures one can take to reduce the spread of livestock
diseases. [7]
7. (a) (i) Contrast quaternary and tertiary industry. [4]
(ii) Table 7.1 below shows information about industry in Zimbabwe.
Type of industry Example of industry
Primary
Gambling

Fill the table 7.1 above [6]

(b) (i) Outline the three features of quaternary industry and four of tertiary industry. [7]
(ii) Give the challenges faced by the quaternary industries . [4]
(c) Suggest measures to solve the challenges faced by quaternary industry. [4]
8. (a) (i) Define the term tick. [2]
(ii) Name the two types of ticks and the diseases they cause [4]
(iii) The table 8.1 below shows type of pests and examples.
Type of pests Example of pests
Sucking pests
Weevil

Copy and complete the table above and give two examples on examples of pests. [6]
(b) State and explain the effects of pests. [6]
(c) As an Agriculture extension officer, suggest the prevention and control measures to the effects of
pests. [7]
Section C
Answer at least one question from this section.
9. (a) Define the following terms:
(i) Tourists. [2]
(ii) Tourism. [2]
(iii) Contrast international tourist and local tourist. [4]
(b) Name the three natural attractions and three man made features in Zimbabwe. [6]
(c) (i) Outline the problems faced by the tourist industry in Zimbabwe. [7]
(ii) Suggest the measures that can be taken to address the challenges faced by tourism sector in
Zimbabwe. [4]
10. (a) Define the following terms as used in tourism:
(i) Attractions [2]
(ii) Accessibility [2]

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 The Fig 10.1 above shows two attractions.
(b) (i) Name the two tourist attractions. [2]
(ii) State the attractions found in the above two resort areas. [3]
(iii) Describe the scene in the photograph above. [4]
(c) Outline the advantages and disadvantages of tourism in Zimbabwe. [5]
(d) As Minister of Tourism, what measures would you recommend to government to improve the
tourist industry in your country and what challenges are you likely to encounter in implementing
these measures? [7]
11. (a) (i) What is meant by the term urban agriculture? [2]
(ii) Name the five types of urban agriculture. [5]
(iii) State the nature of urban agriculture. [7]
(b) Explain the problems associated with urban agriculture. [4]
(c) As Minister of Urban Agriculture, give reasons for and against the practise of urban agriculture. [7]
12. (a) (i) Name four agri-businesses in Zimbabwe. [4]
(ii) State and explain the nature of agri-business in Zimbabwe. [7]
(b) State and explain sectors of agri-business. [7]
(c) As Minister of Agriculture, outline the measures you would take to reduce the effects of drought on
agriculture. [7]

189
 Updated Curriculum A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 1–4

A Practical Approach

Updated Curriculum
FORM A Practical Approach FORM
to to

his is a learner centred comprehensive book which gives learners an effective

Geography 1 Geography 2
A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 1

nderstanding of the learning area. It constitutes of the following features:

• well-structured content as outlined in the syllabus.

A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 2

• interesting facts about the subject that motivate and stimulate interest in the
learning of Geography.
• activities that require learners to actively participate in their learning process.
• knowledge of geographic terms, laws, facts, concepts, theories and phenomena.
• knowledge and understanding of geographical instruments and apparatus
including techniques of operations and aspects of safety.
• simple language to enhance understanding.
• attractive illustrations that reinforce concepts being learned.
• thorough revision exercises at the end of the chapter and follow up examinations
meant to evaluate the extent to which taught skills and knowledge have been
grasped.

9 78079 74 60621

Kafikira Wiseman Ncube Nkosilomusa Ntshingila Sithabisiwe Doro Crecens Chimanikire Soccicah Muzvidzani Melody

A Practical Approach
Updated Curriculum

Updated Curriculum

FORM A Practical Approach FORM

to
to

Geography 3 Geography 4
A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 2

his is a learner centred comprehensive book which gives learners an effective

understanding of the learning area. It constitutes of the following features:
• well-structured content as outlined in the syllabus.
• interesting facts about the subject that motivate and stimulate interest in the
learning of Geography.
• activities that require learners to actively participate in their learning process.
• knowledge of geographic terms, laws, facts, concepts, theories and phenomena.
• knowledge and understanding of scientific instruments and apparatus including
techniques of operations and aspects of safety.
• simple language to enhance understanding.
• attractive illustrations that reinforce concepts being learned.
• thorough revision exercises at the end of the chapter and follow up examinations
meant to evaluate the extent to which taught skills and knowledge have been
grasped.

9 78079 74 60645

Chitengu Bothwell Mussett Mashiringwane Chengetai Mazendame Renias T.

Ntshingila Sithabisiwe Pikirai Tinashe Shenjere Trymore