ETHNIC COHESION AND

SOCIAL HARMONY
 The word ‘minorities’ has two meanings.
Minorities as the numerically lesser segments
within a group, or a population, in contrast to
the numerical majority.
THE CONCEPT A minority as a social group with no power,
OF MINORITY although in some circumstances they may be
the numerical majority. Women are the
example of this definition of a minority.
 Provide examples for the following
1. Ethnic or racial minorities –
2. Religious minorities –
ACTIVITY 1 3. Linguistic Minorities –
4. Gender and sexual minorities –
The minority status of a particular group gives them a
distinct identity form other groups in terms of their culture,
traditions and language.

The demographic category of ‘minorities’ is not a

politically neutral one. The moment a group, or a
population, is divided into a majority and minorities; it
suggests power relations, the majority having more power
and the minority with no or less power. And the majority
has a tendency to suppress the view of the minority.

This has become a serious problem in democracy when it

is understood as the ‘will of the majority.’

Minorites became a focus of attention with the emergence

of the nation-state in the 18th and 19th centuries.
 NATION-STATE, MINORITIES AND CITIZENSHIP
Modern states in the world are ‘nation states.’ Nation-state refers to a model of the state
first evolved in Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries, and then spread to other
countries as well.
There were a few fundamental assumptions on which this model was built which had
some troubling implications for ethnic and cultural minorities and their citizenship rights.
These principles, on which the model of modern nation-states is built, appear as quite
harmless on the surface. However, in the course of the development of the modern
nation-state in Europe as well as elsewhere, they became sources of oppression and
discrimination against linguistic, religious, cultural and regional minorities. Hence there
have been conflicts with ethnic and cultural minorities in modern nation states.
E.g: in US and Australia the indigenous communities were compelled to assimilate into the
Christian faith and national identity. Even today these communities are facing socio-
exclusion in their countries.
Most of the assimilationist policies were not successful. Suppressed communities asserted
their identity along the lines such as ‘Right to Self Determination’, ‘secession’, and
‘autonomy’. Many of these assertions transformed into violent outbreaks and are known
as ethnic conflicts.

The key assumptions and their consequences for minorities in modern nation-state in the
following manner.
 Assumptions For Minorities in Modern Nation-state

The assumption that the state This led to the idea and the practice of bringing by force ethnic
equals the nation and the minorities to a single nation, through the strategies of
nation equals the state. assimilation and forced unification. At instances this had led to
internal warfare and violence against the ethnic minority
communities.
The assumption that a This at points led to the eradication, often by force, linguistic,
common culture that binds cultural and religious diversities and imposition of cultural
all citizens together is the homogeneity among minority communities.
best foundation for nation-
building.
The assumption that they Though this is a good concept in practice minorities have been
should have equal rights. treated unequally, subjected to denial of rights and
discrimination.

The assumption that the This led to the belief that a unitary centralized state is the most
political system of the viable model of political association of all the citizens. However,
nation-state should be this model could not accommodate claims for regional autonomy
governed by a single system by the minorities.
of laws and political rights.
ETHNIC AND CULTURAL MINORITIES
Ethnicity is the identity of social groups on the basis of shared characteristic
based on, for example of common language or common religion. Language
and religion are cultural identity markers of communities.
Modern states are by and large multi-ethnic nations.
When citizens belong to ethnic communities, the question arises as to their
membership of the larger entity called the nation. This is a crucial issue that has
emerged in recent decades with regard to citizenship in multi-ethnic societies.
Thus, citizens have a dual membership, one of the nation-state, and other of the
specific ethnic community.
Ethnic minorities, when they are subjected to discrimination by the majority
ethnic community, When minorities experience discrimination, their sense of
belonging to the nation as well as the state becomes fragile, because as a
result of discrimination they do not enjoy full citizenship rights.
Therefore, in multi-ethnic societies, nation-building process requires
strengthening the sense belonging among minorities through granting them full
citizenship rights.
OTHER TYPES OF MINORITIES
Social Minorities: The term ‘social minorities’ is used to refer to caste communities in South Asian societies. There are
discriminations and oppressions of certain caste communities taking place in South Asia.

Gender and Sexual Minorities: this refers to individuals whose gender, sexual orientation, and characteristics differ from
what society expects. Sexual minorities include the LGBTQ community.

These minorities, like ethnic minorities, face many challenges in relation to their citizenship rights as a result of the
conditions of marginalization, discrimination and oppression they experience.
These conditions have in turn lead to social exclusion.
social exclusion means the denial of individuals to equal opportunities in economic, social, educational, cultural and
political life, resulting in poverty, lack of freedom and multiple forms of deprivation.
Exclusion can be categorized into two types:
 Passive exclusion: results when people are deprived because of social processes without any
deliberate attempt to exclude someone. e.g: poverty generated by a sluggish economy. However, the
absence of direct exclusion does not excuse the government of its responsibilities.
 Active exclusion (political exclusion): Active exclusion results when certain people deliberately keep
others outside the political process in a systematic way. e.g: through policy.

Being excluded from social relations may lead to other deprivations which further limit opportunities. e.g: being excluded
from employment may lead to economic hardships that may in turn lead to other deprivations such as homelessness or
undernourishment.
Social exclusion of minorities has led to the denial of full citizenship rights to members of these communities.
Policies such as positive discrimination helps to address on the issues faced by the social, gender and sexual minorities.
A good example for exclusion of social classes is available from Nepal where it led
to a conflict situation.

In the first half of the twentieth century Nepal’s rulers were strengthening their
authoritarian regime where, inequality and exclusion became a challenge to
democracy.
The CHHEM (Caste Hill Hindu Elite Males) held state power, and excluded many of
the other ethnic, caste, religious, and linguistic groups from civil service exams as
they were only conducted in the native language of the the CHHEM group and
whom dominated the bureaucracy.
The Maoist insurgency in Nepal refers to the conflict between Nepali-speaking
upper caste Hindus and Maoists groups known as Naxalites. It is argued that the
political exclusion of gender, caste, and ethnic groups was a major cause for the
genesis and growth of the Maoist insurgency.
Maoist insurgency or the social movement of marginalized groups did not bring
inclusive reforms by themselves. But their collective efforts at a particular juncture
contributed to the endeavor.
When minorities experience discrimination, their sense of belonging to the nation as well
as the state becomes fragile, because as a result of discrimination they do not enjoy full
citizenship rights. Therefore, in multi-ethnic societies, nation-building process requires
strengthening the sense belonging among minorities through granting them full citizenship
rights.
Full citizenship rights to ethnic and cultural minorities include three types of rights. They
are:
 (i). Individual rights, guaranteed to all citizens under democracy and rule of law.
 (ii). Group-specific cultural rights such as language and religious rights and rights
pertaining to their cultural heritage.
 (iii). Group-specific political rights such as decentralization, adequate political
representation, devolution, regional autonomy, power sharing and socio-economic
development.

Other than the ethnic minorities there are also Social minorities, in states. They too face
many challenges in relation to their citizenship rights as a result of the conditions of
marginalization, discrimination and oppression. These conditions have in turn lead to
social exclusion which is define as denial to individuals equal opportunities in economic,
social, educational, cultural and political life, resulting in poverty, lack of freedom and
multiple forms of deprivation. In almost all South Asian societies, depressed caste
communities continue to suffer social exclusion, which rooted in the history as well social
structures.
SOURCE: HTTPS:// WWW.MOROCCOWORLDNEWS.COM /2017/ 09/ 227874/ ROHINGYA -MUSLIMS- CRY-H ELP-SILEN CE- CONDEMNATION -NO-MATERIA L-SU PPORT/
SOURCE: HTTPS:// WWW.MOROCCOWORLDNEWS.COM /2017/ 09/ 227874/ ROHINGYA -MUSLIMS- CRY-H ELP-SILEN CE- CONDEMNATION -NO-MATERIA L-SU PPORT/
SOURCE: HTTPS://GLOBALNEWS.CA/NEWS/3752283/ROHINGYA-MOTHER-DEAD-INFANT-PHOTO/
Rohingys of Myanmar(Burma) – They have been living in
Myanmar since the 8th century. They are an indo-aryan
group who are predominantly of the Muslim ethnicity.
Myanmar has denied the Rohingy people the right of
citizenship, education and civil service jobs.
At present there is a global refugee crisis situation which
had emerged with the Myanmar military's persecution of
the Rohingys. They are one of the most persecuted
communities in the world.
Source: https://www.thethirdpole.net/2020/04/02/rohingya-camps-in-bangladesh-vulnerable-to-devastating-
covid-19-outbreak/
 SOURCE:
HTTPS://WWW.COLOMBOTELEGRAPH.COM/INDEX
.PHP/UPCOUNTRY-TAMILS-IN-PLANTATIONS-
POLITICS-A-VOID-SITUATION/
Upcountry Tamil community in Sri Lanka :
Through the 1948 Citizenship Act, No 27 the majority of the
Upcountry Tamil community was disenfranchised. This was rectified in
1988, but however the disenfranchisement led to the social/political
exclusion of this community which have led to exclusionary practices
even today.
Even today this community depicts the lowest rates of education,
sanitation and healthcare facilities. Nearly 60 percent of the Estate
sector live in ‘line rooms’ which are cramped, with low levels of access
to toilets or water, including safe drinking water within the household.
Even today they suffer from high levels of landlessness.
 THE POLITICS OF DEMOCRATIC INCLUSION
Democratic inclusion include the processes and mechanisms by which traditionally
underrepresented groups achieve political representation, incorporation, and influence.
The politics of democratic inclusion are central to an understanding of the quality of
democracy. mediating institutions and governing institutions are two major institutions
used as mechanisms for democratic inclusion.
Mediating institutions—these are social movements, political parties, and interest
groups etc. which help educate citizens about political processes, policy issues, and civic
duties. They also mobilize people into political activity and provide vital information
about public debates, recruit and promote political candidates etc. e.g: the cases of civil
rights and women movements.
Government institutions- are the formal government institution. Political institutions
determines “who gets what, when, and how.” These institutions interact with members of
marginalized groups and impact democratic inclusion.
APPROACHES TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM OF MINORITIES

Approaches adopted to solve problems of minorities can be discussed under two

approaches.
1) Conventional Approaches and
2) Innovative Arrangements.
 CONVENTIONAL APPROACHES
Ethnic Political Parties:

-Political parties are an important means of political participation for different social cleavages and
collective interests in societies.
-Among political parties “Ethnic Parties” constitute the most common forms of organizational
arrangements for minorities.
-An ethnic political party is “an organization authorized to compete in election, the majority of the
leaders and members identify themselves as belonging to a non-dominant ethnic group and whose
electoral platform concentrates on demands of ethnic and cultural in nature”
-An ethnic party could claim to represent more than one ethnic group e.g.: ‘Hispanic’ parties in United
States represents Cubans, Mexicans, Puerto Ricans. They can also be mono-ethnic parties
representing one community like the Ceylon Workers’ Congress representing the Up-country Tamils in
Sri Lanka.
-The primary objective of the ethnic party is to “secure material, cultural and political benefits and
protections for the ethnic group in its competition with other groups.”
- Though ethnic parties are essential in deeply divided societies to ensure representation of ethnic
groups which are excluded from other forms of political representation, the practice of exclusive
politics in mobilizing voters deepens ethnic and religious polarization which is damaging to the social
cohesion in a multi-ethnic country.
Minority-Majority coalitions
- This can be considered as an alternative to ethnic parties.
-Coalitions could take the form of alliances, federations or a congress.
-Normally coalition party comes into being after an election.
-To suit its broad and heterogeneous social base, the congress party distributes party
posts and government offices proportionately among various ethnicities.
-The most important objective is to be as inclusive as possible. It disadvantage lies on
its reliance on regional and local elites.
 INNOVATIVE ARRANGEMENTS
These are modern arrangements to address minority grievances and overcome ethnic
conflicts. We can categorize these under three themes; 1)state reforms, 2) institutional
provisions and 3) cultural policies.

State reforms
State reforms signify restructuring of the state in a manner which facilitates to integrate and
incorporate all significant political groups within the state polity. Options for state reforms
range between ‘partition’ and the ‘unitary state’. Basic idea is to avoid a possible partition
due to acceleration of grievances of minorities.
There are several ways to reorganize the state and distribute political power such as:
Territorial autonomy - the right to exercise administrative, legislative and in some cases
judicial powers shared among communities or regions.
Federalism - A form of government that allows for decentralizing sovereignty. There are
many forms of federations according to the degree of power devolved.
Devolution This is a system of devolving power to a sub-national unit through enactment by
the legislative body of a country. Unlike in a federal set-up, here the power shared could be
temporary and determined by the central government.
Non-territorial autonomy - also known as cultural autonomy, is adopted when an ethnic,
religious or linguistic community is dispersed throughout the country, without geographical or
territorial concentration. Minority groups are entitled to their cultural rights, as guaranteed in
the laws and policies of non- territorial autonomy.
Institutional provision

-Focuses on rules and systems which govern the

behaviour of individuals and groups.
-In managing social divisions along ethnic and
religious lines, policy makers concentrate in
establishing formal institutions than focus on
informal institutions.
-Formal institutions are usually laid down in
constitutions, laws and other documents directed at
reducing, alleviating, and avoiding ethnic conflicts
by providing legal protection to minorities.
-Some institutional provisions which assist inclusive
governance are Special Constitutional provisions,
Positive and Affirmative action.
- Guaranteed Representation - This ensures that small ethnic communities that
cannot obtain representation under normal circumstances are not left out of the
processes of participation and governance. India provides 15% of reserved
seats in parliament, state assemblies and local municipalities for Scheduled
Castes and 7.5% for Scheduled Tribes.
- Minority Safeguards - assuring safeguards for the minorities against
discrimination. e.g: Sri Lanka’s 1947 constitution contained Section 29
-Electoral systems – to ensure accuracy, legitimacy and fairness in
representation. A system like Proportional representation system enhance broad
representation in the legislature and executive.
-Human rights – a broad understanding of rights is helpful in addressing human
rights concerns in divided societies and in addition it recognizes the relationship
between the state and minorities are a part of social policy, and not security
policy. Independent institutions such as the ‘Human Rights Commission,’ dedicated
to overseeing human rights, are another important institutional mechanism.
- Group rights – this articulate ‘group rights’/‘collective rights’ or ‘minority rights’
with respect to internal migration, settlement policies and decisions regarding
boundaries, political power, and culture and official languages. Group rights
also supplement the individual rights guaranteed in the liberal human rights
discourse.
Cultural Policies
-Multicultural policies- governments officially recognize the cultural diversity of
society and support the protection and preservation of cultures of minority and
immigrant communities.
- Linguistic pluralism - A national policy on multilingualism/bilingualism has a
major role to play in achieving non-discrimination, guaranteeing equal
treatment, and protecting and promoting the identity of linguistic minorities. e.g:
In India, States have their own official languages- Tamil is the official language
in the state of Tamil Nadu. The Constitution contains an Eighth Schedule that lists
22 regional languages other than the national languages.
- Multicultural education- Multicultural education aims to create equal
educational opportunities for students from different racial, ethnic, economic and
cultural groups. It is designed and structured in such a way to enable students to
acquire the knowledge, attitudes and skills needed to operate in a multicultural
democratic society.